MACHINE STRUCTURE

The machine structure is the load carrying and supporting member of the machine tool.
All the motors drive mechanisms and other functional assemblies of machine tools are aligned to
each other and rigidly fixed to the machine structure. The machine structure is subjected to static
and dynamic forces and it is, therefore, essential that the structure does not deform or vibrate
under the action of these forces. All components of the machine must remain in correct relative
positions to maintain the geometric accuracy, regardless of the magnitude and direction of these
forces. The machine structure configuration is also influenced by the considerations of
manufacture, assembly and operation.
The basic design factors involved in the design of a machine structure are discussed
below.
1.1 Static Load
The static load of a machine tool results from the weights of slides and the work piece,
and the forces due to cutting. To keep the deformation of the structure due to static loading
within permissible limits, the structure should have adequate stiffness and a proper structural
configuration. Generally there are two basic configurations of machine tools

Dynamic Load
Dynamic load is a term used for the constantly changing forces acting on the structure
while movement is taking place. These forces cause the whole machine system to vibrate. The
origin of such vibration is:
Unbalanced rotating parts
Improper meshing of gear
Bearing irregularities
Interrupted cuts while machining
The effect of these vibrations on the machine performance is reduced by:
 Reducing the mass of the structure
Increasing the stiffness of the structure
Improving the damping properties
Thermal Load
In a machine tool there are a number of local heat sources which set up thermal gradients
within the machine. Some these sources are:
Electric motor
Friction in mechanical drives and gear boxed
Friction in bearings and guide ways
Machining process
Temperature of surrounding objects
These heat sources cause localized deformation, resulting in considerable inaccuracies in
machine performance. The following steps are generally followed to reduce thermal
deformation.
External mounting of drives, i.e. motors and gear boxes
Removing frictional heat from bearings and guide ways by a proper lubrication system.
Efficient coolant and swarf removal system for the dissipation of heat generated from the
machining process
Thermo-symmetric designing of the structure

FEATURES OF CNC SYSTEMS (III rd Unit Notes)

The brain of a CNC machine is the control system. This is designed around one or more
of the advanced microprocessors. Because of the advancement in the hardware technology,
CNC systems are highly reliable with a very high mean time between failures. Several
control systems, which are dedicated to different families of machines, are available today.
Each model will have several variations to cater to the various requirements of machine tool
builders and users. Several new CNC systems are fitted with PC based CNC systems too. A
CNC system can be fitted to machine tools in order to effect control over several machine
functions. In order to perform these functions, a CNC system is characterized by a number of
features. These functions can be broadly classified as follows:
i. Control system features
ii. Memory features
iii. Programming features
iv. PLC features v) Diagnostic features
1. CONTROL SYSTEM FEATURES
These features provide information about the characteristics of the CNC system and its
capabilities. Important features are given below:
Technology of System
Currently two types of architectures are being used in CNC systems
(i) Single microprocessor based systems
(ii) Multi microprocessor based systems (Multiprocessor systems)
Single microprocessor architecture: In this type of system a 16, 32 or 64 bit
microprocessor is used.
Multiprocessor architecture: This type of the architecture is widely used in many CNC
systems today. The control functions are carried out by a set of microprocessors, each doing
an assigned task. This concept helps to implement various functions faster. Both hardware
and software structures are modular thereby enhancing the flexibility of the system.
Executive Program
The executive program contains the intelligence needed to carry out different tasks in CNC
system. The executive program is resident usually in EPROM/Bubble memory.
Other System Features
Other features of CNC system are:
C R T display and alphanumeric keyboard
Manual data input (M D I) and operator programming
System resolution, ex: 0.1 m, 0.5 m, 1 m or 10 m
Feed and rapid traverse rates
Spindle Speeds - directly programmable or through S codes
Modes of operation like M D I, Single step, Auto etc.
Operating controls like Jog, feed rate and spindle speed over ride, axis select switch, edit,
reference, dry run, test mode
Axis Calibration : This is a very useful feature for obtaining higher positioning accuracy.
The error in the pitch of the lead screw can be compensated with this feature.
Reversal Error (Backlash) Compensation Backlash is due to the play between the screw
and nut. Backlash will cause lost motion when the slides are reversed. Even pre-loaded ball
screws may develop backlash in the course of time. This feature effects automatic
compensation every time the slide is reversed. Error due to backlash in the lead screw can
thus be minimized.
Pitch Error Compensation
There are several classes of accuracy for ball screws. There will always be some error from
pitch to pitch, however accurate the screw may be. Pitch error will cause error in positioning
 as well as thread cutting. Hence there is a need to compensate pitch error. The positioning
errors that might arise due to error in pitch are compensated through software.
Tool Nose Radius Compensation
The radius of the tool will introduce positioning errors in contouring. This error is
compensated by the tool nose radius compensation function.
Machine Setup Data (MSD)
MSD or machine tool parameters indicate the machine tool characteristics, specifications and
functions. The contents of each parameter should be set according to the parameter list
annexed to the machine. The end user must not change the contents on the parameters. The
OEM can use one standard control on several machine sizes and/or types.
Entering machine parameters: These are three methods of entering machine parameters.
i. Setting through parameter CD-ROM-each block contains a machine set up data code to
identify the machine parameter followed by data for that parameter.
ii. Setting data through MDI - the machine data can be input through the operators control
panel by following the procedure for the control system.
iii. Setting data in EPROMs - machine parameters can be entered in the erasable
programmable read only memories. The data is permanently stored in specific locations in
the memory chip.
Memory Features

Programming Features
Some standard programming features include:
Absolute/Incremental programming
 Decimal point programming
Diameter/Radius Programming
Linear, circular and helical interpolation
Multiple part program storage
Sequence number search
Feed/min or feed/rev Programming
Dwell programming (In block containing dwell code, there is no slide movement)
Tool length and diameter compensation - The control has a storage area (tool buffer) for
making modification to the program due to errors in tool setting length and diameters
Position preset.
Subroutine Programming / Macro Programming
Repetitive operations can be written as subroutines and main program can call these subroutines.
An example of subroutine is dressing program for a grinding wheel. The advantage of using this
subroutine is that it eliminates the need for rewriting a repetitive operation, thereby saving the
memory space.
Parametric Programming
Parameters are freely assigned by the control for the purpose of arithmetic calculation in a part
program. Trigonometric operations are also possible with R parameters.
Canned Cycles (Fixed Cycles)
This is a powerful control feature intended to shorten the length of the part program thereby
conserving memory space. Canned cycles are single block multi pass fixed cycles.
Examples: Canned cycles for rough turning and peck drilling in CNC Lathes. Canned cycles for
drilling, boring and tapping in machining centres.
Programmable Logic Controller
Programmable logic controller is a software oriented machine interface between the CNC system
and machine tool functions such as miscellaneous functions (coolant on / off, pallet operation,
spindle speed functions (M00, M01, M03, M04, etc) and tool functions). Signals from CNC to
PLC are on /off type. The programmable logic controllers available today are microprocessor-
based units, which are integrated into the CNC system.
The programmable logic controllers have memory space to store interface programs.
Some of the common P L C features are listed below:
Number of inputs and outputs 24, 32, 48 etc., (Both analog and digital)
Memory capacity 4 k, 8 k etc.
 High-speed microprocessor to execute sequence program processing time of the order of
milliseconds
Software timers and counters
Data exchange between CNC and PLC
Diagnostic Features
The CNC systems have diagnostics features for faults or error conditions. Diagnostics are
software programs, which check the functioning of the CNC system at various levels.
The control system manufacturer gives detailed use and applications of these diagnostic
programs. Diagnostics can be grouped as follows:
i. Real time diagnostics
ii. On-line diagnostics
iii. Off-line diagnostics
Real Time Diagnostics:
D C power supply voltages, low voltage and real time clock are monitored. In case of failure of
any one of these, control system automatically assumes the emergency stop conditions and shuts
down the drives.
On-line diagnostics:
On-line diagnostics are active during machine operation. Diagnostic messages are either readable
from C R T screen or from LED Indicators. Program diagnostics detect programming errors.
(Syntax, Parity etc.)
Off-line diagnostics:
It is provided in the form of a CD-ROM or ROM board (PCB). Following a malfunction, the off-
line diagnostic programs are to be loaded which check the different areas of the system and
respond with error codes / error description on C R T Display. Diagnostics are very powerful
features of CNC systems. To be productive, the system should have a low MTTR (Mean Time to
Repair).
Remote diagnostics:
It is now possible to send diagnostic programs through Internet to check the errors in CNC
Machines. This enables manufacturers to locate faults even if the machine is located in a remote
place in another country.
SOME FEATURES OF MODERN CNC SYSTEMS
(i) Advanced hardware architecture: Custom built very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI)
which can handle several functions in a single chip are used in modern CNC systems. This way,
the benefits of reduced component count and improved reliability are realized.
(ii) Software modularity: Each function is written as a discrete module - (structured
programming). Additional software features can be added at any time to upgrade the control
without affecting the software.
(iii) Adaptive control: Reduces the production time by maximizing the utilization of the
machine tool. It acts on measurement taken from external sensors (In-process measurement) and
modifies the cutting conditions suitably.
(iv) Conversational programming: The system featuring conversational programming are
termed user friendly since they are designed with the operator in mind. One example of such a
friendly feature is graphic display. With this feature, the operator can create the part drawing on
screen and simulate the tool paths in the preparatory phase (Prior to machining). The operator
can program in complete safety and be sure that nothing is omitted. The operator can also check
the correctness of the part program on graphic display.
(v) Programming flexibility: In addition to conversational part programming language, high
level language commands like IF-THEN ELSE, GO TO etc., can be used to extend the
programs power. Higher mathematical functions can be used to calculate square roots,
trigonometric functions etc.
(vii) Colour graphics: This provides visual interface between the operator and CNC. Part cross
sections can be highlighted. Operating instructions and warning display can be colour coded for
more clarity.
(viii) Machine interface: A high-level language like C is used for programming the machine
logic in PC (example: GE 2000 MC). In AB8600, high-level language SIPROM (System
Interface-Programming) is used.
(ix) Automatic selection of cutting speeds: If we specify the tool material and work material, C
N C System selects cutting speed and feed from cutting condition technology database.
(x) Automatic selection of tools and sequencing of tools: If operation is specified, system
selects corresponding tools and sequence of tools. Systems like Mazak Fusion 640 provides this
knowledge based approach.
(xi) Optimization of machine program: This feature will be useful for components with large
number of drilling, tapping operations, or repetitive end milling tool paths as in the case of
machining of dies and molds etc.
(xii) Display of finished component: Today CNC systems offer a feature to display the finished
component together with dimensions. Sectioning and rotation of the model of the finished part
are also possible.
(xiii) Background programming: It is a common facility available in CNC systems. The user
can run, edit and simulate another program while a program is being executed on the machine
tool.
(xiv) Digital CNC: The new breed of CNC controls uses digital technology. The introduction of
digital CNC has brought increased speed and precision to machine tool builders. The PC based
open architecture controls incorporate such features like acceleration with jerk limitation, direct
NURBS interpolation, use of high level languages, execution of large CNC programs from hard
disc and increased number of zero offsets. In some of the systems the CNC and drive amplifiers
are on the some board at the digital level.
(xv) Look ahead feature: The control system scans 150 or more blocks ahead of the block that
is being executed and carries out interpolation and calculates the acceleration and deceleration
requirements in the case of generation of complex tool paths. This helps to produce accurate
profiles in high speed machining.
2. What is CNC retrofitting? Explain briefly (II UNIT)
The term retrofit means adding accessories to a given object in order to improve
performance.
The high initial investment required for CNC machines restricts medium and small scale
industries to take benefits of this advanced technology. Especially in developing countries like
india, where small scale industries form the backbone of our country, it is possible to modernize
the existing conventional machines into CNC machines by adding accessories and making slight
design modifications. This is known as CNC retrofitting.
Retrofitted machines are not as good as CNC machines, but perform better than the
conventional machines, Even though the ultimate solution is to go in for sophisticated CNC
machines, retrofitting finds a place where there is a budgetary constraint.