LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1.1 Understanding physics

* Explain what Physics is
* Recognize the Physics in everyday situations and natural phenomena

1.2 Understanding Base quantities and derived quantities

* Explain what base quantities and derived quantities are
* List base quantities and yheir units
* List derived quantities and their units
* Express quantities using prefixes
* Express quantities using scientific notation
* Express derived quantities as well as their units in terms of
base quantities and base units
* Solve problems involving conversion of units

1.3 Understanding scalar and vector quantities

* Define scalar and vector quantities
* Give examples of scalar and vector quantities

1.4 Measuring Physical quantities

* Measure physical quantities using appropriate instruments
* Explain accuracy, consistency and sensitivity
* Explain types of experimental errors
* Use appropriate techniques to reduce errors
* Use the vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauge

1.5 Analyzing a scientific investigations

* Identify variables in a given situation
* Identify a question suitable for scientific investigation
* Form a hypothesis
* Design and carry out a simple experiment to test the hypothesis
* Record and present data in a suitable form
* Interpret data to draw a conclusion
* Write a report of the investigation.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

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1.1 Understanding Physics

1. Physics is the branch of science concerned with the study of natural phenomena
and properties of matter and energy.

2. Name several physics concepts related to daily live or natural phenomenon.

Choose from the list below :

Surface tension Refraction of light Friction Inertia
Resonance Air resistance Density Gravitational force
/ radio wave Reflection of light

No. Phenomena Physics concepts

1 A straight stick seems bent in water. Refraction of light

2 Satellites do not fall out of the sky. Gravitational force

3 While a car is braking to a stop, you continue in Inertia

motion, sliding along the seat in forward motion.
4 More massive object (a stone) falls faster than Air resistance
less massive object (a feather).
5 People can communicate using mobile phones. Electromagnetic
wave// radio wave
6 We can see the image of an object in a mirror. Reflection of light

7 A submarine can sail on the sea surface and under Density // Upthrust
the sea.
8 We can walk on a floor without falling. Friction

9 A singer can scatter a glass by singing a certain Resonance

note.
10 A needle can be made to float on a surface of Surface tension
water.

3. Fields of study in Physics.

No. Field of study Explanation
1 Force and motion/ Mechanics Investigates the action of force and
motion.
2 Heat Studies of heat on different types of

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 matter.
3 Light / Optics Explain the different phenomena due to
light and sight.
4 Waves Understanding the properties of different
types of waves and their users.
5 Electricity and Investigate the interaction of electric and
electromagnetism magnetic fields.
6 Electronics Studies the use of electronics devices in
various fields.
7 Nuclear physics Study of nuclear structure and their
application.

4. Importance of physics
(a) There is a close relationship between the study of physics and other sciences,
including astronomy, biology, chemistry and geology.

(b) There is a close connection between physics and the practical developments in
engineering, medicine and technology .

(c) The application of fundamental laws and theories have enabled engineers and
scientists to put satellites into orbit, receive information from space probes,
and improve telecommunications.

(d) Physics improves the quality of life, i.e. many home appliances function through
the operation of principles of physics .

1.2 Understanding base quantities and derived quantities.

1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. The value of the

measurement consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Example:
1. A book with a mass of 2 kg
Physical quantity : mass
Numerical magnitude/value: 2
Unit of measurement (SI unit) : kg

2. Length of a meter rule is 100 cm

Physical quantity : length
Numerical magnitude/value: 100
Unit of measurement (SI unit) : cm

3. Temperature of boiling water is 100 oC

Physical quantity : Temperature
Numerical magnitude/value: 100
Unit of measurement (SI unit) : oC

The International System of Units, known as SI, is based on the metric

system of measurements.

2. Other examples of physical quantities are velocity, force and time.

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3. All physical quantities can be classified into two groups :
a) A base quantity is a physical quantity that cannot be defined in terms of
other physical quantities.
A table below shows five base quantities and their respective SI units.

Base quantity Quantity SI unit Symbol

symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Temperature T kelvin K

b) A derived quantity is a physical quantity which is obtained by combining

base quantities by multiplication, division or both these operations

Derived Relationship with the Relationship Derived units

quantity base quantities with the units
Volume, V Length x breadth x height m x m x m m3
Density, Mass kg kg m-3
Volume m
Velocity, v Displacement m m s-1
Time s
Acceleration, a Change _ of _ velocity ms m s-2
time _ taken s
Momentum Mass x Velocity kg x m s-1- kg m s-1
Force, F Mass x Acceleration kg x m s-2 kg m s-2 (N)
Impulse Change of momentum kg x m s-1 kg m s-1 (Ns)
Energy, E Force x Displacement kg m s-2 x m kg m2 s-2 (J)
Power, P Energy kgm2 s 2 kg m2 s-3 (W)
Time s

4. A value in standard form or scientific notation is a value written in the form of

A x 10 n
where
1 A < 10
n is an integer (.,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, .)

Example :

Value Value in standard form

3.01 x 10-8 ms-1
The speed of light 301 000 000 m s-1
Mass of a molecule 0. 000 000 000 118 mg 1.18 x 1011 mg

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5. We use prefixes to simplify the expression of very big or very small numerical
values of physical quantities. A Prefix is a multiplying factor used to present large
or small value
6.
Prefix Symbol Value
tera T x 1012
giga G x 109
mega M x 106
kilo k x 103
deci d x 10-1
centi c x 10-2
mili m x 10-3
micro x 10-6
nano n x 10-9
pico p x 10-12

7. Conversion of units

Example : Convert to SI unit and standard form.

a) 3.4 km = 3.4 x 103 m

= 3400 m

1.5 g
-3
b) 1.5 g cm = 3 Notes :
cm
1g = 10-3 kg
1.5 x10 kg 3 1 m3 = 106 cm3
= 1000 g = 1 kg
1.0 x10 6 m 3
= 1.5 x 10 3 kg m-3 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3
72km
c) 72 km h-1 =
1h Notes :
72 x10 3 m 1 hour = 36000 s
=
1x 60 x 60 s 1000 m = 1 km
= 20 ms-1

7. Solve problems that involve the conversion of units.

Complete the table below with standard form and convert the unit

Quantity Standard form Convert to unit

Scientific notation
1) 0.000 000 18 Ts 1.8 x 10-7 Ts (1.8 x 10-7 x 1012 )-(-6)
= 1.8 x 10-7 x 1018
= 1.8 x 1011 s

(s)
-1 -1 -3-(-6)
2) 0.2341 mg 2.34 x 10 mg ( 2.34 x 10 )x 10
= 2.34 x 10-1)x 10 -9

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 = 2.34 x 10-10 Mg

(Mg)
3) 3 854 000 Gm 3.854 x 106 Gm (3.854 x 106) x !09-3
= 3.854 x 106 x !06
= 3.854 x 1012 km

(km)
3 3 -9-(3)
4) 7 530 nA 7.530 x 10 nA (7.350 x 10 ) x 10
= 7.350 x 10 3 x 10 -6
= 7.350 x 10 -3 mA

(mA)
5) 5 K 5 x 100 K 5 x 100 x 100 (-12)
= 5 x 1012 pK

(pK)
1.3 Understanding scalar and vector quantities

1. Physical quantities can be classified as scalar quantities and vector quantities.

a) A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude only.
Examples : time, length and current
b) A vector quantity is a physical quantity which has both magnitude
and direction.
Example : Force and velocity

2. Complete the table by choosing the correct physical quantities from the list below.

Length Displacement Velocity Density

Force Current Acceleration Temperature
Momentum Work Weight Time
Distance Speed Energy Depth
Area Volume Mass Power

Scalar quantities Vector quantities

Length Time Displacement
Area Volume Velocity
Distance Speed Force
Work Energy Acceleration
Temperature Density Momentum
Mass Current Weight

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 Depth Power

1.4 Using appropriate instruments to measure

Recognizing appropriate instruments for measuring.

Choose the appropriate tools to match with the picture given.

Stop watch Micrometer screw gauge Metre rule

Ammeter Vernier callipers Waist watch
Measuring tape Triple beam balance Thermometer

Object Measuring Tools

Temperature of Thermometer
boiling water

Running Time
Stop watch

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Book thickness
Vernier callipers

Electric current
Ammeter

Diameter of a wire
Micrometer screw gauge

Mass of a key

Triple beam balance

1.4.1 Accuracy

1. Accuracy of a measurement is how close the value of a measurement to

the actual value.

2. The level of accuracy is related to the relative error.

Error
3. Relative error = x 100 %
Actual _ value

4. An error is a difference between the measured value and the actual value
or true value .

5. Accuracy can be improved by : -

(a) repeated readings are taken and the average value is calculated
(b) avoid parallax errors
(c) avoid zero errors
(d) use measuring instruments with a higher accuracy.
For example, a vernier callipers is more accurate than a ruler .

1.4.2 Consistency

1. Consistency / Precision is the degree of an instrument to record consistent

readings for each measurement by the same way or the ability to record
the same readings when a measurement is repeated.

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2. A measurement is considered consistent will have a small relative
deviation or no deviation from the average value .

3.. A deviation is a difference between a measurement value and its

average value .

devition
4. average deviation =
numbers _ of _ values _ taken

average _ deviation
5. relative deviation = x 100 %
average _ value

Example:
A student used vernier callipers to measure diameter of a glass rod. The table
below shows the readings.
Measurement Diameter rod (cm) Deviation
1 2.23 0.01
2 2.26 0.02
3 2.24 0.00
4 2.23 0.02
5 2.25 0.01
Average 2.24 0.012

0.012
Relative deviation = 100%
2.24

= 0.54 %

6. Consistency can be improved by

(a) eliminating parallax errors

(b) exercising greater care and effort when taking readings.
(c) using an instrument which is not defective.

7. Comparisons between consistency and accuracy

a) Consistent but not accurate b) Accurate but not consistent

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 c) Accurate and consistent d) Not accurate and not consistent.

1.4.3 Sensitivity

1. Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to detect a small change in the

quantity to be measured.

2. A measuring instrument that has a scale with a smaller divisions is more

sensitive .

3. Measuring instruments.

Measuring Smallest magnitude Sensitivity / Accuracy

instruments of quantity (cm)
Metre rule 0.1 0.1 cm (low)
Vernier callipers 0.01 0.01 cm (moderate)
Micrometre screw 0.001 0.001 cm (high)
gauge

1.4.4 Experimental Error

1. An error is a difference between the true value of a quantity and the value
obtained in measurement .

2. There are two main types of errors :

(a) systematic errors
(b) random errors

3. Systematic errors
- The error in calibration of instrument which makes the instrument
defective.
(We must examine the instrument carefully before using them)

- Zero error which means the pointer of the instrument does not return
to zero when not in use.
( Zero error can be corrected by compensating the readings)

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 - A problem which persists throughout the experiment such as repeated
error in reaction time and wrong assumption.

- Systematic errors will lead to decrease in accuracy

4. Random errors
- arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and
will produce a different error every time you repeat the experiment.
- may be due to:
(a) personal error ( human limitations of sight and touch )
(b) lack of sensitivity ( instrument does not respond / indicate
insignificant or small change )
(c) natural errors ( wind , temperature, humidity, refraction,
magnetic field or gravity )
(d) wrong technique ( applying excessive pressure when
turning a micrometer screw gauge )
- can be minimized by repeating the measurement several times and
taking the average (mean) of the reading .

5. Parallax error
- An error in reading a measurement because an observers eye and the
pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of the scale .

(We should place our eyes directly perpendicular in front of the

pointer or scale of an instrument when taking measurements )

.
1.4.5 Measurement of length

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 Instrument Example
Measuring tape To measure a waist of a man.
Metre rule To measure the length of a table
Vernier callipers To measure thickness of text book
Micrometre screw To measure a diameter of a glass
gauge rod or wire

A. Metre rule
To measure length from a few cm up to 1 m.

1. Precautions to be taken when using a ruler:

(a) ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler to avoid
inaccurate readings.
(b) avoid parallax errors
(c) avoid zero error and end error.

2. For example: A ruler is to determine the diameter of the wire.

Solution:
Length of wire
Diameter of wire, d = ----------------------------
No. of coils
1.5 - 1.0
= -------------------
10
= 0.05 cm

B. Vernier callipers

1. Two pairs of jaws

(a) outside jaws: to measure linear dimensions and outer diameters
(b) inside jaws : to measure inner diameters

2. Two steel bar scales

(a) the main scale
(b) the vernier scale - has a scale on which ten divisions are equal to
nine small divisions on the main scale .

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3. Errors in the vernier callipers
(a) No zero error

(b) Positive zero error

Positive zero error = + 0.04 cm

(c) Negative zero error

Negative zero error = - ( 1.0 - 0.08 )

= - 0.02 cm

4. For example: Figure below shows the use of a vernier callipers to

measure the size of spherical object. Determine the correct size of
the object if the zero error of the vernier callipers is
(a) - 0.08 cm

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 (b) + 0.08 cm
Example 1 :

(a) Zero error = - 0.08 cm

Main scale reading = 2.10 cm
Vernier scale reading = 0.05 cm
Vernier caliper reading = 2 . 1 + 0.05 = 2.15 cm
Correct size of object = vernier caliper reading - zero reading
= 2.15 - ( -0.08 ) = 2.23 cm

(b) Correct size of object = 2.15 - ( +0.08 ) = 2. 07 cm

Example 2 :

(a) Zero error = -0.08 cm

Main scale reading = 3.70 cm

Vernier scale reading = 0.04 cm
Vernier caliper reading = 3.74 cm
Correct size of object = vernier caliper reading - zero reading
= 3.74 (-0.08 ) = 3.82 cm

(b) Correct size of object = 3.74 0.08 = 3.66 cm

C. Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. Comprises of
(a) main scale on the sleeve
(b) thimble scale on the thimble

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2. Errors in micrometer screw gauge
(a) No zero error

(b) Positive zero error

Correct reading = micrometer reading - ( 0.04 )

(c) Negative zero error

Correct reading = micrometer - ( -0.03 )

Figure below shows a micrometer screw gauge used to measure the size
of an object.
Determine the size of the object if the micrometer has a zero error of
(a) + 0.01 mm
(b) - 0.03 mm

Example 1 :

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 Solution :
The main scale reading = 4.50 mm
The thimble scale reading = 0.21 mm
The reading of the gauge = 4.50 + 0.21 = 4.71 mm

(a) Size of object = the reading of the gauge - zero error

= 4.71 - 0.01
= 4.70 mm

(b) Size of object = 4.71 - ( - 0.03 )

= 4.74 mm

Example 2 :

Solution :
The main scale reading = 1.00 mm
The thimble scale reading = 0.37 mm
The reading of the gauge = 1.37 mm

(a) Size of object = the reading of the gauge - zero error

= 1.37 0.01
= 1.36 mm

(b) Size of object= 1.37 (-0.03)

= 1.40 mm
1.4.6 Measurement of time
1. Stop watches are used to measure time interval .

2. Two types of stop watches

(a) The analogue stop watch which is mechanically operated
(b) The digital stop watch which is electronically operated.

1.4.7 Measurement of mass

The mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance or an
electronic balance .

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1.4.8 Measurement of temperature
1. A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature

2. Types of thermometer
(a) clinical thermometer
(b) mercury thermometer (range 100C to 1100C with an
accuracy of 10C )
(c) mercury thermometer (range 0 0C to 360 0C with an accuracy
of 2 0C )

3. A mercury thermometer is a sensitive instrument because : -

(a) Mercury is a liquid metal which is sensitive to temperature
changes. It expands and contracts uniformly with the
temperature .
(b) The thin walled glass bulb allows a quick heat transfer
between the heat source and the mercury
(c) The capillary tube , which has a small diameter , amplifies a
small expansion in the bulb into a large linear expansion along
the length of the capillary tube .

1.4.9 Measurement of electric current and voltage

Ammeter
1. An instrument used to measure the amount of electric current
flowing through a particular point in an electrical circuit .

2. The SI unit for current is Ampere, A

3. For a small current , a milliammeter is used ( an accuracy of

0.1 mA or 0.2 mA is used )

4. It is usually connected in series in an electrical circuit .

Voltmeter
1. An instrument used to measure the potential difference ( voltage )
between any two points in an electrical circuit
2. The SI unit for potential difference is volt, V.

3. It is connected in parallel in an electrical circuit .

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1.5 Analysing scientific investigations
1. The following processes are involved in scientific investigations.

a) A scientific investigation begins with observation. When observing we

come out some questions.. (i.e : hearing, smelling, touching, tasting,
seeing)

b) Making inference is a early assessment or explanation that is

carried out to answer the question raised.
Inference is an early conclusion to what we observed

b) Form a hypothesis which is the statement of relationship between

the manipulated variable and the responding variable we would expect.

c) Aim has to be stated so that all the investigating effort is centred

on the main subject.

d) Identify all the variables ;

i) Manipulated variable is a quantity we manipulate /
variable which causes other secondary variables to change.
ii) Responding variable is the quantity which is affected by the
manipulated variable and is measured experimentally.
iii) Fixed variable is the quantity that does not change
throughout the experiment.

e) Apparatus / Materials needed to be listed according its specification

example measuring instrument to ensure the success the experiment.

f) Procedure is the sequence of action or operation in order to carry out

the experiment according to the instructions given.

g) Observation is the listing and tabulation of all data obtained in the

experiment.

h) Analysing of data can be carried out by plotting the graph,

followed by the interpretation of graph or calculation to obtain the

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 required value.

i) Discussion needs to be stated to find out whether the result obtained

support the stated hypothesis. Precautions of the experiment can be
suggested to overcome the weakness, to reduce the experimental
error or to improve the result of the experiment.

j) A conclusion is stated concerning the result of the experiment

(is written in accordance with the aim of the experiment and based
on graph). By comparing with the aim stated, this will determine
whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

2. Example : A simple pendulum

1. Inference : When the length of a simple pendulum increases,

the period of oscillation also increases. // The period of
pendulum is affected by the length of the thread.

2. Hypothesis : The longer the length of a simple pendulum,

the longer will be the period of oscillation//

3. Aim : To find the relationship between the length of a simple

pendulum and the period of oscillation.
4. Variable :
a) Manipulated variable : Length, l
b) Responding variable : Period, T.
c) Fixed variable : Mass of pendulum bob. m

5. Materials : Retort stand, pendulum bob, thread, metre rule, stop watch.

6. Figure

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 thread
Retort
stand

bob

7. Procedure :
a) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure above.// A small brass or bob
was attached to the thread. The thread was held by a clamp of a the
retort stand.

b) The length of the thread , l was measured by a metre rule, starting with
90.0 cm. The bob of the pendulum was displaced and released.

c) The time for 20 complete oscillations, t was taken using the stop
t
watch. Calculate the period of oscillation by using, T =
20
d) The experiment was repeated using different lengths such as 80.0 cm.
70.0 cm, 60.0 cm, 50.0 cm and 40.0 cm.

8. Observation / Tabulate data

Length of Time taken for 10 Period of T2

string, l / cm oscillation, t (s) oscillation (s2 )
t1 t2 Average, t t
T= (s)
20
40.0 25.2 25.1 25.2 1.26 1.59
50.0 28.1 28.2 28.2 1.41 1.99
60.0 31.0 31.0 31.0 1.55 2.40
70.0 33.5 33.6 33.6 1.68 2.82
80.0 35.7 35.9 35.8 1.79 3.20
90.0 38.2 37.9 38.1 1.91 3.65

Notes :

Symbols and their respective units should be written in the table

A readings of length of string should be written in one decimal place

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 This is because the metre rule used to measure the length of string can measure
accuracy to 0.1 cm

All sets of readings recorded must be consistent. For example, all reading
time taken, t are recorded in one decimal place.

Average values for t are taken to minimize errors

If the time taken for 20 oscillations is 38.1 s,

t 38.1
Then the period of oscillation, T = = = 1.91 s
20 20
T2 = (1.91)2 = 3.65 s2

9. Analysing : Plotting the graph

T2
T2 (s2) against l (cm)
(s2 )
x
x
x
x
x x

l (cm)

Notes :

a) Plotting the graph

The graph should be labeled by a heading

All axes should be labeled with quantities and their respective units.

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 The manipulated variable (l) should be plotted on the x-axis while the
responding variable (T2 ) should be plotted on the y-axis

Odd scales such as 1:3, 1:7 , 1:9 0r 1 :11should avoided in plotting graph.

Make sure that the transference of data from the table to the graph is accurate.

Draw the best straight line

- the line that passes through most of the points plotted such that is
balanced by the number of points above and below the straight line.

make sure that the size of the graph is large enough, which is, not less than
half the size of the graph paper or.( > 8 cm x 10 cm )

b) Calculate the gradient

The triangle drawn to calculate the gradient of the graph should not be less than
half size of the graph drawn or ( .> 6 cm x 8 cm )
Calculate the gradient using the formula
Put the unit

10. Discussion / Precaution of the experiment / to improve the accuracy

a) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a small angle

b) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is small.
c) The simple pendulum oscillate in a vertical plane only.
d) Switch off the fan to reduce the air resistance

11. Conclusion

The length of simple pendulum is directly proportional to

the square of the period of oscillation. //

T2 is directly proportional to l (the straight line graph passing through the origin)

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