Tano Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being

Author(s): Jos J. Arrom

Source: Latin American Literary Review, Vol. 8, No. 16, Hispanic Caribbean Literature (Spring,
1980), pp. 21-37
Published by: Latin American Literary Review
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 Taino Mythology:
Notes on the Supreme Being
By JOSE J. ARROM

Ancient beliefs were deeply entrenched in the New World when the
discovering caravels arrived. Of such beliefs, none was so widely held
throughout the entire hemisphere as that in a Great Spirit, invisible and kind,
the generous protector of man. That Supreme Spirit is, quite naturally, the first
of the gods recorded by Pan?. In the opening lines of his report he described
"
The Supreme Spirit in these terms: They believe that he is in the heavens and
is immortal, and that no one can see him, and that he has a mother, but no
"]
beginning, and they call him Yocahu Bagua Maorocoti. Father Las Casas
passes on the information in this manner: "The people of this island of
Hispaniola had a certain faith and knowledge of a true and single God, who
was immortal and invisible so that none could see him, who had no beginning,
whose abode and habitation are the heavens, and they called him Yocahu
Bagua Maorocoti; I do not know what they meant to signify with this name,
"2
for when Imight well have found out, I did not. Pan? again refers to the same
god when he writes: "And that Great Lord, who they say is in heaven as is
recorded at the beginning of this book (ordered a chief to feast)... and they
say that this chief asserted he had spoken to Yocahuguam?"3 ... And Las
Casas, echoing Pane's reference, also transcribes the name in this way:
Yocahuguam?.4 The Supreme Being has thus acquired several names, and in
them is locked, as in a capsule, the essence of his nature and his symbols, of his
functions and his attributes.
Opening the capsule is another matter. Pan?, although he seems to
understand what the Indians meant by those terms, did not deem it necessary
to translate them. And Las Casas, when he wished to do so, found that itwas
too late. Compounding the difficulties, the variants of these terms in the Pan?
text and in the versions of the chroniclers who worked with the manuscript
appear chaotic. But the confusion is more apparent than real: all the
transcriptions converge on those left by Las Casas.5 More importantly, they
correspond to Arawakan locutions susceptible to structural analysis. Let us
begin, then, by attempting to decode the message hidden in these names.
In the term Yocahu, yoca is the same word which inmodern Spanish is
pronouncedj>uca.6 And hu is anominalizer, frequently used both inTaino and

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 22 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

in other Arawakan tongues, that adds to the general meaning a sense of

solemnity.7 Thus, in the same was that in present-day Arawak yawa-hu
means 'forest spirit,'8 Yoca-hu or Yuca-hu would be equivalent to 'Yuca
Spirit,' the Cassava Giver, the Immortal and Invisible Being from who the
Taino requested his daily bread.
The second name, Bagua, presents no particular difficulty since both the
"
word and itsmeaning have been recorded by Ovideo, who notes: The Indians
of this island of Hispaniola call the sea bagua; not baygua, for baygua is that
paralyzing substance with which they catch a great many fish, as I have said,
"9
but bagua is the name for the sea on this island. If it is remembered that the
Tainos were not only skilled farmers but also excellent fishermen and bold
seamen, it is not at all surprising to find that this benefactor spirit was also
related to maritime activities?activities crucial to Taino ecology and migra
tions.
The third term, Maorocoti, seems to be made up of the negative prefix
ma, a characteristic of the Arawakan tongues meaning 'without' or
'lacking;'10 and?rocoti, which inTaino as well as in related Carib and Lokono
words means 'grandfather.'11 Ma-?rocoti or 'without grandfather' is equiva
lent, as Pan? explains, to one "who has a mother, but no beginning."
In Yucahuguam?, guarna is the same word thatCH. de Geoje records in
Lokono as wama 'Lord.'12 Furthermore we know that the natives of
Hispaniola called Columbus "the guamiquina of the Christians" (that is,
wam(a)-ikini) because, according to Las Casas, "guamiquina was what
"13
they called the great Lord. Yucahuguam?, as Pan? correctly translated, is
then "that great Lord, who they say is in heaven." And so also Las Casas:
"the Great Lord who lives in heaven."14 Summing up, the evidence here
assembled seems sufficient to allow the free translation of the names Yucahu
"
Bagua Maorocoti and Yucahuguam? as Spirit of Cassava and the Sea,"
"Being without Male Ancestor" and "Lord Cassava Giver."
Passing from linguistic deductions to ethnographic reports, we find that
other observations by Pan? support and widen the foregoing analyses. He
"
declares in Chapter XIX of the Relaci?n: There are several kinds of stone
cern? es. There are .. . others having three points, and they believe that they
cause the cassava to grow." Relating this quote to what we have seen
previously, we may reasonably assume that these idols, in the shape of stones
with three points, which made the cassava grow, are lithic representatives of
Yucahuguam?. And one might even infer, on confronting these deductions
with the paragraph of the Treatise which we shall examine below, that the
tripointed stones were used in agricultural rites of a propitiatory nature, and
that such rites consisted of burying the stones in the cassava patches so that
their magical presence might fertilize the fields and multiply the crop. This
may be inferred from what happened to six subjects of Guarionex who buried
some Christian images in the same manner as they had previously buried

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 Taino Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being 23

their native cemies. The story, as related by Friar Ram?n, is as following:

Pan?, having converted an Indian family to Catholicism, left them certain
images so that they might venerate them in a little church which they had built
for the purpose. Once the friar had gone, the six Indians carried off the images.
"
And, Pan? adds: Having left the place of worship, they threw the images on
the ground and covered them with earth and then urinated on them saying:
'
"Now your yield will be good and abundant. And they said this because they
had buried them in a cultivated field, saying that the crop that had been planted
there would be good."15 All of this is confirmed in the words of M?rtir who,
"
mistakenly calling ajes (sweet potatoes) cassava, relates the following: In the
roots of the ajes are venerated those that are found among the ajes, that is to
say, the type of food that we spoke of above. They say that these cemies are
instrumental in the formation of the bread."17
Moving on to the archeological evidence, we see that, in light of the
foregoing investigations, the lost symbolic meaning of numerous specimens
before looked upon as simple artifacts now becomes clear. These specimens
are the so-called trigonolites, three cornered cemies or tripointed stones. The
ones I have examined in the principal collections of the United States, the
Antilles and Europe number in the hundreds and are very different in size,
form, material and workmanship. A good many of such stones have been
described, classified and reproduced in specialized reviews.17 What had not
yet been done was to identify them as images related to the cult of Y?cahu
Bagua Maorocoti, to elucidate the specific use to which they were put, and to
give due value to the artistic achievements of some of them in terms of their
recovered meaning.

Plate 1

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 24 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

So that readers unfamiliar with the tripointed stones may have an idea of
the variety of form which the native craftsmen gave them, I will begin by
reproducing three of the best known. They are the ones which appear in plate
1, which I have taken from the recent book by Frederick J. Dockstader Indian
Art inMiddle America. Doctor Dockstader, director of the Museum of
the American Indian and an authority in these matters, says of these images;
These finely worked objects, whose function is completely unknown, are
believed to have a ceremonial use. The tri-pointed stone carvings, commonly
termed zemi, have various forms, and usually the head of a human or animal
adorns the ends.18
The evidence set forth in the previous pages suggests that, with the
exception of the image on the right (for reasons which will be given in chapter
6) the cemies represent the countenance of Yucahuguam?, the Great Spirit
who made the cassava grow. Beginning, then, with the one in the center, we
observe the solemn dignity of the profile and the apparent simplicity with
which the carver adapts it to the triangular design of the composition; the
strange effect of the large, hollowed out eyes; the ear with pierced lobe for the
insertion of a plug of metal alloy called guanin; the mouth grossly distended
as if avid to ingest nutritious substances to feed the cassava; and,
concentrating all the germinative vigor of the image toward the vertex. The
eye-catching protuberance which in this example may have meant to signify
the swollen bud, about to sprout into a new plant. The result is an idol of
extraordinary strength, admirable for its powerful symbolism, its simplicity
of line and its exceptional economy of resources.
The image on the left is a variant of the one just described. It repeats the
face dominated by the distorted mouth, the large scooped out eyes* and a
forehead about to sprout in the budding of a new plant. This vegetative
tendency appears to reflect, in this case as well as in the previous one, the
fundamental idea of the Amerindian peoples regarding their agricultural
gods: the plants graciously given to man are a direct manifestation of the very
body of the god, constant renewals of this immortal substance. What
distinguishes this image from the one previously described is, in the first place,
that the vertex here represents a sort of small anthropomorphic head,
elementally outlined. This little head, which we shall encounter again in
analogous pieces, may represent a similarly animated view of the sprout: that
is, a view of the sprout as endowed with the instinct to make its way to the
surface and direct the future transformation of trunk, branches and leaves.
And it differs also in that the ends of the base begin to take on an imprecise
representational value. These vague shapes will be easier to interpret if we
proceed first to the examination of the tripointed stones.
The one reproduced in plate 2 has not yet been included in any specialized
publication. It is another tripointed idol, carved in gray stone, which is in the

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 Plate 2

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 26 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

Museo de Antropolog?a, Historia y Arte de la Universidad de Puerto Rico.

Once again it appears to represent the solemn countenance of Yucahuguam?
adapted to the contours of one side of the triangle, and in it the characteristics
previously pointed out reappear. The curious thing about this notable piece is
that the Great Lord of Cassava now acquires an anthropomorphic body as a
stylized extention of the enormous, bulbous face, and the details of this body
are revealed by means of a system of incisions and low reliefs which, within the
required triangular design, represent it in a position which would seem to
confirm the fertilizing function of the image. It would be hardly reasonable to
interpret it, with reference to a religious tradition foreign to the Taino culture,
" "
as a prayer's or supplicant's pose. In the context of the native beliefs which
we have been elucidating, it is clear that Yucahuguam? is not praying to a
Euroasiatic god; he is, Iwould say, working the soil beneath the newly planted
cassava. Itmay be observed, in this regard, that the arm ends in fingers which
are contracted, the better to dig, and the leg terminates in a stylized foot, with
the five toes jointed into a sort of paddle, in order to acel?rate underground
locomotion. And itmay also be observed that the Taino sculptor, attempting
to heighten the impression of motion, imaginatively links the limbs to the trunk
by means of skillful geometric incisions. These incisions make the limbs
appear as if joined to the body by a sort of peg which would allow them free
play; and the fact that the limbs are carved in low relief heightens the
impression of their independence. This detail makes one suspect that, as in the
case of the so-called stone collars (which were not collars but monolithic
belts),19 this type of cemies may have been initially carved in wood. If such
prior forms existed in wood, the evidence, perhaps destroyed by adverse
climatic conditions, has not come down to us. In any event, there can be doubt
that the piece represents a being whose dynamism perfectly fits the fertilizing
function of the cassava-generating divinity.
The limbs which we have just pointed out in this specimen appear with
equal clarity in other tripointed stones. Such is the case in the one reproduced
in plate 3. Although there is greater complexity in the general appearance and
details, it is evident that it is another representation of the same mythical
being: disproportionately large face on one side of the triangle, scooped-out
eyes, enormously distended mouth, ears with perforated lobes, incisions
which represent an inexact number of ribs. The sculptor undoubtedly had a
precise idea of the image he wished to carve. However, within the essential
unity of design there appear variations which we ought to keep inmind. For
example, the vertex of this one does not end, as in the two previous specimens,
in a rounded surface on which is sketched a diminutive anthropomorphic head;
it ends rather in a knob which looks even more like a bud or sprout. And what is
perhaps of greater importance in this effort at interpretation, the carvings
around the god's face are also different: in some of the previous images we saw

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Plate 3

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 Plate 4

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 Taino Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being 29

certain grooves in the shape of enveloping spirals or meanders; in this one we

have straightline drawings which combine to form triangular designs and end in
a sigmoidal figure at ear level. The incipient state of this study does not permit
a categorical explanation of these figures.
The specimen reproduced in plate 4 may be a little disconcerting at first
sight. Looked at sideways, as in the upper portion of the illustration, it looks
momentarily like the head of a fish or amphibian. But it is not so. More careful
observation will reveal that the incisions at the right, which seemed to
represent the lower outline of the fish's head, in fact represent the flexed leg of
the god. This becomes even more apparent when we look at the image from
above, as on the left side of the illustration. The complex design which seemed
to be the upper part of the head, seen again from above, reveals itself to us as
the face, more stylized now, of Yucahuguam?. And now we see clearly the
hollowed-out eyes, the head adorned with a ribbon-like set of incisions, the
two little circles which indicate the nostrils?similar here to the snout of a
reptile-and, of course, the distended jaws of the great being, the earth
swallower and fertilizer of the sown fields.
Let us now examine the tripointed stone reproduced in plate 5. It is evident
that its general design is comparable to those seen before. What makes it
different is that both arms and legs are extended forward. Since this extension

Plate 5

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 30 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

frees the back end, the craftsman uses it to sculpt a figure which appears to be
an indeterminate zoomorphic representation. Above all, this idol is different in
that the vertex is formed on this occasion by a strange helmet that covers the
head of the god. This head-gear no longer gives the impression of a phytomor
phic bud or of a small anthropomorphic head; rather it looks like the head of a
turtle. Thus, from the comparisons made of all these icons it is clear that
although the central concept presented in them is always one and the same, the
artist was free to choose those details which best symbolized specific aspects
of the nature and functions of the god.
The specimens we have just examined serve also as a key to the
interpretation of the vague forms which were observed before on one end of the
base of other tripointed stones. Those forms, compared now with the ones seen
in these images, evidently correspond to the extremeties of Yucahuguam?.
And the same can be said of the idols reproduced in plates 6 through 10. The
first of these, with a human- like face at one end and the aforementioned limbs
at the other, is especially interesting because of the geometric designs which
adorn the back. Since these designs are totally different from those previously
observed, I do not know what their symbolic meaning may have been. On the
other hand, it is evident that the strange intertwining of circles, loops, crosses
and triangles is astonishing for its precision of line and calculated symmetry.
This amply proves the capacity for visualization and consummate skill of the
Taino sculptor. The other cemies, reproduced in plates 7 through 10, present
a series of variations which run from the anthropomorphic to the zoomorphic.
The vertex of the icon reproduced in plate 7 represents the tore part of a trog
On the extreme right of illustration 8, we can easily recognize the head of a
water bird. Figure 9 shows, at the base of the bulbous trunk, what is probably
the head of a manatee. Figure 10 repeats the manatee head and coils a snake
around the trunk. I have seen other tripointed stones which clearly portray the
heads of iguanas, turtles and parrots. All are, once again, demonstrations of
the admirable workmanship achieved by the Antillean artificers when they
wished to apply their talents to realistic representation. These artifacts also
raise new questions. Were those zoomorphic figures the visible embodiments
of the divinity's abstract qualities? Were they held to be messengers of animals
sacred to Yiicahu, as the eagle was to Jupiter and the owl toMinerva? Lacking
definite answers to these questions we can at least recall that inMexico, as Paul
Westheim observes, "the pre-Cort?s world by preference has recourse to
animals to present, in a tangible, palpable way, its concept of the deity."20
Should ours be a like case, itmight possibly be suggested that those animals
represent avatars of the god of the sea and agriculture, related to water (frog,
water bird, manatee), to the metaphorization of rain clouds (snake) or to
animals either beneficial or destructive of the crops.21
In addition to the tricornered stones with anthropomorphic faces, zoo
morph motifs and complex geometric designs, there are others in which the

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Plate 6

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Plate 7

Plate 8

Plate 9 Plate 10

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 Taino Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being 33

symbolic representations are reduced to their minimal expression. In some of

them we can perceive the lapidary's expert hand in the extreme simplicity of
the stylizations. Let the one reproduced in plate 11 serve as an example. This
specimen, preserved in the Museo de laUniversidad de Puerto Rico, is of so
functional a design that itmay have had a practical part to play in the rite: that
of serving as an implement to sow a few seeds. Most of them, however, are
modest artifacts, made of any readily available material. Those appearing in
plate 12 are average examples. All found in Santa Cruz, Virgin Islands, their
dimensions fluctuate between that of the first on the left, which hardly
approaches 2 cm., and that of the largest, which measures 9 cm. There are also
others made from the calcareous protuberance of the cobo (conch shell).
Among these, the one reproduced in plate 13 has a series of incisions in the
form of dots, rings, circles and wavy lines which are similar to those seen in
plate 2. And in recent years in Santa Domingo there have come to light
numerous tricuspid objects, made of baked clay, with bases measuring 3 to 4
cm. The variety of materials, sizes and designs, and the extraordinary
abundance of all types are eloquent testimony to the common use of these
cemies. Perhaps each family had its own to fertilize its crops.

Plate 11

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34 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

Plate 12

One more item with regard to the cone-shaped figures made from the
conch shell ( Strombus Gigas): Fred Olsen, whose excavations in the Lesser
Antilles uncovered no signs of human activity beneath the level where he
unearthed his specimens, suggests that their ritual use may have begun with the
arrival of the ancestors of the Tainos in these islands. He thus opens up a new
archeological perspective for dating the antiquity of this and possibly other
West Indian myths.22
In closing these observations on the Supreme Being, let us look at the story
recounted by Pan? and reported by Las Casas and other chroniclers. Brother
Ramon tells it as follows:
And that Great Lord, who they say is in heaven, as is recorded at the
beginning of this book, made C?cihu fast... And they say that this
chief asserted he had spoken to Yucahuguam?, who told him that all
those who after his death remained alive would enjoy their posses
sions but briefly, for there would come to this land a people wearing
clothes who would conquer and kill them, and they would starve to
death. They supposed at first that itmust mean the cannibals, but then

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 Taino Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being 35

considering that the latter merely stole and fled, they concluded that
the cern? must have been referring to some other group. So now they
believe that it is the Admiral and his people.23
And Las Casas, transcribing directly into Spanish what he took from Pan?,
tells it this way:

Coming back to the chief or lord who had begun that fast, they said,
and it was public knowledge, that having spoken to a certain cemi,
whose name was Yucahuguam?, he had been told by him that those
who after his death remained alive would little enjoy their lands and
houses, for a clothed people would come whcrVould lord it over them
and kill them and they would starve to death; from that day on they
believed the invading people must be the Caribs, who were then
called, both by them and by us, cannibals.24

It was, then, to Yucahuguam? that the sad task of predicting the

destruction of the Taino people and of their traditional way of life was
attributed. The reader may recall that, according to other chroniclers, the
native gods of Mexico and Peru also announced, in very similar terms, the
downfall of their respective cvilizations. Was this prophetic warning the
expression of an apocalyptic myth created independently in different regions
of America? Or did it travel from theWest Indies to continental America along
with the conquerors? Parallelism of diffusion, the spreading abroad of those
sad auguries may well have served another end commonly associated with
enterprises of conquest: that of attributing to divine design what is in fact raw
human aggression. All this hardly agrees with the compassionate character and
beneficial function of Yucahuguam?.
Summing up, we may say that the Supreme Being of the Tainos was not a
philandering Don Juan, like Jupiter; nor a demanding and vindictive judge,
like Jehovah; nor an obstinate warrior, like Odin. Created by a people living in
almost paradisiac islands, without poisonous reptiles or fierce beasts, without
harsh winters or oppressive summers, without deserts and without chilling
heights, in which a benign nature offered an abundance of birds and fish and
fertile land, Y?cahu Bagua Maorocoti was, as were his creators, peaceful and
kind. Closely tied to the ecology of the islands, his functions were those of a
generous Sustaining Being ruling the creative forces of land and sea. Seen in
this light, the myth has a precise meaning with the environment inhabited by
the Taino and reflects his character and his world view. Yucahu Bagua
Maorocoti, Lord of the Three names, Icon of the Tripointed Stones, brings
together the three basic factors which so happily blend in theWest Indies: land,
sea and man.

Yale Univers it \

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36 LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY REVIEW

NOTES
1 Fray Ram?n Pan?, Relaci?n acerca de las antig?edades de los indios, ed. Jose J. Arrom

(Mexico: Siglo XXI Editores, 1974), p. 21.

2 Fray Bartolom? de las Casas, Apolog?tica historia de las Indias, chap. 120.1 quote from
the text reproduced in Appendix C of the cited edition of the Relaci?n., p. 104.
3 Relaci?n, pp. 47-48.
4 Las Casas,
Apolog?tica historia, chap. 167.
5 The reader will find a detailed comparison of the variants inmy article** El mundo m?tico de
los tainos: Notas sobre el Ser Supremo," Thesaurus, Bolet?n del Instituto Caro y Cuervo,

(Bogota) 22, no. 3 (September-December 1967), pp. 381-386, reprinted in

Revista Dominicana de Arqueolog?a y (Santo Domingo) I, no. 1
Antropolog?a,
(January-June), pp. 184-186.
6 The hesitation between the vowels o and u, opening or closing the articulation, was
common in the 16th century in the transcription of Indian words (for example, boniato and
buniato, coca andcuca). In the case ofyoca andyuca, open articulation has been preserved
in such words as tap-ioca, mand-ioca and the South American regionalism ma?oco or

manioco, in which n + yod is ?.

7 Nancy P. Hickerson records it as a nominalizer in Lokono or True Arawak. See her article
"Two Versions of a Lokono (Arawak) Tale," International
of American Journal

Linguistics, 20 ( 1954) p. 297. And CH.

de Goeje explains: "An object-word without hu
denotes a definite thing( or things) ;with hu, it denotes the thing in general or in a more solemn

meaning." The Arawak Language of Guiana (Amsterdam: 1928), p. 75.

8 Goeje, op. cit., pp. 46 and 200.
9 Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, Historia general y naturaldelas IndiasX Madrid: 1851 ),
book XIII, chap. 9; I, p. 436.
10 Geoje, p. 59.
'
11 Douglas Taylor records the form ?raguti, with the meaning of* grandfather, among the
so-called Black Caribs, whose language is. essentially, of Arawak origin. (The Black
Caribs of British Honduras [New York: 19511. p 76.) And Goeje transcribes it as
adakutti, with the same meaning, in the Arawak of the Guinanas. (Op. cit., p. 21).
12 Goeje, p. 199, paragraph 166, ff. We can add that Guama was also the name?or

possibly the title--of the chief who assumed command of the rebel Indians in Cuba after the
execution of Hatuey. (Colecci?n de documentos in?ditos de Ultramar, 2nd series, vol IV

(Madrid: 1888), pp. 168, 217, 254, 308, 325, 353 and 358).
13 Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, book I, chap. 91 ; in the Mexican edition( 1951 ), vol.
I, p. 372. In the word wam(a)-ikini, ikini is really equivalent to4the only one.' (Goeje, op.
cit., p. 92, paragraph 48, ff).
14 Las Casas, Apolog?tica historia, chap. 167.
15 Relaci?n, p. 53.
16 Pedro M?rtir de Angler?a, D?cadas del Nuevo Mundo, 1 st dec., book IX. I quote from
the translation, based on the 1587 Paris edition, which appears inAppendix B of the stated
edition of Pane's work. *
17 The best of the works which study and
tripointed stones
illustrate is Jesse Walter Fewkes
" "
The Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring Islands, Twenty-fifth Annual Report oj
the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution

(Washington: 1907), pp. 3-220, especially pp. 11-132 and plates XXXII LIII
In trying to explain the function of these objects, Fewkes declares: "The use of the

tripointed stones is as enigmatical as that of the stone collars or rings. Many authors

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 Taino Mythology: Notes on the Supreme Being 37

have regarded them as idols, while others consider them as decorated mortars" (p.
128). He then formulates this conclusion: "From whatever side we approach the

subject, we come back to the conclusion that they were idols, or zemis. If they were not

actually worshipped, they assumed forms which were duplications of idols that were

worshipped" (p. 132). Frederick J. Dockstader takes the same view in the work cited
below.
18 Frederick J. Dockstader, Indian Art in Middle America (Greenwich: Connecticut:
1964), description of plate 199.
19 Regarding stone belts, their use in ball games and relation to prior wooden belts, see
Ricardo E. Alegr?a, "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles," American

Antiquity, XVI (1951), pp. 348-352. Also Gordon F. Ekholm, "Puerto Rican Stone
Collars' as Ballgame Belts," in Samuel K. Lothrop et al., in Pre-Columbian Art
Essays
and Archeology (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1961), pp. 356-371 and 476-478.
20 Paul Westheim, Ideas fundamentales del arte prehisp?nico de Mexico Mexico:
(
1957), p. 32.
"
21 Adolfo de Hostos offers this latter interpretation in Plant Fertilization by Magis in the
Taino Area of the Great Antilles," Caribbean Studies, V, no. 1 (April 1965). pp. 3 5
22 Fred Olsen, "The Arawak Religion: The Cult of Yocahu," Mill Reef Digger's Digest
(Antigua, West Indies: April 1970), pp. 1-18. Furthermore, George A. Kubier informs me
that flint tricornered stones have been found inMaya tombs of the classical period. It is yet
another of the unsolved problems relative to the possible relationships between Tainos and
Mayas. For further possible relationships and source of influences see Irving Rouse.
"Prehistory of the West Indies," Science, vol. 144, no. 3618 (May 1, 1964), p. 511
23 Relaci?n, pp. 47-48.
24 Las Casas, Apolog?tica historia de las Indias, chap. 167.

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