ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

FOREST PLANTS AS VEGETABLES FOR

COMMUNITIES BORDERING THE CROCKER RANGE NATIONAL
PARK

Tonga Noweg, Abdul Rashid Abdullah and Dimbab Nidang1

ABSTRACT

The Kadazandusun and Murut communities in the interior parts of Sabah are traditionally
dependent upon the forests as a source of food, medicines and building materials. A total of
nine villages located along the eastern boundary of the Crocker Range National Park in
Keningau and Tenom districts are surveyed for their pattern of utilisation of wild plant
resources for food. The investigation focuses on types of wild plants commonly harvested as
vegetables. Our finding indicates that a large proportion (about 70.6%) of the sample
population are involved in collection of wild plants for vegetables. However, only 34.09% of
the people surveyed claim that they are dependent on wild sources of vegetables. The survey
also indicates that about 82% of households who collect wild vegetable do so solely for their
own consumption. However, 18% collected for own consumption and sell the extras in the
market. The current rate of harvest of wild vegetables is unlikely to upset the sustainability of
the resource, except for that of the wild palms. Although occasional encroachment into the
park is evident, the current situation can still be accommodated. Most of the species
harvested are actually found in secondary forests, which are largely outside the park
boundaries.

INTRODUCTION

The Crocker Range National Park (CRNP) is essentially a conservation area where most
plants and animal species are protected. While conservation laws prohibit or limit the
harvests of these resources, the native communities are often afforded the right of access,
albeit for their personal consumption only. In the past, local communities around the CRNP
were mainly foraging and hunting in areas outside the park boundary. Now, however, there
are indications that the CRNP are continuously being encroached by the local people
(Bennett, Nyaoi and Sompud 1995). For effective conservation and management of resources
inside the park and in forested areas outside the park boundary, the nature of use and level of
dependency of the local communities upon these forest food sources need to be assessed.
Knowledge of the nature and level of use, primarily those that are extractive in nature, is of
utmost importance to the park management. Aside from being just a contribution to the
existing set of valuable knowledge on the relationships which exist between the human
population and that of the natural forest environment, the information can be a basis for
development of more effective management strategies, particularly in dealing with local
community needs. These needs, if crucial for the communities concerned, need to be
considered and incorporated into the overall park management planning. This will, in turn,
minimise conflicts and thus will ensure strong public support for existing conservation
efforts.

The proposed study is aimed at highlighting the utilisation pattern of just one category of

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

these minor forest products, that is, wild vegetables. First, the study documents the pattern of
harvesting in terms of species types, plant parts utilised and method of preparations. Second,
the study is also aimed at making a general qualitative assessment of the impacts of the
utilisation of these resources on the efforts of Sabah Parks to preserve the natural and
environmental resources of the CRNP and its immediate surrounding areas. The
documentation of the study include: (i) identification of plant species commonly collected as
vegetables, (ii) identification of plant parts consumed as food and method of preparation for
consumption, (iii) notification of special dietary and nutritional requirements or restrictions
for consumption and (iv) assessment of potential impacts of utilisation and consumption of
these resources on conservation efforts by Sabah Parks, or vice versa.

STUDY AREA

Nine communities, located on the eastern boundary of the Crocker Range National Park, are
chosen as the study area. Three communities (Kampong Bariawa Ulu, Kampung Keritan Ulu
and Kampung Senagang Ulu) are in Keningau district while the remaining six (Kampung
Mongool, Kampung Pulong, Kampung Undusan, Kampung Sumbiling, Kampung Tukalilan
and Kampung Mantailang) are in Tenom district. These villages are chosen based on their
proximity to the park and are known to be dependent upon the forest, albeit at different levels
or in different capacities.

METHODOLOGY

Wild vegetable species as termed in this study refer to wild or non-domesticated plants
normally collected from sources aside from farms and vegetable gardens. Some of these
plants may well be from the domesticated species or their varieties, but are growing wild.
They are also considered “wild” as they are collected from the primary or secondary forest
areas that are not privately managed for other crops. These plants are therefore considered as
common property resource. It should be noted also that not all the wild vegetable species
collected and utilised are included in this study. The focus is limited to the most common
species collected, and used as vegetables only in the communities under study.

Prior to the actual study, rapid field visits are made to all targeted communities. The purpose
of the visits is to assess the physical location of the communities in relation to the park, and to
examine the local cultural activities of the target communities with respect to utilisation of
forest resources. The initial visits are also to set up arrangements for meetings, interviews and
further field visits. During these initial visits, preliminary interviews are made with
community leaders, officers from the relevant government departments (Forest Department
and Agriculture Department) and other related agencies to solicit for secondary information,
which are needed for further planning of the study.

For generating general background information, the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) technique,
in the form of group interviews, are used. Data collection using group interviews, a noble
feature of the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) approach, has been previously used by Noweg et
al. (1998). The group interviews provide most of the details on various aspects of the

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

utilisation or consumption of wild plants, which are normally collected and used as
vegetables. Several field trips into the forest areas close to the communities are made, in
particularly where actual foraging activities normally takes place. These field trips are
primarily for the purpose of specimen collections, and at the same time to ascertain
information gathered earlier via the RRA technique.

At a later stage, the key-informant interviews are also conducted on knowledgeable members
of the communities, particularly those known to have enormous experience with the forest
and its wealth. This phase of the study is also aimed at further verification of disjointed and
conflicting information collected from the group interviews. Finally, an overall household
survey is administered to a representative sample consisting of 228 households from the eight
villages or communities under study. A combination of techniques as used in this study is
deemed as the most appropriate approach to achieve a comprehensive set of information in a
fast manner (Ogle 1995).

Basic community data on collection and consumption of the plant resources are extracted
from the main household survey and analysed statistically. A much more elaborate statistical
analysis is deemed unnecessary and inappropriate with the available data set. The qualitative
information on methods of vegetable preparations as well as their use limitations is carefully
analysed. Detailed documentation of the various species is made following the approach used
by Christensen (1997), Noor Azlin Yahya (1990) and a later work by Noweg et al. (1998).
Sufficiently verified information via repeated consultations with key informants are then
summarised and tabulated. The final tabulation, therefore, lists plant species by major groups,
indicating families, vernacular names, parts of the plant used, methods of preparation and
some use restrictions where available. Analysis is also made of the qualitative information
obtained from group interviews and key-informants with respect to several aspects of
vegetable resource management. Pertinent issues considered in the evaluation include current
efforts taken, from the communities’ perspectives, towards conservation or management of
these resources, existing conflicts or differences that they may have (or otherwise) with the
Sabah Parks management. This additional analysis hopes to expose some of the important
socio-cultural elements, which are relevant and may be incorporated in management plans.

RESULTS

Results of the study are presented in three sections. The first section describes the general use
characteristics of the forests for both vegetable collection and other non-timber forest
products. The following section describes the species of plants that are being collected as
vegetables, method of preparation and, use limitations according to the major categories as
set. In the final section, a brief discussion is made with respect to sustainability of the wild
vegetable resource based on the qualitative information derived from members of the
communities studied.

The Forest and The Communities

Communities located close to the forest tend to be quite dependent upon the forest for several
purposes. As expected, all the households surveyed indicate that they use the forest, but for
different purposes. There are seven categories of plants being utilised by the communities

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

under study. These include timber, firewood, bamboo, rattan, wild vegetables, wild fruits and
weaving materials (fibres).

In order to establish a general impression of the category of plant resources regarded as being
more important, the respondents for the household survey are asked to indicate the most
important group of plants his or her household normally collect. The most popular category
quoted is firewood, whereby it is regarded as very important by some 20.62% of the
households (Table 1). Wild vegetables (chosen by 19.30% of respondents) are reported as the
second most important category, followed by timber for house construction (chosen by
17.98% of the respondents) in the third place. The frequency and percentages provided in
Table 1 do not imply the exact percentage of the population that uses the different categories
of plant resource. In this study, we are interested in investigating the use of plant resources
for food, specifically as wild vegetables.

Table1. Frequency and percentage of households, by categories of forest resources

considered most important for their domestic use.

Categories of forest resources Frequency Percentage 1 Preference or importance ranking 2

Timber 41 17.98 3
Firewood 47 20.61 1
Bamboo 28 12.28 5
Rattan 35 15.35 4
Wild vegetables 44 19.30 2
Wild fruits 25 10.96 6
Weaving materials 8 3.51 7
Total 228 100.00
1
Percentage of all households surveyed. All households (228 in total) utilise the forest and its
resources but for different purposes.
2
Ranking based on the frequency. Higher frequency recorded indicates the higher use for the resource,
and hence a higher ranking.
3
Weaving materials include two very common plants: mengkuang (Mapania palustris, Pandanus sp.)
and bemban (Donax grandis)

Wild Vegetable Collection

Collection of wild vegetables is a common activity in all communities studied. The
dependence of the members of the communities studied, however, differs. It is observed from
the survey that only 15.35% of all respondents admit that their households are very dependent
upon vegetables from the wild or forests (Table 3). Some 19.74% of the respondents,
however, are not dependent upon vegetables from the wild source. The survey also indicates
that about 82% of households who collect wild vegetable do so for their own consumption.
Only 18% of them consume these produce and at the same time sell the extras in the market.

Table 2. Frequency and percentages of households, by level of dependency upon vegetables

from the wild source.

Level of dependence Frequency Percentage (%)

Very dependent 35 15.35

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Somewhat dependent 45 19.74

Not so dependent 86 37.72
Not-dependent at all 45 19.74
Not sure 17 7.46
Total 228 100.0

Table 3. Frequency, percentage of households and preference ranking for the “most
frequently collected” vegetable types.

Types of vegetables Frequency Percentage 1 Preference Ranking

Low herbaceous plants (dry areas) 32 19.88 2
Low herbaceous plants (wet areas) 6 3.73 6
Bamboo shoot 74 45.96 1
Wild banana 20 12.42 3
Palms 8 4.97 5
Ferns 15 9.32 4
Wild ginger 6 3.73 6
Total 161 100.00
1
Percentage of all households that collect wild vegetables from the wild sources. Only a total of 161
out of 228 (i.e. 70.6%) reports of their involvement in collection and consumption of wild
vegetables.
2
Ranking based on the frequency. Higher frequency recorded indicates the higher used for the
resource, and hence a higher ranking.

For the purpose of this study, the vegetables are grouped into several categories (Table 3).The
different species included in each of these categories are as listed in Tables 4-9. In order to
find which of these categories are more important in terms of being collected or harvested
more often, respondents are asked to indicate the category of vegetables that they most
frequently collected. Bamboo shoots appear to be the most frequently collected with 45.96%
respondents indicating so, followed by low herbaceous plants with some 19.88% response.
Wild banana ranks third (12.42%) followed by ferns (9.32%) in the fourth place and palms
(4.97%) in the fifth rank.

Species, Parts Utilised, and Methods of Preparation

Plant species collected, utilised, and cooked for vegetables by the communities under study
are numerous. It is not the intent of this study, however, to list down all these species. The
focus of this study is on species commonly collected. As such, the reader may find that this
documentation is not very comprehensive. It is indeed not intended to be as such.

Utilisation habits are often influenced by economic status that is further determined by
myriad of other socio-cultural factors. It is expected, therefore, that information documented
in this report differ from other similar reports for other parts of Sabah. This documentation,
however limited in scope, hopes to provide some basic details on the utilisation of the more
common plant species consumed as wild vegetables by local communities in the study area.

The following discussions are laid out according to the major categories indicated earlier.

Ferns: Ferns are among the wild plant groups that are easiest to collect. There are six species

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

of ferns collected by these communities(Table 4). From the six species, the most popular ones
are Stenochlaena palustris (lambiding) and Diaplazium esculentum (pakis). These two
species are collected not just for home consumption but also are marketed to town areas.
Acrosticum aureum (paku besar) and Nephrolepsis acutifolia (paku putih) are not as popular
due to their strong aroma (especially paku putih) and their slimy taste. Helminthostachys
zeylanica (aruk-aruk) are also known to have a pleasant culinary appeal but are seldom found
in large quantities.

Ferns are collected all year round as young shoots and only leaves are harvested. Although
most species prefer moist areas of river bottoms and wet fields, some are found on drier sites.
Examples are the lambiding (Stenochlaena palustris) and paku putih (Nephrolepsis
esculentum). Details on harvesting, methods of preparations and use limitations are as
described as in Table 4.

Table 4. Local names, species and family, parts consumed, and methods of preparation and
consumption limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Use Limitations

name), FAMILY Utilised Preparation
Aruk-aruk (Helminthostachys Young leaves and The young plant is Seldom found in large
zeylanica) shoots edible. The shoot can quantity. Not
OPHIOGLOSSACEAE be cooked like appealing to many
asparagus or fried with people, and only liked
garlic and anchovies by a small percentage
of local farmers.
Lambiding, (Stenochlaena Young leaves and Fried with garlic and Very well-liked
palustris) POLIPODIACEAE shoots anchovies or shrimp vegetable, and are
paste (sambal belacan) widely served in
restaurants. Very
common wild fern
found almost
everywhere the forest
has been disturbed.
Paku besar, (Acrosticum Young curled bud Fried as vegetable Quite rare and seldom
aureum PTERIDACEAE and leaves found in large
quantities and the taste
tend to be somewhat
slimy.
Paku, (Cyclosorus aridus) Young shoots Can be eaten as salad Not normally liked by
THEYLYPTERIDACEAE after being simmered many people because
briefly in boiling of its slimy taste.
water
Pakis, (Diplazium, Young shoots, Fried with garlic and Very well-liked
esculentum, and formerly leave buds anchovies vegetable, and are
identified as Athyrium widely served in
esculentum) restaurants. Common
ATHYRIACEAE wild fern found mostly
in moist areas,
particularly partially
shaded riverbanks.

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Paku putih, (Nephrolepis Young leaves and Boiled and used eaten Posses a distinct
acutifolia) shoots as salad or fried with “stinging” smell that
OLEANDRACEAE other spices render it unpopular to
many people.

Palms and bamboo: Palms and bamboo are the two larger plants that are harvested for
vegetable preparations. Bamboo is harvested at the shoot stage but the best vegetable
materials from palms can only be obtained from a full-grown tree. Bamboo shoots mostly
gave a pungent and bitter taste when eaten raw. Palm hearts, however, are a lot tastier and
sweet even when eaten raw. This explains why collectors are willing to spend extra effort to
extract the soft heart out.

As for bamboo, efforts to harvest the shoots are minimal and bamboo shoots are growing in
abundance in the forest areas in the periphery of the villages under study. As seen from Table
3 previously, bamboo shoots are the most commonly collected wild vegetables. In this study,
however, only two species of bamboo are recorded: Dendrocalamus asper (buluh betung) and
Bambusa sp. (buluh bukit). These two species are popular because they produce relatively
larger shoots. They are known to be able to thrive well in secondary forest environment as
well. It is a common feature to see local farmers cultivating these species in their small rubber
plots.

Four species commonly harvested are Caryota sp. (lurung), Arenga pinnata (pulok/polor),
Onchosperma tigilarium (nibong/libung) and Metroxylon sagus (sagu). As mentioned earlier,
the palms are not as frequently harvested compared to bamboo shoots and other wild vegeta-
bles. Apart from the large palm species, a species of rattan, Plectocomiopsis geminiflora
(baruak), is also a popular vegetable species collected from the forests. This species is mostly
found in the primary forests and fetches good price at the market.

The parts of the palm extracted, methods or preparation and special use limitations are as
described in Table 5.

Table 5. Local names of palms and bamboos, by families, parts consumed, and methods of
preparation and consumption limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Limitations

name), FAMILY Utilised Preparation
Lurung, (Caryota sp.) Young inner shoot Fried with onion, Can cause itchiness
PALMAE garlic boiled in soups in the or mouth if not
well prepared
Polor/Puluk, (Arenga Cabbage or palmite Boiled with other Quite difficult to
pinnata, Arenga sp.), (young shoots at the vegetables or meat or obtain. Ordinarily not
PALMAE base of the crown) soup cut for vegetables as
it can produce saps
for wine, vinegar and
sugar as well.

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Nibong / Libung, Cabbage or palmite Boiled with other Difficult to obtain the
(Onchosperma tigillarium) (inner shoot at the base vegetables or meat shoot as the tree
PALMAE of the crown) for soup trunk is dense
sharp spikes
Sagu, (Metroxylon sagus), Cabbage or palmite Boiled or fried with Extraction of the
PALMAE (inner shoot at the base spice as vegetables or cabbage or young
of the crown) soup shoot is hindered by
the slimy (often
itchy) exudate from
the leaves
Rotan/Baluak/Tambarluak, Cabbage or palmite Boiled with other Has a bitterish taste
(Plectocomiopsis (inner shoot at the base vegetables or meat in and may not be
geminiflora) of the crown soups appealing to some
people. There is also
a poisonous species
of rattan called
“matar” which is
easily mistaken for P.
geminiflora.
Buluh betung, Young shoot which has Boiled and eaten as In many
(Dendrocalamus asper), just emerged one to salad, boiled and communities, this
GRAMINAE two feet from the fried or cooked with species is highly
ground. other vegetables in valued for its bamboo
mixed vegetable soup and thus shoots are
normally left not
harvested.
Buluh bukit, (Bambusa Young shoot which has Boiled and eaten as This species of
spp.), GRAMINAE just emerged one to salad, boiled and bamboo is generally
two feet from the fried or cooked with smaller in size
ground. other vegetables in compared to
mixed vegetable soup Dendrocalamus
asper, and possess a
stronger bitterish
taste. It is
recommended that
sliced shoots be
properly boiled (with
salt added) to reduce
bitter taste.

Wild bananas: Both primary and secondary forests produce wild bananas. Wild bananas are
observed to grow well m disturbed areas. Throughout the study area, wild bananas are seen
growing in abundance on shifting cultivation fallows, in secondary forests and inside small
rubber plots. Most of these wild banana species are normally smaller than the domesticated
species. Nevertheless, they all produce edible soft inner shoots which are popularly used as
vegetables in the rural communities.

In general, wild bananas are harvested for their inner shoot more than they are harvested for
their fruits. A total of five common species are popularly collected and used as vegetables,
particularly in Kampong Keritan Ulu, Kampong Mongool and Kampong Senagang Ulu.

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

These include Musa acuminata and Musa violascens (both are referred to just as “pisang
utan”), Musa hirta (tagutui), Musa campestris (kelalang), and Musa beccarii (powok). The
parts of these plants, methods of preparation, and special use restrictions are as described in
Table 6.

Wild ginger: One of the more popular vegetable-producing groups of plants is the wild
ginger. Wild gingers grow mostly in secondary forest environment or in primary forests,
forest gaps or areas that have been previously disturbed, either naturally or by human
activities. Although some species produce stems suitable for extraction of weaving materials
for baskets, most wild gingers are utilised as wild vegetables. There are many species
harvested by the local villagers but only four are considered of importance. These few species
include Etlingera elatoir (tuhau/tikoloh), Etlingera punicea (tuhau/tepu/tutubuh), Achasma
megalocheilos (tepu), and Hornstdeia sp. (talirusan). The details on utilisation of these
species are as described in Table 7.

Table 6. Local names of wild bananas, parts consumed, and methods of preparation and
consumption limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Use Limitation /

name), FAMILY Utilised Preparation comments
Pisang utan, (Musa Fruit, flower Tender heart of the Fruit can be eaten
acuminata), inflorescence, heart of shoot are also eaten when ripe but do not
MUSACEAE inner shoot raw as salad or boiled taste that good as it has
in soup with meat. a strong “wild” smell.
Flower inflorescence
(jantung) maybe boiled
an taken as salad or
refried with anchovies
and earlic.
Tagutui, (Musa hirta), Heart of inner shoot, Inner shoots are often If eaten raw, it posses a
MUSACEAE inflorescence of flower eaten raw with chilli taste which may be
sauce and sambal. unpleasant to many
Flower inflorescence people
are normally boiled and
eaten as salad with
anchovies sambal or
fried with other
vegetables.
Pisang hutan, (Musa Fruit, Heart of inner Fruit eaten when ripe. Ripen fruits are often
violascens and Musa shoot and flower Heart of inner shoot are not as tasty as
acuminata), inflorescence either eaten raw with domesticated species.
MUSACEAE chilli sauce or Both species produces
anchovies “sambal” or fruits that have seeds.
cooked with other These seeds when
vegetables in soup, or chewed produce a
fried with garlic and somewhat bitterish
onion. The flower taste, and thus making
inflorescence are it unpleasant to eat.
boiled till soft and When boiled cook, it
taken as salad with any may cause the soup to
type of dressing (salad turn dark in colour.

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dressing or sambal
biris, or just chilli
sauce)
Pisang hutan/Kelalang, Heart of inner shoot, Heart of inner shoot If eaten raw, it posses a
(Musa campestris), flower inflorescence may be eaten raw with taste which may be
MUSACEAE chilli sauce or sambal unpleasant to many
biris, or just chili people
sauce)
Pisang liar/powok, Heart of inner shoot Eaten raw with chilli If eaten raw, it posses a
(Musa beccarii), sauce or sambal. taste which may be
MUSACEAE Cooked with other unpleasant to many
vegetables in soup. people

Talirusan/ Talirusan Tuhau (Ethingera elatoir)

(Hornstedia sp.) - flower bud used in flavouring

It is worthwhile mentioning here that the tuhau is a very significant species to the
communities under study. In addition to the normal way of eating this species, it is also
pickled. The tuhau inner shoots and flowers are sliced and preserved together with other
vegetables in vinegar, sugar and salt. This preserved (semi-fermented) pickle (locally known
as jeruk tuhau) is a popular local mouth-watering appetiser, and is commonly sold at the
farmers market.

Table 7. Local names of wild ginger, parts collected and consumed, methods of preparation
and consumption or use limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Use Limitation/

name), FAMILY Utilised Preparation comments
Tuhau/Tikaloh, Heart of shoots, flower Used as condiments, Heart of shoot has
(Etlingera elatoir) buds, fruits cooked as vegetables or strong smell but is
ZINGIBERACEAE eaten raw as salad. In more appealing to most
many cases, the soft people, particularly the
inner shoots and flower locals. This species is
inflorescence are sliced heavily harvested as it
and blended with other is commonly sold in
vegetables such as town and city markets.
bunch onions, garlic Some farmers are
and onions and beginning to grow
preserved with vinegar, them in their home
salt and sugar to gardens.
produce a dish (pickle)
well liked by locals.

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Tuhau/tepu/Tutubuh, Heart of young shoots, Eaten raw as salad or Heart of shoot does not
(Etlingera punicea), flower buds, fruits cooked as fried produce as much smell
ZINGIBERACEAE vegetable as E.Elatoir. Also may
not be appealing to
many people.
Tepu, (Achasma Heart of young shoots, Eaten raw as salad with Heart of shoots has
megalocheilos), flower buds, fruits anchovy sauce/sambal strong smell, which is
ZINGIBERACEAE belacan. Also are unpleasant to many
cooked or fried by people.
itself with garlic or
together with other
vegetables.
Talirusan/Talirusan Heart of young shoots, Soft heart of shoot is Heart of shoots has
(Hornstedia sp.), flower buds, fruits- know to have been strong smell, which is
ZINGIBERACEAE seeds eaten raw with sambal unpleasant to many
belacan as salad. It can people. Ripen fruits
be cooked as fried have tiny seeds, sweet
vegetable. Composite to the taste and are
flower inflorescence often eaten by farmers
(an elongated cup- and forest workers.
shaped) is also reported
to be edible but not
popular.

Low herbaceous plants: Apart from the ferns, bamboos, palms, bananas and gingers, there
are other plants, generally categorised as herbaceous plants, that are collected as vegetables.
These include all non-woody plants such as creepers, tubers, aroids and climbers. Here these
plants are grouped according to the habitat they are found: wet and dry areas (tanah kering
and tanah basah). The grouping, as used in this study, is for convenience purposes and to
harmonise with the classification traditionally used by the locals.

In dry areas, the most commonly collected species are leaves of tapioca (Manihot esculenta),
undom (Solanum torvum), and jambutan (Passiflora foetida). These species are very common
and harvested by most rural communities in Sabah and Sarawak. Somewhat unique to the
area under study, the tutans (Solanum nigrum) are found to grow profusely on newly burnt
farms. The species is therefore harvested seasonally which comes after the burning phase of
the farming cycle. Strangely, this particular herbaceous plant is not commonly found in
Sarawak.

A species of climber called binatong (Poikilospermum sp.) found in abundance in both Sabah
and Sarawak is also collected and cooked as vegetable. Although popular as a vegetable in all
the communities studied in Crocker Range Sabah, there is no record of the same species
being consumed in Sarawak. It is often found growing in a variety of habitats including
forests of both lowland and higher altitudes.

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Tutan (Solanum nigrum) Binatong (Poikilospermun sp.)

Another species, an aroid, which is normally ignored by wild vegetable collectors in other
parts of Malaysia, is the undipoh (Amorphophyllus prainii). This species of aroid normally
grows single-stemmed. It is often mistaken for seedling of woody plants except for its soft,
spongy-succulent stem.

Table 8 details the utilisation characteristics of these dry land herbaceous plant species.

Table 8. Local names of/ow herbaceous plants found on dry, parts collected and consumed,
methods of preparation and consumption or use limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Use Limitation/

name,) FAMILY Utilised Preparation Comments
Tutan hitam/memuntih, Young leaves and Cooked like spinach- Found only in cleared
(Solanum nigrum L.) shoots fried or with other and burnt areas,
SOLANCEAE vegetables in mixed growing naturally in
soup hill rice farms
Tutan putih, (Solanum Young leaves and Cooked like spinach- Found only in cleared
sp.) SOLANCEAE shoots fried or with other and burnt areas,
vegetables in mixed growing naturally in
soup hill rice farms
Binatong, Young leave and shoot Normally stir-fried or The plant is a climber,
(Poikilospermum sp.) at the tip of the vines boiled in mixed and thus collection of
URTICACEAE vegetable soup sufficient amount of
vegetable material is
sometimes difficult.
Undom/Tarong, Young leaves and Boiled fruits are either Fruits are best when
(Solanium torvum), berries (fruits) eaten as salad or fried. young as they are
SOLANCEAE Young leaves can be tender and taste better.
fried as vegetables.
Ubi kayu liar, (Manihot Young leaves and Leaves are boiled and The wilder varieties
esculenta), shoot, and roots (tuber) eaten as salad with tend to be a lot bitterer
EUPHORBIACEAE sambal or fried. Roots in taste as the cyanide
are peeled and boiled, content may be higher.
or fried into biscuits. Longer boiling time be
needed.
Bingol/Hampagat, Young leaves and stem Fried or boiled with Has a distinct smell
(Erechtities, other vegetables and taste that some
hieraiifolia), people cannot
COMPOSITAE appreciate

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Bayam liar, Young leaves and stem Fried or boiled with Has the same
(Amaranthus sp.) other vegetables characteristics of the
AMARANTHACEAE domesticated spinach –
marshy when over
cooked
Jambutan, (Passiflora Young leaves, shoot Fried as vegetables Has sweet taste but
foetida), and fruit with strong smell if not
PASSIFLORACEAE properly spiced up.
Undipoh, Shoot and leave at the Boiled independently Not found in large
(Amorphophyllus stage where the bud or together with other quantity. Harvested
prainii), ARACEAE just break open vegetables only when farmers are
in desperate need of
vegetables
Apak, (Pycnarrhena Leaves and young buds Leaves are often Quite difficult to find
tumetacta) and shoots crushed or crumbled as the species in
MENISPERNACEAE and added to cookings solitary
to add flavour. The
sweetness of the
flavour likens that of
monosodium
glutamate.

Another species, which is seldom used anymore in Sarawak rural communities, is the apak
(Pycnarrhena tumetacta). This climbing plant is still widely used by rural communities in
Sabah. Both the leaves and young shoots of this climber are edible. In the case of the Muruts
and Kadazandusuns, the leaves of the apak are more commonly used as condiments, to add
sweet flavour to their cooking.

In the wet areas around ponds, drainage ditches, and along streams, a wealth of herbaceous
plants are found growing wild. Many of these plant species are utilised both for food and
medicinal purposes. The local villagers in the study areas are noted to utilise about 30 species
of herbs found growing in wet areas. For the purpose of this study, however, only the most
commonly collected vegetable plants are recorded.

The most popularly collected species include pagaga (Cantella asiatica), Tayaan
(Monocharia vaginalis), kakatong (Limnocharis flava) and kasou (Ipomea sp.). These plants
are also consumed by many other farming communities in Malaysia, and quite commonly
sold at farmers’ markets throughout Sabah and Sarawak. What is relatively uncommon in
Sarawak and other states is the harvesting and utilisation of the stolons of the wild yam
(Colocasia sp.). The Muruts and Kadazandusuns claim that it is a good substitute for the yam.
Another species utilised by the communities under study and not known to be edible
elsewhere is the dukaruk (Schistmatoglottis sp.). This species is commonly found in small
mountain streams in the forested areas. This wild vegetable plant is reputed to have a taste
similar to kakatong (Limnocharis flava). Yet it is not as mushy as the kakatong when cooked.
The only disadvantage it has, in the natural state, is that it is seldom found in large quantity,
and hence have little potential for the market.

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Dukaruk (Schismatoglotis sp.)

Government forest policies in the past have been primarily concerned with utilisation of
forest resources for the production of timber and, secondarily, fuel wood. Tropical forests,
however, yields many other products. In some of the tropical countries, non-timber products
are of comparable value to timber, or even higher (Myers 1992). In Malaysia, as is globally,
local communities living close to the forest are often found to be quite dependent upon forest
produce for their livelihood. Among the most important use of forests, especially for many
native communities in the Malaysian Borneo states of Sabah and Sarawak, is as a source of
food. These are primarily from the plants. A handful of past studies had attempted to
document plant species consumed as food by different ethnic groups of Sarawak (Christensen
1997, Mertz 1997, Noweg et al. 1998) and the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia (Noor
Azlin Yahya 1982).

Tayaan (Monochoria vaginalis)

Kakatong (Limnocharis flava)

Despite a wealth of information on the importance and widespread use of forest plants as a
major source of food for many indigenous communities in the developing nations, many

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

nations, particularly in the tropics, are putting a low priority attention to non-timber forest
products. Efforts to sustainably manage forest resources are primarily channelled at
accomplishing the bigger agenda of national economic pursuit instead of the provision of
ample food supply to the rural communities. In Peru, for instance, the calculated value of
plant resources on a research site in a typical forest was estimated to generate a net present
value (NPV) of about US$9,000 per hectare (Peters et al. 1989). In comparison, using a
similar approach in economic analysis, another study in Brazilian Amazonia (Anderson 1983)
estimated that an intensively managed plantation of Gmelina arborea had an NPV of about
US$3,184 per hectare. The NPV per hectare of a natural forest of Sarawak and Sabah forests
is expected to be much higher. An anonymous writer reported that the NPV for medicinal
plants in Belize was US$3,327 per hectare. Another case in point to illustrate the economic
value of forest non-timber resources is that of rattan in Indonesia. In Kalimantan, rattan is still
one of the major export items (Peluso 1993). In the early 1990s the average annual worth of
its rattan export trade was about US$100 million (Panayotou and Ashton 1992).

A study carried out among rural communities in Teng Bukap subdistrict of Kuching, Sarawak
indicates that dependency on forest products, in particular wild vegetables, is quite substantial
(Burges 1982). Nearly 97% of all households surveyed claim that they are dependent upon
the forest for their household items. A quick survey made in Bario, Sarawak also indicates
that all Kelabit communities have high dependency on the wild plant species for their
vegetable needs (Noweg et al. (1998). It is clear, therefore, that non-timber forest products
often contribute significantly to socioeconomic development of a country.

Resource Base and Sustainability

A primary concern for common property resource is that of the absence of management and
restrictions on use. Although there may be some common understanding and agreement on
territorial boundaries between communities, property rights to forest areas within a
community’s territory is still not clearly defined. It is observed that members of the same
community can collect vegetable resources from land and forest areas that do not belong to
him or her. Essentially every member of the community can draw on the same resource base.
The absence of a clearly defined community or individual property rights can cause the
resource base to be over exploited.

Qualitative examination of the forest areas where vegetable harvesting was taking place,
however, indicates that the common property resource issue does not seem to be of any
immediate concern. Most of the foraging areas are located in secondary forests rather than
primary forests. There are, however, some exceptions. While most of the species listed above
are found in secondary forests, the palms are found in primary forests or very old secondary
forests. Due to its relative scarcity, it is noted that harvesting of palm parts is in general, are
not as frequent as recorded for other species.

Villagers were asked to assess the existing resource to see if they see any current problem
with respect to supply from existing forests, and also their expectation of the future. The
results indicate that only 35.09% of the respondents think that there exists a current shortage
in wild vegetable resources while some 57.02% do not concur with such view. The remaining
respondents were unsure of the actual situation (Table 9). For their expectation of the future
state, however, about 64.03% of the respondents are anticipating significant shortage if the

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

current population increase is assumed, and that there is no additional effort to better manage
the resource.

Table 9. Local names of low herbaceous plants found in wet areas, by families, parts
collected and consumed, methods of preparation and consumption or use limitations.

Local Name, (Species Parts Consumed/ Methods of Use Limitations /

name), FAMILY Utilised Preparation Comments
Dukaruk, (Schismatoglottis Young leaves and Cooked boiled in Seldom found in
sp.), ARACEAE buds soup or fried large quantities
Pagaga, (Centella asiatica) Leaf and leaf stalks Eaten as salad with No limitations in use.
sambal. Alternatively, It has spic y taste and
it can also be cooked is also believed to
in soup or fried. have some medicinal
value.
Tayaan, (Monochoria Young leaves Cooked boiled in Often appear mushy
vaginalis), soup or fried when boiled or over-
PONTERERIACEAE fried
Keladi, (Colocasia sp.), Tuber, leave stalk, Tuber can be boiled, The wild species are
ARACEAE lateral stolons fried to make “cucur” seldom in quantities.
or yam biscuits. May cause irritation
Leaves stalks and to the throat (itchy
long lateral stolons feeling) if not
are normally boil properly boiled or
cooked cooked
Kakatung / Balehir, Young leaves and Normally boiled and Vegetable looks
(Limnocharis flava), soft herbaceous leave taken as salad. marshy if overcooked
BUTOMACEAE stalks Frequently fried with
shrimp paste or
boiled with other
vegetables.

Kasou, (Ipomea sp.), Young shoot and Best fried with This wilder species
CONVOLVULACEAE leaves shrimp paste and of kangkong may
anchovies requires sufficient
boiling time as it has
a slight bitterish taste

The result from the survey thus provides some indications of the local impression of the
resource base now and the future. Their foresight of the future, however, may be misleading
them because through the interviews, it is quite clear that most villagers (or respondents) are
assuming that other factors (economics, political, etc.) remain status quo. Unfortunately, the
structure of the rural economy will change. Future changes in land use may also occur
drastically because of population increase. If the rural population increases significantly
without an equivalent increase in the non land-based economy, it is likely that there will be
severe pressures on the forests for farming purposes. This scenario can lead to a faster rate of
reduction of the remaining forested areas which in turn can further aggravate the already
existing encroachments into the national park areas.

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ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) January-March 2003

Table 10. Frequency and percentage of respondents, by their impressions of the current and
near future state of wild vegetable resources

State Current situation Near future (10 years time)

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
No shortage 80 35.09 32 21.92
Observable shortage 130 57.02 146 64.03
Unsure 18 7.89 50 14.04
Total 228 100.00 228 100.00

Implications on Crocker Range National Parks Management

In general, the collection and utilisation of wild plants for vegetable do not seem to have a
significant impact on the national park at the current time. What appears to be a more direct
threat is shifting cultivation. This conclusion is arrived at after studying the harvesting habits
of the local villagers. The relative frequency of collectors entering the primary forests inside
the national park boundaries is insignificant compared to their entry into the secondary forests
where most of the wild vegetables are found.

The categories of wild plant that are harvested from the primary forests are the palms. The
palms, however, rank fifth on the list of seven groups of vegetables that are most frequently
collected from the forests (Table 3). This data in itself indicates that the actual rate of
harvesting of palm tree species for vegetable is very small. Most of the harvesting takes place
in conjunction with other activities, which include collection of wild fruits, cutting of timber
and hunting.

REFERENCES

Bennett, E., A. Nyaoi and J. Sompud.

(1995). A Conservation management study of wildlife hunting in Sabah and Sarawak (a
preliminary report). Wildlife Conservation Society. 57 pp.

Christensen, H.
(1997). An ethnobotanical survey of the flora used by two longhouse communities in
Sarawak and an evaluation of their agronomic potential for agroforestry based farming
systems. A Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of
Aarhus, Denmark.

Hansen, M.B. and E.B. Hansen.

(1998). Rural use of rattan in two Iban communities: strategies to overcome decline in
resource. Report of a field exercise for the Joint Basic Course in Sustainable Landuse.
Copenhagen University, Denmark.

Mertz, O.
(1997). Cultivation potentials of wild vegetables: their roles as cash or subsistence crops in
farming systems of Sarawak, Malaysia. A Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the Faculty of
Natural Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

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Noweg, T., S.E. Empading and A.R. Abdullah.

(1998). Wild vegetables collected and utilised by the Kelabits of Bario. In: Ghazally Ismail
and Laily Din (Edrs.), Bario: The Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak. Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk
Publications.

Panayotuo, T. and P. Ashton.

(1992). Not by timber alone. Economics and ecology for sustaining tropical forests.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press

Peluso, N.L.
(1993). The impact of social and environmental change on forest management: a case study
from West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Community Forestry Case Study Series No. 8. Rome:
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

Peters, C.M., A.H. Gentry and R. Mendelsohn.

(1989).Valuation of a tropical forest in Peruvian Amazonia. Nature 339:655-6.

Noor Azlin Yahya.

(1990). Utilisation of wetland plant species by local communities: results of an interview
survey of communities near wetland areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Institute for Advanced
Studies, Universiti Malaya.

Ogle, B.
(1995). People’s dependency on forests for food security: some lessons learnt from a
programme of case studies. In: M. Ruiz Perez and J.E.M Arnold (Edrs.), Current Issues in
Non-Timber Forest Products Research. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.

1
Faculty of Social Science, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak.

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