Heograpiya

Mula sa Tagalog na Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya

Heograpiya (Kastila: Geografia) ang tawag sa agham ng mga lokasyon ng mundo. Nakapokus

ito sa distribusyon ng likas na yaman at mga tao sa ibabaw ng lupa.

Ang salitang heograpiya ay mula sa salitang Kastilang geografía. Nag-ugat ito sa mga

salitang Griyegong γη gi (‘daigdig’) at γράφειν gráfein (‘isulat’ o ‘ilarawan’).

A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object. The most common uses are for

driving nails, fitting parts, forging metal and breaking up objects. Hammers are often designed

for a specific purpose, and vary widely in their shape and structure. The usual features are a

handle and a head, with most of the weight in the head. The basic design is hand-operated, but

there are also many mechanically operated models for heavier uses.

The hammer may be the oldest tool for which definite evidence exists. Stone hammers are

known which are dated to 2,600,000 BCE.[1][2]

The hammer is a basic tool of many professions. By analogy, the name hammer has also been

used for devices that are designed to deliver blows, e.g. in the caplock mechanism of firearms.

A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws and rotating other machine elements with the mating

drive system. The screwdriver is made up of a head or tip, which engages with a screw,
a mechanism to apply torque by rotating the tip, and some way to position and support the

screwdriver. A typical hand screwdriver comprises an approximately cylindrical handle of a size

and shape to be held by a human hand, and an axial shaft fixed to the handle, the tip of which is

shaped to fit a particular type of screw. The handle and shaft allow the screwdriver to be

positioned and supported and, when rotated, to apply torque. Screwdrivers are made in a variety

of shapes, and the tip can be rotated manually or by an electric motor or other motor.

A screw has a head with a contour such that an appropriate screwdriver tip can be engaged in it

in such a way that the application of sufficient torque to the screwdriver will cause the screw to

rotate.

A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in

applying torque to turn objects—usually rotaryfasteners, such as nuts and bolts—or keep them

from turning.

In British English, spanner is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-ended

spanner and ring spanner. The termwrench refers to a type of adjustable spanner.[1]

In American English, wrench is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-end

wrench and box-end wrench. In American English, spanner refers to a specialized wrench with a

series of pins or tabs around the circumference. (These pins or tabs fit into the holes or notches

cut into the object to be turned.) In American commerce, such a wrench may be called a spanner

wrench to distinguish it from the British sense of spanner.

Higher quality wrenches are typically made from chromium-vanadium alloy tool steels and are

often drop-forged. They are frequentlychrome-plated to resist corrosion.

Common wrenches / spanners

Double open-end wrench/spanner

 Open-end wrench or open-ended spanner: a one-piece wrench with a U-shaped

opening that grips two opposite faces of the bolt or nut. This wrench is often double-ended,

with a different-sized opening at each end. The ends are generally oriented at an angle of

around 15 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the handle. This allows a greater range of

movement in enclosed spaces by flipping the wrench over.

Ring spanner/box-end wrench (double-ended offset example)

 Box-end wrench or ring spanner: a one-piece wrench with an enclosed opening that

grips the faces of the bolt or nut. The recess is generally a six-point or twelve-point opening

for use with nuts or bolt heads with a hexagonal shape. The twelve-point fits onto the

fastening at twice as many angles, an advantage where swing is limited. Eight-point

double-ended and usually with offset handles to improve access to the nut or bolt (as

illustrated).

 Ratcheting box wrench: Is a type of ring spanner, or box wrench, whose end

section ratchets. Ratcheting can be reversed by flipping over the wrench, or by activating

a reversing lever on the wrench. This type of wrench combines compact design of a box

wrench, with the utility and quickness of use of a ratchet wrench. A variety of ratcheting

mechanisms are used, from simple pawls to more complex captured rollers, with the

latter being more compact, smoother, but also more expensive to manufacture.

Combination spanner/wrench

 Combination wrench or combination spanner: a double-ended tool with one end being

like an open-end wrench or open-ended spanner, and the other end being like a box-end

wrench or ring spanner. Both ends generally fit the same size of bolt.

 Flare-nut wrench, tube wrench or line wrench or crowsfoot spanner: used for

gripping the nuts on the ends of tubes. It is similar to a box-end wrench but, instead of

encircling the nut completely, it has a narrow opening just wide enough to allow the wrench
 to fit over the tube. This allows for maximum contact on plumbing nuts, which are typically

softer metals and therefore more prone to damage from open-ended wrenches.

Adjustable wrench/spanner

 Adjustable wrench, adjustable spanner or shifting spanner: a type of wrench with a

movable jaw that adapts the tool to different sized objects.

 Monkey wrench or gas grips: an old type of adjustable end wrench with a

straight handle and smooth jaws that whose gripping faces are perpendicular to the

handle.

 Adjustable end wrench: the most common type of adjustable wrench in use

today. The adjustable end wrench differs from the monkey wrench in that the gripping

faces of the jaws are displaced to a (typically) 15 degree angle relative to the tool's

handle, a design feature that facilitates the wrench's use in close quarters. The modern

adjustable end wrench was first developed by Johansson (with Bahco)[2]or by

the Crescent Tool and Horseshoe Company, and is often referred to as a "Crescent

wrench", regardless of the actual manufacturer.

 Pipe wrench: a tool that is similar in design and appearance to a monkey wrench,

but with self-tightening properties and harden serrated jaws that securely grip soft iron

pipe and pipe fittings. Sometimes known by the original patent holder's brand name as

a Stillson wrench.
Socket wrench, universal joint and sockets

 Socket wrench: a hollow cylinder that fits over one end of a nut or bolt head. It may

include a handle, if it does not then it is often just referred to as a socket and is usually used

with various drive tools to make it a wrench or spanner such as a ratchet handle, a tee bar

(sliding tommy bar) bar or a knuckle bar (single axis pivot). It generally has a six-point,

eight-point or twelve-point recess, may be shallow or deep, and may have a built-in universal

joint. The drive handles generally used with sockets are:

 Break-over (or hinged) handle: Also known as a jointed nut spinner, flex head

nut spinner or breaker bar, this tool is a long non-ratcheting bar that allows the user to

impart considerable torque to fasteners, especially in cases where corrosion has resulted

in a difficult-to-loosen part.

 Ratchet handle: contains a one-way mechanism which allows the socket to be

turned without removing it from the nut or bolt simply by cycling the handle backward

and forward.

 Speed handle, crank handle or speed brace

 Screwdriver handle: for use of the socket as a nutdriver.

 Torque wrench: a socket wrench drive tool that is employed to impart a precise amount

of torque to a fastener, essential in many cases during the assembly of precision mechanisms.
 Crowfoot wrench: a type of socket designed to fit some of the same drive handles as the

regular socket but non-cylindrical in shape. The ends are the same as those found on the

open-end, box-end, or the flare-nut wrenches. These sockets use for use where space

restrictions preclude the use of a regular socket. Their principal use is with torque wrenches.

 Saltus wrench: similar in concept to a socket wrench. A Saltus wrench features a socket

permanently affixed to a handle. Sockets are not interchangeable as with a socket wrench.

The socket often rotates around the handle to allow the user to access a fastener from a

variety of angles. Commonly a Saltus wrench is part of a double-ended wrench, with an

open-end type head on the opposite side from the socket head.

 Box spanner: a tube with six-sided sockets on both ends. It is turned with a short length

of rod (tommy bar or T bar) inserted through two holes in the middle of the tube.

 Striking face box wrench: also referred to as a slogging/flogging spanner, slammer

wrench, slugger wrench or hammer wrench, this is a specialized thick, short, stocky

wrench with a block end to the handle specifically designed for use with a hammer, enabling

one to impart great force to release large nuts and bolts where the shock of the impact is

useful in breaking rust or paint; or to provide high clamping force when precise torque is not

critical, or space does not allow room for a torque wrench.

[edit]Other general wrenches / spanners

 Wrenches for screws and bolts with internal sockets are generally referred to in the UK

as keys, and include:

 Allen wrench, Hex key or Allen key: a (usually) L-shaped wrench fabricated

from hexagonal wire stock of various sizes, used to turn screw or bolt heads designed

with a hexagonal recess to receive the wrench.

 Bristol wrench or Bristol spline wrench: another wrench designed for internal

socket-head screws and bolts. The cross-section resembles a square-toothed gear. Not a

common design, it is chiefly used on small set screws.

 Torx wrench: an internal socket-head screw design. The cross-section resembles

a star. Commonly used in automobiles, automated equipment, and computer components

as it is resistant to wrench cam-out and so suitable for use in the types of powered tools

used in production-line assembly.

 Strap wrench or chain wrench: a self-tightening wrench with either a chain or strap of

metal, leather, or rubber attached to a handle, used to grip and turn smooth cylindrical objects

(such as automotive oil filters). It relies entirely on friction between the strap or chain and the

object to be manipulated. In bicycle repair circles it is known as a chain whip and is used

primarily to remove and install cassettes on rear hubs.

various sizes

 Alligator wrench: a formerly common type of wrench that was popular with mechanics,

factory workers, and farmers for maintenance, repair and operations tasks in the days when

fasteners often had square rather than hex heads. The wrench's shape suggests the open

mouth of an alligator.

[edit]Specialized wrenches / spanners

Double handled tap wrench

 Cone wrench: A special thin wrench required to adjust the bearing cones on a hub. Most

front hubs use a 13 mm, most rears use 15 mm.

 Spoke wrench or spoke key: a wrench with a clearance slot for a wire wheel spoke such

as a bicycle wheel and a drive head for the adjustment nipple nut.
 Tap wrench: a double-handled wrench for turning the square drive on taps used in

threading operations (cutting the female threads such as within a nut) or a precision reamer.

 Die wrench or die-stocks : A double-handled wrench for turning the dies used in

threading operations (cutting the male threads such as on a bolt).

 Drum wrench: also called "bung wrench." A tool commonly used to open bungs on

large 55-gallon drums.

 Lug wrench: a socket wrench used to turn lug nuts on automobile wheels. Commonly

known in the UK as a wheel brace.

 Plumber wrench: a tool to screw (rotate with force) various pipes during plumbing.

 Tuning wrench: a socket wrench used to tune some stringed musical instruments.

 Strap wrench: a rigid handle connected to a flexible, non-marring high friction strap.

The strap is looped around the item then affixed to the handle. Used on round and odd shaped

objects.

 Oil-filter wrench: a type of wrench for removing cylindrical oil filters. It may be either a

strap-type wrench or a socket.

 Sink wrench: a self-tightening wrench mounted at the end of a torque tube with a

transverse handle at the opposite end. Used to tighten tubing connections to washstand valves

in ceramic sinks—the nuts are often located deep in recesses. The self-tightening head may

be flipped over to loosen connections. Also known as a basin wrench.

 Podging wrench or Podger: A steel erecting tool which consists of a normal wrench at

one end and a spike at the other, used for lining up bolt holes (typically when mating two

pipe flanges). In the U.S. often called a spud wrench.

allows removal and insertion of spikes in shoes.

 Head nut wrench: a flat wrench with a circular hole and two inward protruding pins to

engage slots in the nut. This type of nut is used on bicycles to secure the front fork pivot

bearing to the headpiece of the frame.f

 Fire hydrant wrench (hose connection): The hose connection has a threaded collar with

a protruding pin. From the handle of the wrench an arc has at its end a loop to engage the pin.

 Fire hydrant wrench (valve operator): This is a pentagonal (five-sided) box wrench.

Avoiding a hex shape for the lug makes the valve tamper-resistant: with the opposite faces

nonparallel, unauthorized opening of the hydrant is less likely, because the would-be opener

lacks a suitable tool.

 Chain wrench: Similar to a pipe wrench

 , but uses a chain similar to a drive chain, instead of an adjustable jaw. The links of the

chain have extended pegs which fit into grooves in the front of the handle, with one end of

the chain attached permently to the handle. This is used in situations where pipe wrenches

can't maintain a proper grip on an object such as a wet or oily pipe. Larger versions of chain

wrenches are sometimes known as "bull tongs" and are used with large diameter pipe such as

is used deep wells.

 Power wrench: A broad type of wrenches that use electricity or compressed air to power

the wrench.

 Impact wrench: A compressed air (pneumatic) powered wrench commonly used

in car garages and workshops to tighten and remove wheel nuts.

sizes. This is sometimes used as an inexpensive substitute for a monkey wrench.

 Wing nut wrench: A tool specifically for use with wing nuts, allowing the application of

greater torque than is possible by hand. It is not generally advised to use such spanners as the

primary purpose of wing nuts is to prevent them from being tightened more than "hand

tight".[citation needed]

 Mole wrench: a form of self-locking pliers.

 Rigger-Jigger: A spanner used in attaching riggers to rowing boats with offset to allow

users fingers to keep grip when flush with boat. 10mm at one end, 13mm at the other.

 Tappet wrench: A spanner of small to moderate size constructed similarly to an open

ended wrench, but with a thinner cross section. Its purpose is to apply torque to the fasteners

found on the valve trains of older engines, especially automobile engines, where the valve

train required adjustment of the tappets (also known as lifters). Tappets, push rods, rocker

arms and similar adjustable pieces are often equipped with locknuts which are thinner than

standard nuts, due to space limitations. Frequently, the hex section of the adjustment is

contiguous to the lock nut, thus requiring a thinner "tappet wrench" to be used.

A hacksaw is a fine-tooth saw with a blade under tension in a frame, used for cutting materials

such as metal or bone. Hand-held hacksaws consist of a metal arch with a handle, usually a pistol

grip, with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism is used to

put the thin blade under tension. The blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away

from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. On the push stroke,

the arch will flex slightly, decreasing the tension on the blade.
A file is a metalworking and woodworking tool used to cut fine amounts of material from a

workpiece. It most commonly refers to the hand tool style, which takes the form of a hardened

steel bar with a series of sharp, parallel ridges, called teeth. Most files have a narrow,

pointed tang at one end to which a handle can be fitted.[1]

Types

Relative tooth sizes for smooth, 2nd cut and bastard files

Files come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, cuts, and tooth configurations. The cross-section of

a file can be flat, round, half-round, triangular, square, knife edge or of a more specialized shape.

There is no unitary international standard for file nomenclature; however, there are many

generally accepted names for certain kinds of files.

The cut of the file refers to how fine its teeth are. They are defined as, from roughest to

smoothest: rough, middle, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. A single-cut, or mill

file,[citation needed] has one set of parallel teeth, while a cross-cut, or double-cut,[citation needed] file has a

second set of cuts forming diamond teeth.[1] In Swiss-pattern files the teeth are cut at a shallower

angle, and are graded by number, with a number 1 file being coarser than a number 2, etc. Most
files have teeth on all faces, but some specialty flat files have teeth only on the face or only on

the edge, so that the user can come right up to another edge without damaging the finish on it.

Some of the common shapes and their uses:

 Hand files are parallel in width and tapered in thickness; they are used for general work.

 Joint round edge files are parallel in width and thickness, with rounded edges. The flats

are safe (no teeth) and cut on the rounded edges only. Used for making joints and hinges.

 Half round ring files taper in width and thickness, coming to a point, and are narrower

than a standard half round. Used for filing inside of rings.

 Barrette files are tapered in width and thickness, coming to a rounded point at the end.

Only the flat side is cut, and the other sides are all safe. For doing flat work.

 Checkering files are parallel in width and gently tapered in thickness. They have teeth

cut in a precise grid pattern, and are used for making serrations and doing checkering work,

as on gunstocks.

 Crossing files are half round on two sides with one side having a larger radius than the

other. Tapered in width and thickness. For filing interior curved surfaces. The double radius

makes possible filing at the junction of two curved surfaces or a straight and curved surface.

 Crochet files are tapered in width and gradually tapered in thickness, with two flats and

radiused edges, cut all around. Used in filing junctions between flat and curved surface, and

slots with rounded edges.

 Knife files are tapered in width and thickness, but the knife edge has the same thickness

the whole length, with the knife edge having an arc to it. Used for slotting or wedging

operations.
 Pippin files are tapered in width and thickness, generally of a teardrop cross section and

having the edge of a knife file. Used for filing the junction of two curved surfaces and

making V-shaped slots.

 Square files are gradually tapered and cut on all four sides. Used for a wide variety of

things.

 Triangle files, also called three square files, are gradually tapered and come to a point.

Used for many things, cutting angles less than 90 degrees, etc. It has been pointed out that

there's no such thing as a "three square". Triangle files are 60 degree angles, and "square" is

90 degrees. All this is true, but triangle files are often called the term simply as a matter of

slang.

 Round files, also called rat-tail files, are gradually tapered and are used for many tasks

that require a round tool, such as enlarging round holes or cutting a scalloped edge.

 Round parallel files are similar to round files, except that they do not taper. Shaped like

a toothed cylinder.

 Equalling files are parallel in width and thickness. Used for filing slots and corners.

 Slitting files are parallel in width with a diamond shaped cross section. Thinner than

knife files and use for filing slots.

 Nut files are fine, precise files in sets of graduated thickness, used by luthiers for

dressing the slots at the end of the neck which support the strings of guitars, violins etc., in

the correct position.

 Pillar files are parallel in width and tapered in thickness for perfectly flat filing. Double

cut top and bottom with both sides safe, these are long, narrow files for precision work.
 Warding files are parallel in thickness, tapered in width, and thin. Like a hand or flat file

that comes to a point on the end. Used for flat work and slotting.

 Dreadnought (curved teeth) and millenicut (straight teeth) files both have heavily

undercut, sharp but coarse teeth. Both can be used for rapidly removing large quantities of

material from thick aluminum alloy, copper or brass. Today, the millenicut and dreadnought

have found a new use in removing plastic filler materials such as two-part epoxies or styrenes

such as those commonly used in automobile body repairs.

 Farrier Rasp files are tanged horse rasps used mainly by horseshoers and blacksmiths.

They are flat with rasp cut on one side (upstanding teeth arrafnged in rows with curved

cutting edges of generally pyramidal shape and have a cutting face with a positive rake or

slope) and a double cut file on the reverse side.

[edit]Diamond files

A selection of diamond impregnated files

Instead of having teeth cut into the file's working surface, diamond files have small particles

of industrial diamonds embedded in their surface (or into a softer material that is bonded to the

underlying surface of the file). The use of diamonds in this manner allows the file to be used
effectively against extremely hard materials, such as stone, glass or very hard metals such as

hardened steel or carbide against which a standard steel file is ineffective.

[edit]Needle files

A selection of small needle files

The image to the left shows a selection of needle files in an assortment of cross sectional shapes.

Needle files are usually sold in sets of 6 or 12 (or more) different shapes, packaged in a soft

pouch, both for ease of handling and protection of the files' teeth. They are small files that are

used in applications where the surface finish takes priority over metal removal rates but they are

most suited for smaller work pieces.

They are often used as pictured, however, like all files, they are safest when used with a handle.

The handle is often designed around the collet principle which allows the files and handle to be

interchanged quickly.

[edit]Riffler files
A selection of riffler files

Riffler files are small to medium sized files in an assortment of cross sectional shapes and

profiles. The varying profiles and shapes enable them to be used in hard to reach, or unusually

shaped areas. They are often used as an intermediate step in die making where the surface finish

of a cavity die may need to be improved. - e.g.; plastic injection moulding or die casting.

[edit]Machine files

A selection of machine files

The files pictured on the left are designed for use in a filing machine.

A filing machine is similar in appearance to a scroll saw or bandsaw in that the file is mounted

vertically in the middle of a table. When in operation the file reciprocates vertically while the
workpiece is presented to the file's face and manipulated around the table/file as the shape

requires.

The cone point of the pictured, top two files allows the files to center themselves firmly in the

bottom file holder. The pictured, lower two files are required to be inserted into the bottom file

holder and physically restrained with set screws, an identical process as for the top holder.

Filing machines are useful tools as they reduce fatigue and improve product accuracy, and

although not usually seen in modern production environments, they may be found in older

toolrooms or diemaking shops as an aid in the manufacture of specialist tooling.

[edit]Use

Main article: Filing (metalworking)

Files have forward-facing cutting teeth, and cuts most effectively when pushed over the

workpiece. Draw filing involves laying the file sideways on the work, and carefully pushing or

pulling it across the work. This catches the teeth of the file sideways instead of head on, and a

very fine shaving action is produced. There are also varying strokes that produce a combination

of the straight ahead stroke and the drawfiling stroke, and very fine work can be attained in this

fashion. Using a combination of strokes, and progressively finer files, a skilled operator can

attain a surface that is perfectly flat and near mirror finish.

Pinning refers to the clogging of the file teeth with pins, which are material shavings. These pins

cause the file to lose its cutting ability and can scratch the workpiece. A file card, which is a

brush with metal bristles, is used to clean the file. (The name, "card", is the same as used for the

"raising cards" (spiked brushes) used in woolmaking.)[citation needed] Chalk can help prevent pinning.
[2]
Ball-peen hammer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Ball peen hammer)

A 15" (380 mm) ball-peen hammer.

A ball-peen (also spelled pein and pane[1]) hammer, also known as

an blacksmith's, engineer's or machinist's hammer, is a type ofpeening hammer used

in metalworking. It is distinguished from a point-peen hammer or chisel-peen hammer by having

a hemisphericalhead. Though the process of peening has become rarer in metal fabrication, the

ball-peen hammer remains useful for many tasks, such as striking punches and chisels.

Uses

The original function of the hammer was to peen riveted or welded material, which makes it as

flexible as the surrounding metal. Today, the ball end of the hammer is used to cutgaskets,
expand and shape the free end of copper roves, light rivets, and "set" rivets (which completes the

joint).

[edit]Variants

A. Ball-peen hammer B. Straight-peen hammer C. Cross-peen hammer

Variants include the straight-peen, diagonal-peen, and cross-peen hammer. These hammers have

a wedge-shaped head instead of a ball-shaped head. This wedge shape spreads the metal

perpendicular to the edge of the head. The straight-peen hammer has the wedge orientated

parallel to the hammer's handle, while the cross-peen hammer's wedge is orientated

perpendicular. The diagonal-peen hammer's head, as the name implies, is at a 45° angle from the

handle. They are commonly used by blacksmiths during the forging process to deliver blows to a

forging or strike other forging tools.

[edit]Head materials

Ball-peen hammers have two types of heads: hard-faced and soft-faced. The head of a hard-faced

hammer is made of heat treated forged high-carbon steel[2] or alloy steel;[3] it is harder than the

face of a claw hammer.[4] The soft-faced hammers are made from brass, lead, tightly

wound rawhide, or plastic. These hammers usually have replaceable heads or faces, because they
will deform, wear out, or break over time. They are used when there is the danger of damaging a

striking surface.[5]

They may be graded by the weight of the head.

Keep Your Hammer Healthy

In order to make your hammer last longer, and provide good use, some maintenance procedures

must be followed:

1. All hammers should always be cleaned before storage.

2. Use the right hammer for the job. Never use a hammer that isn’t designed for a specific

task. Injury could result.

3. Don't strike a hardened steel surface with a steel claw hammer. Metal chips can result in

injury to the user or to a bystander.

4. Never leave a wooden hammer in the sun which can cause it to crack and dry.

5. Never use a hammer with a loose or broken handle. If the handle is loose or cracked

replace it.

6. Never use a hammer with a chipped, cracked, or mushroomed face. It’s an accident

waiting to happen.

In a quality hammer, the head will almost always outlive the handle. If the handle of your

hammer does become damaged, loose or chipped, take the time to replace it.

Care of wrenches
Safety and CareLearn to use snips properly. They should always beoiled  and  adjusted  to

permit  ease  of  cutting  and  toproduce a surface that is free from burrs. If the bladesbind  or  if

they  are  too  far  apart,  the  snips  should  beadjusted. Remember the following safety

tips:Never  use  snips  as  screwdrivers,  hammers,  orpry bars. They break

easily.Do not attempt to cut heavier materials than thesnips are designed for. Never use tin 

snips to cuthardened  steel  wire  or  other  similar  objects.Such  use  will  dent  or  nick  the  cutt

ing  edges  ofthe

blades.Never toss snips in a toolbox where the cuttingedges  can  come  into  contact  with  

other  tools.This dulls the cutting edges and may even breakthe

blades.When snips are not in use, hang them on hooksor lay them on an uncrowded shelf or

bench.HACKSAWSHacksaws are used to cut metal that is too heavy forsnips or bolt cutters. Th

us, metal bar stock can be cutreadily with
hacksaws.There are two parts to a hacksaw: the frame and theblade. Common hacksaws have eit

her an adjustable or asolid  frame  (fig.  1-12).  Most  hacksaws  found  in  theNavy   are   of   the 

  adjustable-frame   type.   Adjustableframes can be made to hold blades from 8 to 16 incheslong, 

while those with solid frames take only the lengthblade  for  which  they  are  made.  This  length 

 is  thedistance  between  the  two  pins  that  hold  the  blade  inplace.Hacksaw blades are made 

of high-grade tool steel,hardened   and   tempered.   There   are   two   types,   theall-hard and the 

flexible. All-hard blades are hardenedthroughout,   whereas   only   the   teeth   of   the   flexibleb

lades    are    hardened.    Hacksaw    blades    are    about1/2-inch wide, have from 14 to 32 teeth 

per inch, andare from 8 to 16 inches long. The blades have a hole ateach  end,  which  hooks  to  

a  pin  in  the  frame.  Allhacksaw frames, which hold the blades either parallelor  at  right  angle

s  to  the  frame,  are  provided  with  awingnut or screw to permit tightening or removing theblad

e.The SET in a saw refers to how much the teeth arepushed out in opposite directions from the si

des of theblade.    The    four    different    kinds    of    set    are    theALTERNATEset,DOUBLE

ALTERNATEset,RAKER set, and WAVE set. Three of these are shownin figure 1-

13.The teeth in the alternate set are staggered, one tothe left and one to the right throughout the le

ngth of theblade. On the double alternate set blade, two adjoiningteeth are staggered to the right, 

two to the left, and soon.  On  the  raker  set  blade,  every  third  tooth  remainsstraight  and  the  

other  two  are  set  alternately.  On  thewave (undulated) set blade, short sections of teeth arebent

in opposite directions.Using

HacksawsThe hacksaw is often used improperly. Although itcan  be  used  with  limited  success 

 by  an  inexperiencedperson, a little thought and study given to its proper usewill result in faster 

and better work and in less dullingand breaking of
blades.Good work with a hacksaw depends not only uponthe  proper  use  of  the  saw  but  also  

upo.

n  the  proper1-11

C-clamp

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced

material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)

This article refers to the clamp used to hold together two workpieces. For clamps used to

secure stage lighting instruments to battens, see C-Clamp (stagecraft). For the Chicago

Indie Rock band, see C-Clamp

A C-clamp is a type of clamp device typically used to hold a wood or metal workpiece, and

are often used in, but are not limited to, carpentry and welding. These clamps are called "C"

clamps because of their C shaped frame, but are otherwise often called G-clamps or G-

cramps[1] because including the screw part they are shaped like an uppercase letter G.
Contents

 [hide]

1 Description

2 Usage

o 2.1 Woodwo

rking

3 References
[edit]Description

An open C-clamp
C-clamps are typically made of steel or cast iron, though smaller clamps may be made

of pot metal. At the top of the "C" is usually a small flat edge. At the bottom is a threaded

hole through which a large threaded screw protrudes. One end of this screw contains a flat

edge of similar size to the one at the top of the frame, and the other end usually a small

metal bar, perpendicular to the screw itself, which is used to gain leverage when tightening

the clamp. When the clamp is completely closed, the flat end of the screw is in contact with

the flat end on the frame. [2] When the clamp is actually used, it is very rare that this occurs.

Generally some other object or objects will be contained between the top and bottom flat

edges.

[edit]Usage

A C-clamp is used by turning the screw through the bottom of the frame until the desired

state is reached. In the case that the clamp is being tightened, this is when the objects being

secured are satisfactorily secured between the flat end of the screw and the flat end of the

frame. If the clamp is being loosened, this is when a sufficient amount of force has relieved

to allow the secured objects to be moved.

Two c-clamps in use

[edit]Woodworking
A C-Clamp can be a useful tool for woodworking but special care should be taken when

working with delicate woods. The flat edges of the frame, generally no larger than a quarter

(depending on the size of the clamp) can cause indentations and marring of the surfaces

being clamped. This can be avoided by using 2 pieces of scrap wood. Each piece of scrap

wood is directly in contact with the flat edges of the frame and with the items being

clamped. This will allow the scrap wood to receive the damage from the clamping, while

dispersing the clamping force across the piece of scrap wood into the clamped objects. Deep

throated clamps are also available and provide far greater reach for smaller jobs.