Analytical Research Paper

American Anti-War Movement during Vietnam and its Ultimate

Louis Ambrosio
Dr. Ansley
American History Since 1945
May 4, 2017
Introduction and Thesis

In the scope of United States history, the Vietnam war is usually referred to as an

event and period with outcomes being more negative than positive. This can be

attributed to the lasting effects and costs throughout the involvement in the war, and the

ultimate loss as far as the United States and their allies were concerned. The war had a

significant effect on American economy, political policy, and socio-cultural factors.

Much of the scrutiny came from the lack of transparency and stated policy on the war

combined with the rise of the involvement of media sources in conflicts. This came with

multiple anti-war protests, gatherings, and publications that ranged from peaceful to

ultra-violent. Although there is no denying the overall presence of these antiwar

movements, one may want to assess the overall effect of these efforts in relation to

accomplishing their goals and ending Americas involvement in the war.

This presents the question of Why were there many more anti-war feelings in

the 1960s and 70s compared to the first and second World Wars? In addition, there is a

second question as to if the movement was successful to the point that it aided in the

U.S. decision to ultimately withdraw from the war. This paper will lay out the

information surrounding the Vietnam war and make connections to the pressures and

feelings evoked within the US at the time, ultimately providing insight on these

questions.

Background

The Vietnam War, a conflict between North Vietnam and South Vietnam (Backed

by the United States) lasted from November 1955 to April 1975. The North operated

under Ho Chi Minhs communist regime, with support of Southern Viet Cong Guerillas.

1
Of the nine million United States soldiers involved with Vietnam, a high count of 58,220

were killed and hundreds of thousands were injured. Adverse effects on American

soldiers were over three times the amount of those experienced in World War II. 1 Up

until the 1973 U.S. exit of the war, ordered by former President Nixon, it created

exceptional backlash and disapproval back home. This phenomenon, dated by the

International Center for Nonviolent Conflict as lasting from 1964-1973, would go on to

be labeled The American Anti-Vietnam Movement.2 This affected millions of

Americans, with a focus on the younger generations. Social unrest extended through

entertainment, music, education, protests, artwork, news, and every other outlet. This

war also occurred on top of the rising tensions of the Cold War, and there was a general

sense that Americans preferred the progressive attention to be occurring within their

own country versus oversees. The worst part would also be that all of these efforts were

ultimately undermined by the Communist victory of North Vietnam and the event of the

first war in which the United States did not come out as a victor.

Media

This paper could not be attempted accurately without including the medias role

in the war, as a large reason for the available information on the topic to this day would

be the onset of media as it pertains to the coverage of worldwide events. Television only

became a common product at the end of World War II, and only 9% of households

claimed to have one in 1950. This figure rose tenfold by 1966, and in that same year 58%

1
"Vietnam War History - Vietnam War - History.Com". 2017. History.Com. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history.
2
Reinbold, David. 2016. "The US Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964-1973) | ICNC". ICNC. Accessed May 2
2017. https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/the-us-anti-vietnam-war-movement-1964-1973/.

2
of Americans relied on television sets for their primary source of news.3 Similar industry

advancementsenhanced video and audio capturing devicesthat would benefit

journalists were also developed, thus making the Vietnam War the first truly coverable

world affair. These developments came out with greater speed than censorship

regulations at the time, bringing many harsh and realistic photographs to the reach of

unprepared Americans. Contrary to popular assumption, this effect did not have the

same presence during World War II, as there were much tighter regulations that

censored highly sensitive media.4 Originally, the overthrow and assassination of Ngo

Diem in 1960 created a demand for Vietnam related press coverage. This started a trend

that ultimately brought the number of reporters in Vietnam to 420 by 1965 from just 40

the prior year.5 At this time, the war was followed from a patriotic point of view, which

soon changed as a result of the Tet Offensive in 1968. The manner in which this attack

was portrayed was dissimilar to the outcome; unfortunately, the media coverage led

viewers to believe that North Vietnamese forces had prevailed. This is an overlooked

error as a result of media, as showcasing the Viet Congs attacks overshadowed the

temporary US victory and created a more imminent fear of communist influence.

This turning point accounted for the trend to showcase the losses associated with

the war, including notorious images such as the executions of Vietcong and effects of

napalm strikes6 (see Figure 3)7. Not only did this create unfavorable feelings towards

3
Hallin, D. C. 1986. The Uncensored War: The Media and Vietnam. p.106. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war
4
Neuman, J. 2008. Lights, Camera, War: Is Media Technology Driving International Politics. St. Martins Press:
New York. p.67. Acessed May 2 2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war
5
Rohn, Alan. 2014. "Media Role in The Vietnam War - The Vietnam War". The Vietnam War. Accessed May 2
2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war/.
6
Media Coverage Turns Tet into a Defeat. Accessed May 2, 2017. http://www.historyandtheheadlines.abc-
clio.com/contentpages/ContentPage.aspx?entryId=1194551&currentSection=1194545&productid=10
7
Eddie Adams. 1969. Worldpressphoto.Org. Accessed May 2 2017.
https://www.worldpressphoto.org/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/1968001.jpg?itok=kHc_rNTS.

3
the war in general, but it unfortunately had the same result towards American soldiers.

This only continued throughout the My Lai Massacre of 1969, and added to the distrust

and bastardization of the soldiers. News sources also had their share of influence, most

prominently the New York Times issuance of the Pentagon Papers.8 The medias

influence over the Vietnam War set the foundation for the negative biases and attitudes

of American people throughout the anti-war movement. This still continues to this day,

one would hope to a lesser degree, as viewers did not have the experience to understand

the concept of bad media. The unfamiliar nature of these technologies were likely the

cause and reason behind the Vietnam conflict being coined the first television war.9

Economic/Political

On average, the Vietnam war set back the United States 25 Million dollars per

year, which was bore by the taxpayers who were fortunate enough to not be directly

involved in the draft. Overall, the war amassed an expense of 170 billion dollars and

conflicted with the massive issues involving the poverty of Americas citizens. Heavy

inflation occurred at this time, as Lyndon B. Johnson attempted to fund his Great

Society programs in tandem, with the Vietnam expenses. This lead to the increase of

income taxes in order to bring the economy back to its previous state. Instead of

focusing on internal improvements, the spending oversees ended up becoming a

priority. The changing approval of the government was also an important result of this

time since the integrity of political leaders was no longer assumed by the people.

Harvard Sitkoff describes this sensation as skepticism, if not cynicism, and a high

8
Rohn, Alan. 2014. "Media Role in The Vietnam War - The Vietnam War". The Vietnam War. Accessed May 2
2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war/.
9
"The Vietnam War and The Media | Vietnam War". 2017. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 2 2017.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Vietnam-War-and-the-media-2051426

4
degree of suspicion and distrust toward authorityfrom Americans in the wake of the

war.10

Socio-Cultural

Most anti-war efforts were seen through instances of social unrest. Intellectuals

and free spirits alike were outspoken against any American involvement in the war. A

focus for this paper would be the U.S. draft for soldiers, which at times called upon

40,000 eligible men, from 18 and older, to participate in the fight against the spread of

communism. Until 1971, it was possible to be drafted into the war while not being able

to legally cast a vote or use alcohol.11

One interesting account from Dallas resident Michael Smith effectively shows the

repercussions of resisting the draft. Upon receiving his draft summons, he tore it into

pieces and resent it back to the draft board. In an attempt to decriminalize their son, his

concerned parents had his draft card altered to the state of 4F, denoting that he was

physically or mentally unfit to serve. Michael responded by also tearing this card into

pieces and resending it to the draft council. He commented that this was done not to

appear as if he was dodging the draft, but to show that he was resisting instead. The

outcome of this was an immediate summons to report for a physical and induction,

where he did not show up. This landed him a four-year sentence in federal prison for

failing to report in which he could not avoid.12 This story shows how prone the draft was

to create negative feelings and attitudes. Even fighter Muhammed Ali was unable to

10
Harvard Sitkoff. "The Postwar Impact of Vietnam". 2017. English.Illinois.Edu. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/postwar.htm.
11
Ibid
12
"Opposition to The Vietnam War In The United States". 2017. YouTube. Accessed May 2 2017.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVNUlOUlMeo.

5
avoid the draft, as he publicly announced his noncompliance and earned a three-year

ban from boxing and almost jail time.13

Those who protested the draft even resorted to violence in their procedures, one

of the more prominent being the Kent State riot in 1970, where four students were killed

by peacekeeping officials.14

Finding a Correlation

Through multiple research sources, there has been a repeating trend to look

favorably upon the ability of these efforts to stunt and even halt the war in Vietnam. It is

important to look at both sides of the issue and try to get a majority sense of the feelings

surrounding American involvement in addition to acknowledging the protests and their

assumed effects. A 1995 New York Times publication points out the idea that most

Americans were rather in favor of the Governments policy within South Vietnam at the

time.15 This is contrary to the themes and beliefs stated in most articles and pieces of the

time, yet it is interesting, especially from the point of view of someone who was not

living during the era. The article points out the election of 1972 can be used to gauge the

feelings of the American people during the period, as each candidate had differing views

on overseas involvement.

Looking deeper into this point, Richard Nixons Democratic adversary was

former war hero and peace advocate, George McGovern. The basis of his campaign

involved immediately ending ties with the Vietnamese War and enacting pardon laws

for those who resisted the draft. He suggested decreases in military expenses as well as

13
Protests, Sound. 2017. "Vietnam War Protests - Vietnam War - History.Com". HISTORY.Com. Accessed May 2
2017. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-protests.
14
Ibid
15
Jason Maoz."Did Protesters Really Stop the Vietnam War?". 2017. Nytimes.Com. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.nytimes.com/1995/06/02/opinion/l-did-protesters-really-stop-the-vietnam-war-004278.html.

6
increasing financial aid for citizens. There are even accounts of McGovern informing the

public of the corruption and criminal activity going on in the White House.16 This being

true, one be inclined to assume that the election would have been relatively close, even

assuming that McGovern would come out on top; however, the results signaled

otherwise. Nixon won the election with 520 electoral votes and almost 47 million

popular votes compared to McGoverns 17 electoral and 29 million popular votes. 17

Though there were plenty of other factors at hand, these results do not indicate an

overpowering consensus against involvement in Vietnam. Attempting to confirm these

results, a three decade recurring survey beginning in 1965 gathered opinions. For 1965,

it found that 24% of Americans believed that entering the war was a mistake compared

to the 61% that did not, and the 15% who were indifferent. The findings were closest to

50-50 in 1967, and almost completely inverted from the original statistics by 1971 (60%

against, 29% for, 11% indifferent).18 Referring back to the NY Times article, the

journalist suggested that at the most, the anti-war movement halted policy from being

made and forced those in command to refine their motives for being involved in

Vietnam.19 This varies from the commonly perceived effects of the protests at the time,

and offers another side to the story.

Perhaps the most in depth analysis on the subject was done by Professor

Douglass McAdam of Stanford University. He conducted a times series analysis using

16
Johnson, Dave. 2016. "What Do You Mean Sanders Might Be Another George McGovern?". Campaign For
America's Future. Accessed May 2 2017. https://ourfuture.org/20160129/sanders-might-be-another-george-
mcgovern-what-does-that-mean.
17
"United States Presidential Election Of 1972 | United States Government". 2017. Encyclopedia Britannica.
Accessed May 2 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1972.
18
Gallup, Inc. 2000. "Americans Look Back At Vietnam War". Gallup.Com. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.gallup.com/poll/2299/americans-look-back-vietnam-war.aspx.
19
Jason Maoz."Did Protesters Really Stop the Vietnam War?". 2017. Nytimes.Com. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.nytimes.com/1995/06/02/opinion/l-did-protesters-really-stop-the-vietnam-war-004278.html.

7
the frequencies of protest related occurrences and cross referenced them with the

number of congressional roll call votes (See Figures 2 and 3 for details). There were no

conclusive findings in this study besides unrelated trends that reaffirm the conclusion

that the protests only affected the pace at which policies were drawn, rather than the

outcome of the decisions. A notable takeaway from the study showed that peaceful

events of protests decreased pro-peace policy enactment, and the violent events did just

the opposite.20

Conclusion

There might not be a direct correlation with the multitude of anti-war efforts

throughout the movement with the end of the war, but this does not need to be seen as a

failure. The American anti-war movement was one of the most substantial collaborative

efforts against any event in history. This was perpetuated through the relatively new use

of media being able to cover all decisions made throughout the conflict in addition to

showing its negative effects in more detail than ever. Biases were a significant factor for

this period, especially when attempting to preserve the true feelings about the subject in

history. There are thousands of detailed accounts of protests as well as opinions

surrounding every tick on the timeline throughout the 1960s and 70s involving the war.

In contrast with the engagements in Vietnam, the previous statement can be seen as a

victory, for it set the stage for total media coverage of important news events in addition

to the stressing the importance of remaining properly informed at all times. If anything,

these efforts have led the United States to be much more hesitant to use military forces,

20
Doug McAdam. "The War At Home: Antiwar Protests And Congressional Voting, 1965 To 1973 On JSTOR ".
2017. Jstor.Org. Accessed May 2 2017. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3088914?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

8
especially when the overall outcome will be cost effective and congruent with public

opinions. In the end, it does appear that Vietnam opinions were not as black and white

as they would seem at a preliminary glance. Perhaps the silent majority that President

Nixon mentioned was present and much larger than it would seem, as studies have only

shown that the movement was effective in areas other than ending the war for the

United States.

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 Appendix
Figure 1

10
Figure 2

11
Figure 3

12
 Bibliography

Doug McAdam. "The War At Home: Antiwar Protests And Congressional Voting, 1965 To 1973
On JSTOR ". 2017. Jstor.Org. Accessed May 2 2017.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3088914?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

Eddie Adams. 1969. Worldpressphoto.Org. Accessed May 2 2017.

Gallup, Inc. 2000. "Americans Look Back At Vietnam War". Gallup.Com. Accessed May 2
2017. http://www.gallup.com/poll/2299/americans-look-back-vietnam-war.aspx.

Hallin, D. C. 1986. The Uncensored War: The Media and Vietnam. p.106. Accessed May 2
2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war

Harvard Sitkoff. "The Postwar Impact of Vietnam". 2017. English.Illinois.Edu. Accessed May 2
2017. http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/postwar.htm.

Jason Maoz."Did Protesters Really Stop the Vietnam War?". 2017. Nytimes.Com. Accessed May
2 2017. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/06/02/opinion/l-did-protesters-really-stop-the-vietnam-
war-004278.html.

Johnson, Dave. 2016. "What Do You Mean Sanders Might Be Another George
McGovern?". Campaign For America's Future. Accessed May 2 2017.
https://ourfuture.org/20160129/sanders-might-be-another-george-mcgovern-what-does-that-
mean.

Media Coverage Turns Tet into a Defeat. Accessed May 2, 2017.

Neuman, J. 2008. Lights, Camera, War: Is Media Technology Driving International Politics. St.
Martins Press: New York. p.67. Acessed May 2 2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-
vietnam-war

"Opposition to The Vietnam War In The United States". 2017. YouTube. Accessed May 2 2017.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVNUlOUlMeo.

Protests, Sound. 2017. "Vietnam War Protests - Vietnam War - History.Com". HISTORY.Com.
Accessed May 2 2017. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-protests.

Rohn, Alan. 2014. "Media Role in The Vietnam War - The Vietnam War". The Vietnam War.
Accessed May 2 2017. http://thevietnamwar.info/media-role-vietnam-war/.]

13
Reinbold, David. 2016. "The US Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1964-1973) | ICNC". ICNC.
Accessed May 2 2017. https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/the-us-anti-vietnam-war-movement-
1964-1973/.

"The Vietnam War and The Media | Vietnam War". 2017. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed
May 2 2017. https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Vietnam-War-and-the-media-2051426

"United States Presidential Election Of 1972 | United States Government". 2017. Encyclopedia
Britannica. Accessed May 2 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-
election-of-1972.

"Vietnam War History - Vietnam War - History.Com". 2017. History.Com. Accessed May 2
2017. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history.

14