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Perceptron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In machine learning, the perceptron is an algorithm for supervised learning of binary classifiers (functions
that can decide whether an input, represented by a vector of numbers, belongs to some specific class or
not).[1] It is a type of linear classifier, i.e. a classification algorithm that makes its predictions based on a
linear predictor function combining a set of weights with the feature vector. The algorithm allows for online
learning, in that it processes elements in the training set one at a time.

The perceptron algorithm dates back to the late 1950s; its first implementation, in custom hardware, was one
of the first artificial neural networks to be produced.

Contents
1 History
2 Definition
3 Learning algorithm
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Steps
3.3 Convergence
4 Variants
5 Multiclass perceptron
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

History
The perceptron algorithm was invented in 1957 at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory by Frank
Rosenblatt,[3] funded by the United States Office of Naval Research.[4] The perceptron was intended to be a
machine, rather than a program, and while its first implementation was in software for the IBM 704, it was
subsequently implemented in custom-built hardware as the "Mark 1 perceptron". This machine was designed
for image recognition: it had an array of 400 photocells, randomly connected to the "neurons". Weights were
encoded in potentiometers, and weight updates during learning were performed by electric motors.[2]:193

In a 1958 press conference organized by the US Navy, Rosenblatt made statements about the perceptron
that caused a heated controversy among the fledgling AI community; based on Rosenblatt's statements, The
New York Times reported the perceptron to be "the embryo of an electronic computer that [the Navy]
expects will be able to walk, talk, see, write, reproduce itself and be conscious of its existence."[4]

Although the perceptron initially seemed promising, it was quickly proved that perceptrons could not be
trained to recognise many classes of patterns. This caused the field of neural network research to stagnate
for many years, before it was recognised that a feedforward neural network with two or more layers (also
called a multilayer perceptron) had far greater processing power than perceptrons with one layer (also called
a single layer perceptron). Single layer perceptrons are only capable of learning linearly separable patterns;
in 1969 a famous book entitled Perceptrons by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert showed that it was
impossible for these classes of network to learn an XOR function. It is often believed that they also
conjectured (incorrectly) that a similar result would hold for a multi-layer perceptron network. However, this
is not true, as both Minsky and Papert already knew that multi-layer perceptrons were capable of producing

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an XOR function. (See the page on Perceptrons (book) for more

information.) Three years later Stephen Grossberg published a series
of papers introducing networks capable of modelling differential,
contrast-enhancing and XOR functions. (The papers were published
in 1972 and 1973, see e.g.:Grossberg (1973). "Contour enhancement,
short-term memory, and constancies in reverberating neural
networks" (http://cns.bu.edu/Profiles/Grossberg
/Gro1973StudiesAppliedMath.pdf) (PDF). Studies in Applied
Mathematics. 52: 213257.). Nevertheless, the often-miscited
Minsky/Papert text caused a significant decline in interest and
funding of neural network research. It took ten more years until
neural network research experienced a resurgence in the 1980s. This
text was reprinted in 1987 as "Perceptrons - Expanded Edition"
where some errors in the original text are shown and corrected.

The Mark I Perceptron machine was The kernel perceptron algorithm was already introduced in 1964 by
the first implementation of the Aizerman et al.[5] Margin bounds guarantees were given for the
perceptron algorithm. The machine Perceptron algorithm in the general non-separable case first by
was connected to a camera that used Freund and Schapire (1998),[1] and more recently by Mohri and
2020 cadmium sulfide photocells to Rostamizadeh (2013) who extend previous results and give new L1
produce a 400-pixel image. The main bounds.[6]
visible feature is a patchboard that
allowed experimentation with different
Definition
combinations of input features. To the
right of that are arrays of
In the modern sense, the perceptron is an algorithm for learning a
potentiometers that implemented the
binary classifier: a function that maps its input (a real-valued
adaptive weights.[2]:213 vector) to an output value (a single binary value):

where w is a vector of real-valued weights, is the dot product , where m is the number of

inputs to the perceptron and b is the bias. The bias shifts the decision boundary away from the origin and
does not depend on any input value.

The value of (0 or 1) is used to classify x as either a positive or a negative instance, in the case of a
binary classification problem. If is negative, then the weighted combination of inputs must produce a
positive value greater than in order to push the classifier neuron over the 0 threshold. Spatially, the bias
alters the position (though not the orientation) of the decision boundary. The perceptron learning algorithm
does not terminate if the learning set is not linearly separable. If the vectors are not linearly separable
learning will never reach a point where all vectors are classified properly. The most famous example of the
perceptron's inability to solve problems with linearly nonseparable vectors is the Boolean exclusive-or
problem. The solution spaces of decision boundaries for all binary functions and learning behaviors are
studied in the reference.[7]

In the context of neural networks, a perceptron is an artificial neuron using the Heaviside step function as
the activation function. The perceptron algorithm is also termed the single-layer perceptron, to distinguish
it from a multilayer perceptron, which is a misnomer for a more complicated neural network. As a linear
classifier, the single-layer perceptron is the simplest feedforward neural network.

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Learning algorithm
Below is an example of a learning algorithm for a (single-layer) perceptron. For multilayer perceptrons,
where a hidden layer exists, more sophisticated algorithms such as backpropagation must be used.
Alternatively, methods such as the delta rule can be used if the function is non-linear and differentiable,
although the one below will work as well.

When multiple perceptrons are combined in an artificial neural network, each output neuron operates
independently of all the others; thus, learning each output can be considered in isolation.

Definitions

We first define some

variables:

denotes
the output from
the perceptron for
an input vector .

A diagram showing a perceptron updating its linear boundary as more training examples
are added.

is the training set of samples, where:

is the -dimensional input vector.
is the desired output value of the perceptron for that input.

We show the values of the features as follows:

is the value of the th feature of the th training input vector.

.

To represent the weights:

is the th value in the weight vector, to be multiplied by the value of the th input feature.
Because , the is effectively a bias that we use instead of the bias constant .

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To show the time-dependence of , we use:

is the weight at time .

Unlike other linear classification algorithms such as logistic regression, there is no need for a learning rate in
the perceptron algorithm. This is because multiplying the update by any constant simply rescales the weights
but never changes the sign of the prediction.[8]

Steps
1. Initialize the
weights and the
threshold. Weights
may be initialized
to 0 or to a small
random value. In
the example
below, we use 0.
2. For each example j
in our training set
D, perform the
following steps
over the input
and desired output
:
a. Calculate
the actual
output: The appropriate weights are applied to the inputs, and the resulting weighted sum passed
to a function that produces the output o.

b. Update the weights:

, for all features .

3. For offline learning, the step 2 may be repeated until the iteration error is less

than a user-specified error threshold , or a predetermined number of iterations have been completed.

The algorithm updates the weights after steps 2a and 2b. These weights are immediately applied to a pair in
the training set, and subsequently updated, rather than waiting until all pairs in the training set have
undergone these steps.

Convergence

The perceptron is a linear classifier, therefore it will never get to the state with all the input vectors classified
correctly if the training set D is not linearly separable, i.e. if the positive examples can not be separated from
the negative examples by a hyperplane. In this case, no "approximate" solution will be gradually approached
under the standard learning algorithm, but instead learning will fail completely. Hence, if linear separability
of the training set is not known a priori, one of the training variants below should be used.

But if the training set is linearly separable, then the perceptron is guaranteed to converge, and there is an
upper bound on the number of times the perceptron will adjust its weights during the training.

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Suppose that the input vectors from the two classes can be separated by a hyperplane with a margin , i.e.
there exists a weight vector , and a bias term b such that for all and
for all . And also let R denote the maximum norm of an input vector. Novikoff
(1962) proved that in this case the perceptron algorithm converges after making updates. The
idea of the proof is that the weight vector is always adjusted by a bounded amount in a direction with which
it has a negative dot product, and thus can be bounded above by O(t ) where t is the number of changes to
the weight vector. But it can also be bounded below by O(t) because if there exists an (unknown)
satisfactory weight vector, then every change makes progress in this (unknown) direction by a positive
amount that depends only on the input vector.

While the perceptron algorithm is guaranteed to

converge on some solution in the case of a linearly
separable training set, it may still pick any solution and
problems may admit many solutions of varying
quality.[9] The perceptron of optimal stability,
nowadays better known as the linear support vector
machine, was designed to solve this problem.

Variants
The pocket algorithm with ratchet (Gallant, 1990) solves
the stability problem of perceptron learning by keeping
the best solution seen so far "in its pocket". The pocket Two classes of points, and two of the infinitely many
algorithm then returns the solution in the pocket, rather linear boundaries that separate them. Even though the
than the last solution. It can be used also for non- boundaries are at nearly right angles to one another,
separable data sets, where the aim is to find a the perceptron algorithm has no way of choosing
perceptron with a small number of misclassifications. between them.
However, these solutions appear purely stochastically
and hence the pocket algorithm neither approaches them
gradually in the course of learning, nor are they guaranteed to show up within a given number of learning
steps.

The Maxover algorithm (Wendemuth, 1995)[10] is "robust" in the sense that it will converge regardless of
(prior) knowledge of linear separability of the data set. In the linear separable case, it will solve the training
problem if desired, even with optimal stability (maximum margin between the classes). For non-separable
data sets, it will return a solution with a small number of misclassifications. In all cases, the algorithm
gradually approaches the solution in the course of learning, without memorizing previous states and without
stochastic jumps. Convergence is to global optimality for separable data sets and to local optimality for non-
separable data sets.

In separable problems, perceptron training can also aim at finding the largest separating margin between the
classes. The so-called perceptron of optimal stability can be determined by means of iterative training and
optimization schemes, such as the Min-Over algorithm (Krauth and Mezard, 1987)[11] or the AdaTron
(Anlauf and Biehl, 1989)) .[12] AdaTron uses the fact that the corresponding quadratic optimization problem
is convex. The perceptron of optimal stability, together with the kernel trick, are the conceptual foundations
of the support vector machine.

The -perceptron further used a pre-processing layer of fixed random weights, with thresholded output
units. This enabled the perceptron to classify analogue patterns, by projecting them into a binary space. In
fact, for a projection space of sufficiently high dimension, patterns can become linearly separable.

Another way to solve nonlinear problems without using multiple layers is to use higher order networks

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(sigma-pi unit). In this type of network, each element in the input vector is extended with each pairwise
combination of multiplied inputs (second order). This can be extended to an n-order network.

It should be kept in mind, however, that the best classifier is not necessarily that which classifies all the
training data perfectly. Indeed, if we had the prior constraint that the data come from equi-variant Gaussian
distributions, the linear separation in the input space is optimal, and the nonlinear solution is overfitted.

Other linear classification algorithms include Winnow, support vector machine and logistic regression.

Multiclass perceptron
Like most other techniques for training linear classifiers, the perceptron generalizes naturally to multiclass
classification. Here, the input and the output are drawn from arbitrary sets. A feature representation
function maps each possible input/output pair to a finite-dimensional real-valued feature vector. As
before, the feature vector is multiplied by a weight vector , but now the resulting score is used to choose
among many possible outputs:

Learning again iterates over the examples, predicting an output for each, leaving the weights unchanged
when the predicted output matches the target, and changing them when it does not. The update becomes:

This multiclass feedback formulation reduces to the original perceptron when is a real-valued vector, is
chosen from , and .

For certain problems, input/output representations and features can be chosen so that
can be found efficiently even though is chosen from a very large or even infinite set.

In recent years, perceptron training has become popular in the field of natural language processing for such
tasks as part-of-speech tagging and syntactic parsing (Collins, 2002).

References
1. Freund, Y.; Schapire, R. E. (1999). "Large margin classification using the perceptron algorithm"
(http://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~yfreund/papers/LargeMarginsUsingPerceptron.pdf) (PDF). Machine Learning. 37 (3):
277296. doi:10.1023/A:1007662407062 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1007662407062).
2. Bishop, Christopher M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Springer.
3. Rosenblatt, Frank (1957), The Perceptron--a perceiving and recognizing automaton. Report 85-460-1, Cornell
Aeronautical Laboratory.
4. Mikel Olazaran (1996). "A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy". Social
Studies of Science. 26 (3): 611659. JSTOR 285702 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/285702).
doi:10.1177/030631296026003005 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631296026003005).
5. Aizerman, M. A.; Braverman, E. M.; Rozonoer, L. I. (1964). "Theoretical foundations of the potential function
method in pattern recognition learning". Automation and Remote Control. 25: 821837.
6. Mohri, Mehryar and Rostamizadeh, Afshin (2013). Perceptron Mistake Bounds (http://arxiv.org
/pdf/1305.0208.pdf) arXiv:1305.0208, 2013.
7. Liou, D.-R.; Liou, J.-W.; Liou, C.-Y. (2013). Learning Behaviors of Perceptron. iConcept Press.
ISBN 978-1-477554-73-9.
8. Genevieve B. Orr. "The Perceptron" (https://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/Classification
/perceptron.html). Willamette University. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
9. Bishop, Christopher M. "Chapter 4. Linear Models for Classification". Pattern Recognition and Machine
Learning. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. p. 194. ISBN 978-0387-31073-2.

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Perceptron - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptron

10. A. Wendemuth. Learning the Unlearnable (http://www.iikt.ovgu.de/iesk_media/Downloads/ks/publications

/papers/1995/wendemuth1995_learning_unlearnable-p-1452.pdf). J. of Physics A: Math. Gen. 28: 5423-5436
(1995)
11. W. Krauth and M. Mezard. Learning algorithms with optimal stability in neural networks. J. of Physics A: Math.
Gen. 20: L745-L752 (1987)
12. J.K. Anlauf and M. Biehl. The AdaTron: an Adaptive Perceptron algorithm. Europhysics Letters 10: 687-692
(1989)

Further reading
Aizerman, M. A. and Braverman, E. M. and Lev I. Rozonoer. Theoretical foundations of the potential
function method in pattern recognition learning. Automation and Remote Control, 25:821837, 1964.
Rosenblatt, Frank (1958), The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and
Organization in the Brain, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Psychological Review, v65, No. 6,
pp. 386408. doi:10.1037/h0042519 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0042519).
Rosenblatt, Frank (1962), Principles of Neurodynamics. Washington, DC:Spartan Books.
Minsky M. L. and Papert S. A. 1969. Perceptrons. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gallant, S. I. (1990). Perceptron-based learning algorithms. (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org
/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=80230) IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, vol. 1, no. 2,
pp. 179191.
Mohri, Mehryar and Rostamizadeh, Afshin (2013). Perceptron Mistake Bounds (http://arxiv.org
/pdf/1305.0208.pdf) arXiv:1305.0208, 2013.
Novikoff, A. B. (1962). On convergence proofs on perceptrons. Symposium on the Mathematical
Theory of Automata, 12, 615-622. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.
Widrow, B., Lehr, M.A., "30 years of Adaptive Neural Networks: Perceptron, Madaline, and
Backpropagation," Proc. IEEE, vol 78, no 9, pp. 14151442, (1990).
Collins, M. 2002. Discriminative training methods for hidden Markov models: Theory and experiments
with the perceptron algorithm in Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural
Language Processing (EMNLP '02).
Yin, Hongfeng (1996), Perceptron-Based Algorithms and Analysis, Spectrum Library, Concordia
University, Canada

External links
A Perceptron implemented in MATLAB to learn binary NAND function (http://www.mathworks.com
/matlabcentral/fileexchange/32949-a-perceptron-learns-to-perform-a-binary-nand-function/content
/PerceptronImpl.m)
Chapter 3 Weighted networks - the perceptron (http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/chapter
/K3.pdf) and chapter 4 Perceptron learning (http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural/chapter/K4.pdf)
of Neural Networks - A Systematic Introduction (http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/rojas/neural
/index.html.html) by Ral Rojas (ISBN 978-3-540-60505-8)
History of perceptrons (http://www.csulb.edu/~cwallis/artificialn/History.htm)
Mathematics of perceptrons (http://www.cis.hut.fi/ahonkela/dippa/node41.html)
Explanation and Java implementation example (http://www.tecnohobby.net/ppal/index.php
/inteligencia-artificial/redes-neuronales/11-perceptron)

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