540018

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POM0010.1177/0305735614540018Psychology of MusicNicholson et al.

Article

Psychology of Music

Anxiety in musicians:
2015, Vol. 43(3) 438449
The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0305735614540018
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D. Riley Nicholson, Meghan W. Cody

and J. Gayle Beck

Abstract
Music performance anxiety (MPA) is a prevalent problem for musicians. MPA has been conceptualized
as a type of social anxiety and also as a discrete focal anxiety with normal functioning outside of
specific music performance situations. In an effort to examine unique and overlapping components
of MPA and social anxiety, 130 professional musicians were assessed concerning self-reported MPA
in three different musical performance settings (solo, group, and practice) using the Performance
Anxiety Questionnaire and also completed measures of general social anxiety. Results showed that
the expression of MPA varies by performance setting, with the most anxiety reported during solo
performances. Regression models demonstrated that general measures of social anxiety increasingly
predicted MPA from practice, to group, to solo settings, with fear of negative evaluation uniquely
predicting anxiety in all three contexts. These results highlight fear of negative evaluation as a core
component of MPA. Based on these findings, the relationship between MPA in various performance
contexts and social evaluative anxiety is discussed.

Keywords
fear of negative evaluation, music performance anxiety, musicians, social anxiety, stage fright

Music performance anxiety (MPA), commonly known as stage fright, can create effects ranging
from slight impairment to levels that can qualify for a diagnosis of social anxiety disorder (SAD;
American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The anxiety may be highly circumscribed to musical
performances, or it may occur as part of SAD, in which musical performance is only one of
many anxiety-provoking social situations (Kenny, 2011). In a Dutch study, 59% of musicians
reported some level of anxiety that interfered with their performance, and 21% reported anxi-
ety at severe levels (van Kemenade, van Son, & van Heesch, 1995). MPA appears to be inde-
pendent of musical training and accomplishment (Kenny, 2011). The current study was
designed to examine musicians MPA in three different performance settings (solo, group, and

University of Memphis, USA

Corresponding author:
J. Gayle Beck, Department of Psychology, University of Memphis, 202 Psychology Building, Memphis,
TN 38152, USA.
Email: [email protected]
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Nicholson et al. 439

practice) to provide descriptive data about the influence of setting. Additionally, we examined
the association of four measures of social anxiety with MPA in each setting, to determine
whether different performance settings activate different aspects of social-evaluative anxiety in
musicians.

Music performance anxiety and social anxiety

Currently, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, severe MPA
may be diagnosed as SAD (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). SAD is an anxiety
disorder manifested by excessive fear and avoidance of one or more situations involving possi-
ble scrutiny by others and fears of embarrassment and humiliation. SAD fears involve three
main contexts: formal performance (e.g., speaking in public or musical performance), social
interaction (e.g., conversing with people at a social event), and being observed while perform-
ing routine activities (e.g., writing a check with others present; Bgels et al., 2010). When the
fear is restricted to speaking or performing in public, as in MPA, the specifier performance only
may be added to a SAD diagnosis. Fear of negative evaluation is a core concern of individuals
with SAD across situations (Weeks et al., 2005). For example, a person may fear being evalu-
ated as awkward while at a party, or a speaker may fear being evaluated by the audience as
stupid. Similarly, people with MPA may fear negative evaluation specifically during music
performance.
In an early study connecting MPA and SAD, Steptoe and Fidler (1987) noted a significant
positive correlation between MPA and a fear of crowds and social situations. However, MPA
may differ significantly from more generalized forms of SAD. For example, when compared to
their counterparts with other forms of SAD, individuals with MPA are less likely to recognize
their fear as excessive or irrational (McGinnis & Milling, 2005). Unlike situations in which the
fears of negative evaluation are inflated (e.g., urinating in a public restroom), a negative evalu-
ation of a musical performance may be realistic, depending on the context. Music performance
ranges from highly exposed solo performances to large group ensemble performances, to prac-
tice situations in which the musician is playing alone. These highly varying settings should be
considered in the expression of MPA, as one musician may experience it only when performing
professionally in front of a large audience, but another may be incapacitated by anxiety even
when practicing in the presence of a single listener. The former example would represent MPA
that has relatively small overlap with generalized SAD; the latter example would represent sig-
nificant overlap between the two disorders.
To examine MPA in these various contexts, Cox and Kenardy (1993) investigated social anxi-
ety, measured by the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI; Turner, Beidel, Dancu, &
Stanley, 1989) and its relationship to MPA in three different settings (solo performance, group
performance, and practice). The SPAI measures cognitive (e.g., negative thoughts about how
one appears to others), somatic (e.g., blushing), and behavioral (e.g., avoidance of eye contact)
dimensions of anxiety during social encounters. Social anxiety as measured by the SPAI was
only significantly associated with MPA in the solo musical performance setting and did not have
a significant relationship with MPA in group or practice settings. Cox and Kenardys report
highlights the importance of setting when examining MPA, suggesting that social fears are
particularly activated and problematic when the performer is the sole object of scrutiny.
Osborne and Franklin (2002) also examined MPA and its relation to SAD using Rapee and
Heimbergs (1997) cognitive model of SAD as their conceptual framework. This model empha-
sizes the role of cognitive processes, including attention to social-evaluative cues, perception of
the likelihood of negative evaluation from others, and interpretation of symptoms of anxiety.
Osborne and Franklin (2002) assessed presumed audience appraisal, perception of audience
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440 Psychology of Music 43(3)

standards, estimated likelihood of a negative evaluation, and perceived importance of the con-
sequence of a negative evaluation. In this study, musicians ratings of the likelihood of a nega-
tive evaluation during a performance and the perceived importance of a negative evaluation
were the only significant predictors of MPA. Importantly, fear of negative evaluation, assessed
with the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (BFNE; Leary, 1983) was significantly corre-
lated with but not uniquely predictive of MPA (Osborne & Franklin, 2002). These results sug-
gest the importance of delineating specific features of social anxiety in order to understand the
relationship between SAD and MPA.
Considering the available research, it is notable that at least some individuals with MPA do
not exhibit anxiety in other social situations (Cox & Kenardy, 1993). Kenny (2011) attempted
to characterize the relationship between social anxiety and MPA by proposing three different
types of MPA. First, MPA could present as a focal, highly circumscribed problem in which musi-
cians have severe anxiety in certain musical performance situations, such as solo or audition
settings, but function normally outside of these situations. Second, MPA could be an expression
of generalized SAD in which musicians have significant and distressing social anxiety off stage,
as well as on stage (see Clark & Agras, 1991; Osborne & Kenny 2005). The third type of MPA is
a disorder of the self with performance anxiety resulting from a conditional sense of self-
worth that developed in childhood (Kenny, 2011, p. 260). This form of MPA is especially likely
to be accompanied by depression, panic attacks, and distressing somatic responses. Although
validation of the three types of MPA is outside the scope of this study, this theory suggests that
MPA, like social anxiety more broadly, may be a multifaceted construct that warrants investiga-
tion in different performance settings.

Overview of the current study

The current study was designed to expand available research on the relationship between MPA
and social anxiety. First, the influence of setting was selected for study because different forms
of MPA (e.g., Kenny, 2011) may be expressed in different performance settings. For example,
someone with focal MPA may be anxious only in formal solo performance settings, whereas
someone with MPA in the context of generalized SAD is likely to be anxious in all three settings.
A musician whose anxiety is tied to poor self-evaluation, as in Kennys third type of MPA, may
even experience distress performing or practicing alone (Cox & Kenardy, 1993). Next, specific
features of social anxiety were selected for study, due to the SADs multifaceted nature (Bgels
et al., 2010). SAD includes both social performance anxiety, which is fear of being scrutinized
while performing certain activities, and social interaction anxiety, which is distress about inter-
acting in social situations (Mattick & Clarke, 1998). Fear of negative evaluation is a core con-
cern in SAD regardless of social context (Weeks et al., 2005). Finally, certain anxious cognitions
are typical in performance situations; for example, someone making a speech may think, What
I say will probably sound stupid (Hofmann & DiBartolo, 2000). In the current study, four facets
of social anxiety identified as related but distinct constructs that characterize SAD (Bgels
et al., 2010; Weeks et al., 2005) were selected for examination: 1) social performance anxiety,
2) social interaction anxiety, 3) fear of negative evaluation, and 4) cognitions while in a com-
mon, non-musical performance situation (public speaking).

Hypotheses
Two primary hypotheses were examined. First, we hypothesized that performance settings dif-
fer in the level of MPA associated with them. Musicians report highest levels of music perfor-
mance anxiety in relation to solo performance, less in relation to group performance, and least
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Nicholson et al. 441

in relation to practice. This hypothesis was based on the findings of Cox and Kenardy (1993),
who theorized that, compared to group performance and practice settings, MPA in the solo set-
ting is the highest because the threat of the musician being the sole object of negative social
evaluation is highest in this context. Second, we hypothesized that different facets of social
anxiety predict MPA in different performance settings. Social interaction anxiety and social
performance anxiety predict MPA in solo, but not group or practice, settings. This hypothesis
was based on the finding that social anxiety as measured by the SPAI was only predictive of
MPA in solo performance settings (Cox & Kenardy, 1993). Due to contradictory past research
on fear of negative evaluation and MPA (e.g., Osborne and Franklin, 2002), no specific hypoth-
esis was made for this variable. Finally, because no research has been conducted on cognitions
related to other performance domains and MPA, no specific hypothesis was made for cognitions
while engaged in public speaking.

Method
Participants
A sample of N = 130 professional musicians (64 female, 66 male) completed a series of self-
report measures on Survey Monkey. Various types of instrumentalists and vocalists partici-
pated (see Table 1). In this study, we defined professional musicians by the following two
qualification questions: Is music performance involved in your current career, or the career
that you are working towards or studying for? and Do you perform in at least 4 or more perfor-
mances per year (i.e., public orchestra performances, recitals, or non-classical gigs) not includ-
ing classroom work/performances (i.e., required juries, classroom performances or
examinations)? If participants responded no to either question, they were automatically
excluded.
The survey was accessed by a specific web link that was distributed by invitation. Potential
participants were recruited by virtue of their association with a specific music organization,
employer, school, or music website.1 Also, participants were asked to recommend the study to
other performance musicians by forwarding the survey link to other potential participants.

Table 1. Sample demographics.

Principal instrument n %
Piano 18 13.8
Strings 46 35.3
Percussion 10 7.7
Brass 16 12.3
Woodwinds 18 13.8
Vocalist 10 7.7
Harmonica 6 4.6
Other 6 4.6
Medications use for MPA 27 20.8
Mean SD
Number of performances per year 53.1 56.1
Age (years) 34.9 12.6
Years of study on primary instrument 19.8 10.7

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442 Psychology of Music 43(3)

This second strategy is known as snowball sampling, a form of chain sampling where study
participants recruit additional participants from among their acquaintances (Rubin & Babbie,
2010).

Measures
Music performance anxiety measures. To measure music performance anxiety, the Performance
Anxiety Questionnaire (PAQ) was administered, which contains 20 statements: 10 describing
cognitions and emotions, and 10 describing somatic complaints during musical performances
(Cox & Kenardy, 1993). The PAQ is a measure of how frequently the participant experiences
these symptoms in three performance settings: practice, group public performances, and solo
public performances. For example, the PAQ has statements including I have sweaty palms,
and I feel in control of the situation. For each performance setting, participants respond to
how often they experience these statements on a five-point scale, ranging from one (never) to
five (always). Because psychometric data for the PAQ have not been previously published, basic
measurement properties were explored by comparing it to the Performance Anxiety Inventory
(PAI; Nagel, Himle, & Papsdorf, 1981), a 20-item measure of anxiety symptoms experienced
by musicians in recital situations that has been extensively used in studies of MPA. Internal
consistency of the total score ( = 0.84), and of each subscale (practice = 0.87, group =
0.91, solo = 0.91) was acceptable. The PAQ total score correlated highly with the PAI (r =
0.75, p < .01).

Social anxiety measures. Four measures, each assessing a specific facet of social anxiety, were
administered.

Cognitions during public speaking. To explore the relationship between MPA and performance anx-
iety in non-musical settings where critical evaluation from others is also realistically likely, typi-
cal cognitions during public speaking were measured. The Self-Statements during Public
Speaking Scale (SSPS) was administered, which is a 10-item self-report questionnaire that
assesses fearful thoughts that typically arise during public speaking (Hofmann & DiBartolo,
2000). It consists of two five-item subscales: positive self-statements (e.g., I can handle every-
thing) and negative self-statements (e.g., A failure in this situation would be more proof of my
incapacity). The respondent is asked to rate the degree to which he or she agrees with each
item on a six-point scale ranging from zero (you do not agree at all) to five (you agree extremely
with the statement). The two SSPS subscales have been found to have both good convergent and
discriminant validity (Hofmann & DiBartolo, 2000). The positive and negative SSPS subscales
are highly correlated (r = .58 and r = .67, respectively) with the Personal Report of Confi-
dence as a Speaker Questionnaire (PRCQ; Paul, 1966), another measure which also addresses
public speaking anxiety. Additionally, the SSPS subscales show an expected moderate correla-
tion with other measures of SAD, such as the Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (FNE; Watson &
Friend, 1969) and the SPAI (Hofmann & DiBartolo, 2000). In the current study, internal con-
sistency of both the positive and negative cognitions subscales was satisfactory, = .83 and
= .88, respectively.

Social anxiety. The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) and Social Phobia Scale (SPS) are
companion scales designed to measure two core components of social anxiety (Mattick &
Clarke, 1998). The SIAS consists of 20 items that assess cognitive, affective, and behavioral
reactions to social interaction situations. Sample items for the SIAS include I become tense if I

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Nicholson et al. 443

have to talk about myself or my feelings, and when mixing socially, I am uncomfortable. As
well, the SPS contains 20 items that assess cognitive, affective, and behavioral reactions to situ-
ations involving being observed by others while engaged in activities such as eating or writing.
Sample items for the SPS include I become anxious if I have to write in front of other people,
and I fear I may blush when I am with others. Items on both measures are rated on a five-point
scale ranging from 0 (not at all characteristic or true of me) to 4 (extremely characteristic or true of
me). The SIAS and the SPS were used in combination in this study, as social interaction anxiety
and social performance anxiety comprise two main domains that are feared by individuals with
SAD (Antony, Orsillo, & Roemer, 2001). Both scales have been shown to possess highly satisfac-
tory levels of internal consistency and testretest reliability (Mattick & Clarke, 1998). Also,
they both have expected correlations with other measures assessing SAD and have been shown
to be able to discriminate between SAD, agoraphobia, and specific phobia samples, and between
SAD and nonclinical samples (Mattick & Clarke, 1998). The SPS and SIAS are highly intercor-
related (r = .72), yet they seem to measure different constructs. Brown and colleagues (1997)
found that the number of social interaction situations rated in a structured interview as at least
moderately feared correlated more strongly with the SIAS, whereas the number of social per-
formance situations rated as moderately or highly feared correlated more strongly with the
SPS. In the current study, internal consistency of the SIAS and the SPS were = .95 and =
.90, respectively.

Fear of negative evaluation. The Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation (BFNE) scale was used to assess
fear of negative evaluation, a core feature of SAD (Watson & Friend, 1969). It is a brief, 12-item
version of the original 30-item Fear of Negative Evaluation scale which assesses the fear of the
loss of social approval (Watson & Friend, 1969). Sample items include I am frequently afraid of
other people noticing my shortcomings, and I am afraid that people will find fault with me.
The BFNE uses a five-point Likert-type rating scale, ranging from one (not characteristic of me) to
five (extremely characteristic of me) to assess the degree to which the respondent experiences
apprehension at the prospect of being evaluated negatively. The BFNE has highly satisfactory
inter-item reliability ( = .97) and a high two week testretest reliability (r = .94; Collins,
Westra, Dozois, & Stewart, 2005). Also, discriminate function analysis supported the validity
of the BFNE (Collins et al., 2005). In the current study, the BFNE had good internal consistency
( = .92).

Analyses
In order to examine the influence of setting on MPA, a single-factor, repeated-measures ANOVA
was used with the PAQ subscales as the dependent variable to test the hypothesis that musicians
experience significantly different levels of MPA in different performance settings (solo, group,
and practice). Post-hoc analyses tested the specific hypothesis that solo music performance set-
tings are the most anxiety provoking, relative to group and practice settings. Cohens d was
calculated as an indicator of effect size and is interpreted as small, d = 0.2; medium, d = 0.5;
and large, d = 0.8 (Cohen, 1988).
In order to explore the association of specific features of social anxiety with MPA, three
regression analyses were conducted. Specifically, the SIAS, the SPS, the SSPS, and the BFNE
were entered as predictors of MPA in specific settings (solo, group, and practice settings, respec-
tively). It was predicted that social anxiety as measured by the SIAS and SPS would predict MPA
in solo settings. Because of the lack of research on cognitions during public speaking and fear
of negative evaluation in relation to MPA, no specific predictions were made for the SSPS and
the BFNE.
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444 Psychology of Music 43(3)

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the performance anxiety questionnaire.

Setting M SD
Practice 38.40 9.78 .87
Group 46.53 12.12 .91
Solo 56.81 14.22 .91

Note. indicates Cronbachs alpha coefficient

Results
MPA across performance settings
The repeated measures ANOVA showed that setting had a significant main effect on perfor-
mance anxiety, F(2, 258) = 200.64, p < .001, p2 = .69. Follow-up tests revealed that musi-
cians experienced different levels of MPA which increase significantly from practice to group,
t(129) = 10.32, p < .001, d = 0.90; and from group to solo settings, t(129) = 11.77, p < .001,
d = 1.03 (see Table 2).

Relationship between social anxiety variables and MPA

Regression analyses were used to examine the association of specific facets of social anxiety
and MPA. In the analysis examining the practice setting, a significant model was noted, F(5,
102) = 5.6, p < .001; significant predictors included the BFNE and the SPS. In the analysis
examining the group setting, a significant model was also found, F(5, 102) 11.11, p < .001,
and again the BFNE and the SPS were significant predictors. Lastly, in the analysis examining
the solo setting, a significant model was found, F(5, 102) = 12.44, p < .001, with the positive
subscale of the SSPS (inversely) and the BFNE emerging as significant predictors. In each set-
ting, social anxiety significantly predicted MPA with increasing R2 values (see Table 3).

Discussion
Music performance anxiety is a prevalent and distressing problem among professional musi-
cians. The current study was designed to assess whether MPA differs across performance set-
tings, and whether aspects of the broader construct of social anxiety uniquely predict MPA in
those settings. The results support the hypothesis that performance musicians experience
different levels of anxiety in different music performance situations, increasing from prac-
tice, to group, to solo settings, consistent with previous research highlighting the importance
of the musician being the focus of social evaluation in the solo context (Cox & Kenardy,
1993). Findings also provide partial support for the hypothesis that measures of social anxi-
ety predict MPA in different performance settings. Specifically, the overall regression model,
using five measures of social anxiety as independent variables, was significant for solo set-
tings (consistent with Cox & Kenardy, 1993). However, contrary to hypotheses, social inter-
action anxiety and social performance anxiety were not significant as individual predictors.
Rather, unique predictors in solo settings included the fear of negative evaluation and posi-
tive self-statements during public speaking (inversely). Contrary to hypotheses and to the
findings of Cox and Kenardy, significant regression models were also found for practice and
group performance settings. In those settings, the fear of negative evaluation and social
performance anxiety contributed significantly to the variance in MPA. Fear of negative

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Nicholson et al. 445

Table 3. Multiple regression analyses predicting music performance anxiety.

PAQ practice PAQ group PAQ solo

t t t
Predictor
Positive Self Statements during Public .11 1.01 .08 .83 .21* 2.24
Speaking (SSPS positive)
Negative Self Statements during Public .14 1.08 .13 1.11 .05 .41
Speaking (SSPS negative)
Social Interaction Anxiety (SIAS) .20 1.43 .07 .53 .11 .88
Social Performance Anxiety (SPS) .38** 3.02 .43*** 3.71 .20 1.73
Fear of Negative Evaluation (BFNE) .30* 2.45 .33** 2.95 .46*** 4.22
Total R2 .22 .35 .38

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

evaluation, a central component of social anxiety (Weeks et al., 2005), was a constant
unique predictor of MPA across performance settings and thus appears to be a salient link
between MPA and generalized SAD.

Performance setting
Adding to work by Cox and Kenardy (1993), these results emphasize that the nature and
degree of MPA varies by performance setting and increases from practice to group to solo
performance. Thus, performance settings should be conceptualized as a prominent factor in
MPA. Although anxiety in the practice setting was the lowest of the three settings that were
examined, it is notable that some level of anxiety during practice was reported by the profes-
sional musicians in this study. Because the PAQ does not specify whether respondents should
imagine practicing alone, in a group, or with a small audience (e.g., with an instructor),
results using the practice subscale are difficult to interpret. It is possible that musicians are
envisioning an audience or ruminating about a future performance or upcoming music-
related evaluation, even during practices where no one else is present, a pattern consistent
with the third type of MPA described by Kenny (2011). In other practice settings, sometimes
other individuals are present (e.g., rehearsals), and evaluative concerns could be activated
even if the situation is not an official performance. In these and in group performance set-
tings, socially anxious individuals who fear possible scrutiny while conducting routine activi-
ties (the observation anxiety characteristic of SAD; Bgels et al., 2010) would be expected to
experience greater MPA. Our finding that social performance anxiety (as measured by the
SPS) predicted MPA in practice and group settings is consistent with Kennys second type of
MPA, which is an expression of generalized SAD. In solo settings, the experienced anxiety was
reported to be the most intense, as the performer is often under extreme performance pres-
sure (e.g., a recital or a difficult concerto). In this context, the likelihood of evaluation, posi-
tive or negative, is highly probable, and the high level of experienced anxiety matches these
high stakes. Because a different pattern was evident in the predictors of MPA in solo settings,
relative to group and practice, we speculate that MPA in this context is most similar to the
focal anxiety Kenny described, which overlaps with Bgels and colleagues characterization
of SAD in formal performance situations.

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446 Psychology of Music 43(3)

Fear of negative evaluation

Despite the differences between settings, the fear of negative evaluation emerged as a signifi-
cant component of music performance anxiety in all three performance settings. Cognitive
models highlight the importance of fear of negative evaluation in the development and main-
tenance of SAD (Rapee & Heimberg, 1997; Weeks et al., 2005). The current findings suggest
that fear of negative evaluation may be the common thread linking MPA to other forms of SAD,
as it appears to be a shared factor among people who are anxious about musical performance
in any of the three settings, as well as those with other forms of social performance or interac-
tion anxiety. Fear of negative evaluation may play an especially large role in MPA, because in
music performance, evaluation is realistically likely from a public audience, teachers, judges,
and peers, and such an evaluation can be highly relevant to career and self-concept. Moreover,
most musicians feel evaluated against a perfect standard (Gabbard, 1980). Therefore, feeling
evaluated against a perfect standard, and with almost certain evaluation, an individual who
fears negative evaluation off stage is likely to experience marked anxiety when placed in a per-
formance situation on stage. Thus, it appears that a fear of negative evaluation in general car-
ries over into music performance, contributing to experienced anxiety on stage.
The current findings contrast with Osborne and Franklins (2002) research where the fear
of negative evaluation in general was significantly correlated with MPA but was not uniquely
predictive. However, in their regression model, socially anxious cognitions of the consequences
of negative evaluation and the likelihood of a negative evaluation specific to a musical perfor-
mance were uniquely predictive of MPA, and it is possible that due to conceptual overlap, these
two variables explained the variance better than a general fear of negative evaluation as
assessed by the BFNE. Furthermore, the current study differs from that of Osborne and Franklin
in using only professional musicians and in having a substantially larger sample size. Although
Osborne and Franklins study (2002) suggests that fear of negative evaluation specific to musi-
cal performance is an even stronger predictor of MPA, our results indicate that the general fear
of negative evaluation thought to underlie all social anxiety is also an important contributor.

MPA and other performance domains

Anxiety in music performance seems to share additional characteristics of social anxiety in
other domains. Social performance anxiety in everyday situations, including those where little
skill is needed (e.g., eating or writing in front of others), was associated with MPA in practice
and group settings. It is notable that in solo music performance settings, general social perfor-
mance anxiety did not remain a unique predictor of MPA. It is possible, given the high level of
anxiety that was reported in the solo music performance setting, that other factors emerged as
more robust predictors. As noted in the regression analysis, a significant inverse association
was noted between MPA in the solo performance setting and positive self-statements while
engaged in public speaking. The lack of positive cognitive coping in the public-speaking domain
seems to be associated with music performance and may explain higher levels of MPA. This
gives some additional evidence for similarities between MPA and anxiety in other non-music
performance contexts. In sum, these results emphasize both common factors between MPA and
social anxiety, particularly fear of negative evaluation, and specific factors that differentiate
among musical performance settings (e.g., the absence of positive self-statements during per-
formance). More research is needed to explore additional similarities and differences between
different social performance contexts.

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Nicholson et al. 447

The results of the current study give some support for the conceptualization of MPA as a type
of social anxiety, specific to one performance domain. Significant regression models were noted
between the general social anxiety variables and MPA in each setting, suggesting that if musi-
cians have high social anxiety in general, it is also likely they will have problems when in music
performance situations. However, our findings do not preclude the possibility that for some
musicians, anxiety could be primarily or solely focused on the performance stage. Although in
the current study, social performance anxiety was uniquely predictive of MPA in practice and
group settings, social interaction anxiety was not predictive of MPA in any performance setting.
This supports the explanation of MPA as a focal anxiety because specific performance concerns
appear to be more strongly related to MPA than more generalized social interaction concerns.

Limitations
This study has some limitations. First, due to the nature of the recruitment strategy, it is possi-
ble that individuals who chose to reply to the e-mail survey were struggling with MPA to a
greater extent than those who did not respond. Thus, the current study potentially did not yield
a randomly-selected sample, suggesting that additional research, using stratified random sam-
pling, may increase the generalizability of the current results. Additionally, the SSPS was used
to examine anxiety during public speaking and measures positive and negative cognitions dur-
ing public speaking. Although cognitions are a fundamental component of anxiety, they do not
represent a complete picture of performance anxiety in this domain, which in turn may not be
representative of other types of performances (e.g., dance, athletic competition). Therefore,
future research is needed to investigate the relationship between MPA and a full representation
of anxiety in public speaking situations, as well as the relationship between MPA and anxiety in
other performance domains. Lastly, although this study gave some support to current models of
MPA (such as Kennys three subtypes; 2011), future research is needed to characterize the fac-
tor structure of MPA and its relationship with other forms of social anxiety.

Conclusions
The current study provides useful insights into the relationship between anxiety on and off
stage. First, different performance situations evoke different degrees of anxiety, with musicians
reporting the most anxiety in solo performances. Second, social anxiety does usefully predict
MPA, with social performance anxiety predicting MPA in practice and group settings, and fewer
positive self-statements during public speaking predicting MPA in solo settings. Also, the fear of
negative evaluation was associated with MPA across all three performance settings, suggesting
that the anxiety about others judgments experienced off stage seems to follow a performer on
stage. Understanding the relationship between anxiety experienced during musical perfor-
mance and various other social evaluative anxieties in everyday life will facilitate the develop-
ment of cognitive models of MPA and potentially help guide treatment of MPA grounded in
well-validated interventions for social anxiety more broadly. The current findings suggest that
targeting concerns over negative evaluation may be particularly useful in the treatment of
MPA, while treating more general social interaction fears may be less efficacious.

Acknowledgements
This work was conducted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the undergraduate Honors Program,
University of Memphis. Thanks to Dr. Frank Shaffer for his musical advice and direction, and for helping

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448 Psychology of Music 43(3)

with ideas about sampling and participant outreach. Many thanks to the members of the Trauma
Research and Recovery Lab, including Matt Woodward, Judiann Jones, Leslie Lindsey, and Nthali
Blackwell, for invaluable guidance and suggestions along the process of this research. Lastly, this research
would not have been possible without the many musicians who generously gave of their time to help
further the understanding of music performance anxiety.

Ethical approval
Ethical approval for this project was given by the University of Memphis Institutional Review Board (refer-
ence number 2360).

Funding
This was supported in part by the Lillian and Morrie Moss Chair of Excellence Endowment (Gayle Beck).

Note
1. Professional organizations like the Arkansas Symphony Orchestra, the Georgia Symphony Orchestra,
the Boise Symphony Orchestra, the Memphis Symphony Orchestra, and the Memphis Blues Society
were contacted and graciously distributed an email invitation to their musicians. An Atlanta-based
professional violinist, a contact of the first author, agreed to forward the study to her colleagues,
and a Memphis-based blues and harmonica musician, a contact of the third author, agreed to for-
ward the study to his colleagues. Two online music websites geared towards professional musicians,
BulletProofMusician.com and the UK-based PercussionMusicOnline.com, agreed to post a link on
their website. Music department faculty at the following institutions agreed to forward it to colleagues
and graduate students: the University of Memphis, the University of Mississippi, the University of
Louisiana at Lafayette School of Music, and the University of Central Arkansas.

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