Vibration with Control

Vibration with Control D. J. Inman

2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-01051-7
Vibration with Control

Daniel J. Inman
Virginia Tech, USA
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Inman, D. J.
Vibration with control / Daniel J. Inman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13 978-0-470-01051-8 (HB)
ISBN-10 0-470-01051-7 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Damping (Mechanics). 2. Vibration. I. Title.
TA355.I523 2006
620.3dc22 2006005568
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13 978-0-470-01051-8 (HB)
ISBN-10 0-470-01051-7 (HB)
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Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire
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Contents

Preface xi

1 Single-degree-of-freedom Systems 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 SpringMass System 1
1.3 SpringMassDamper System 4
1.4 Forced Response 8
1.5 Transfer Functions and Frequency Methods 14
1.6 Measurement and Testing 19
1.7 Stability 22
1.8 Design and Control of Vibrations 24
1.9 Nonlinear Vibrations 27
1.10 Computing and Simulation in Matlab 29
Chapter Notes 35
References 35
Problems 36

2 Lumped-parameter Models 39
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Classifications of Systems 42
2.3 Feedback Control Systems 44
2.4 Examples 45
2.5 Experimental Models 49
2.6 Influence Methods 50
2.7 Nonlinear Models and Equilibrium 52
Chapter Notes 54
References 55
Problems 55

3 Matrices and the Free Response 57

3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 58
3.3 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 63
vi CONTENTS

3.4 Canonical Forms 71

3.5 Lambda Matrices 74
3.6 Oscillation Results 77
3.7 Eigenvalue Estimates 81
3.8 Computation Eigenvalue Problems in Matlab 88
3.9 Numerical Simulation of the Time Response in Matlab 91
Chapter Notes 93
References 94
Problems 95

4 Stability 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Lyapunov Stability 99
4.3 Conservative Systems 101
4.4 Systems with Damping 103
4.5 Semidefinite Damping 103
4.6 Gyroscopic Systems 104
4.7 Damped Gyroscopic Systems 106
4.8 Circulatory Systems 107
4.9 Asymmetric Systems 109
4.10 Feedback Systems 113
4.11 Stability in State Space 116
4.12 Stability Boundaries 118
Chapter Notes 119
References 120
Problems 121

5 Forced Response of Lumped-parameter Systems 123

5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 Response via State-space Methods 123
5.3 Decoupling Conditions and Modal Analysis 128
5.4 Response of Systems with Damping 132
5.5 Bounded-input, Bounded-output Stability 134
5.6 Response Bounds 136
5.7 Frequency Response Methods 138
5.8 Numerical Simulation in Matlab 140
Chapter Notes 142
References 142
Problems 143

6 Design Considerations 145

6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 Isolators and Absorbers 145
6.3 Optimization Methods 148
6.4 Damping Design 153
6.5 Design Sensitivity and Redesign 155
6.6 Passive and Active Control 158
 CONTENTS vii

6.7 Design Specifications 160

6.8 Model Reduction 161
Chapter Notes 164
References 165
Problems 165

7 Control of Vibrations 169

7.1 Introduction 169
7.2 Controllability and Observability 171
7.3 Eigenstructure Assignment 176
7.4 Optimal Control 179
7.5 Observers (Estimators) 185
7.6 Realization 190
7.7 Reduced-order Modeling 192
7.8 Modal Control in State Space 198
7.9 Modal Control in Physical Space 202
7.10 Robustness 206
7.11 Positive Position Feedback 208
7.12 Matlab Commands for Control Calculations 211
Chapter Notes 216
References 217
Problems 218

8 Modal Testing 221

8.1 Introduction 221
8.2 Measurement Hardware 222
8.3 Digital Signal Processing 225
8.4 Random Signal Analysis 229
8.5 Modal Data Extraction (Frequency Domain) 232
8.6 Modal Data Extraction (Time Domain) 235
8.7 Model Identification 241
8.8 Model Updating 243
Chapter Notes 244
References 245
Problems 246

9 Distributed-parameter Models 249

9.1 Introduction 249
9.2 Vibration of Strings 249
9.3 Rods and Bars 256
9.4 Vibration of Beams 260
9.5 Membranes and Plates 264
9.6 Layered Materials 268
9.7 Viscous Damping 270
Chapter Notes 271
References 272
Problems 273
viii CONTENTS

10 Formal Methods of Solution 275

10.1 Introduction 275
10.2 Boundary Value Problems and Eigenfunctions 275
10.3 Modal Analysis of the Free Response 278
10.4 Modal Analysis in Damped Systems 280
10.5 Transform Methods 282
10.6 Greens Functions 284
Chapter Notes 288
References 289
Problems 289

11 Operators and the Free Response 291

11.1 Introduction 291
11.2 Hilbert Spaces 291
11.3 Expansion Theorems 296
11.4 Linear Operators 297
11.5 Compact Operators 303
11.6 Theoretical Modal Analysis 304
11.7 Eigenvalue Estimates 306
11.8 Enclosure Theorems 308
11.9 Oscillation Theory 310
Chapter Notes 312
References 313
Problems 313

12 Forced Response and Control 315

12.1 Introduction 315
12.2 Response by Modal Analysis 315
12.3 Modal Design Criteria 318
12.4 Combined Dynamical Systems 320
12.5 Passive Control and Design 324
12.6 Distributed Modal Control 326
12.7 Nonmodal Distributed Control 328
12.8 State-space Control Analysis 329
Chapter Notes 330
References 331
Problems 332

13 Approximations of Distributed-parameter Models 333

13.1 Introduction 333
13.2 Modal Truncation 333
13.3 RayleighRitzGalerkin Approximations 335
13.4 Finite Element Method 337
13.5 Substructure Analysis 342
13.6 Truncation in the Presence of Control 345
13.7 Impedance Method of Truncation and Control 352
 CONTENTS ix

Chapter Notes 354

References 355
Problems 355

A Comments on Units 357

B Supplementary Mathematics 361

Index 365
Preface

Advance-level vibration topics are presented here, including lumped-mass and distributed-
mass systems in the context of the appropriate mathematics, along with topics from control
that are useful in vibration analysis and design. This text is intended for use in a second
course in vibration, or in a combined course in vibration and control. This book is also
intended as a reference for the field of structural control and could be used as a text in
structural control. Control topics are introduced at beginner level, with no knowledge of
controls needed to read the book.
The heart of this manuscript was first developed in the early 1980s and published in 1989
under the title Vibration with Control, Measurement and Stability. That book went out of
print in 1994. However, the text remained in use at several universities, and all used copies
seem to have disappeared from online sources in about 1998. Since then I have had yearly
requests for copying rights. Hence, at the suggestions of colleagues, I have revised the older
book to produce this text. The manuscript is currently being used in a graduate course at
Virginia Tech in the Mechanical Engineering Department. As such, presentation materials
for each chapter and a complete solutions manual are available for use by instructors.
The text is an attempt to place vibration and control on a firm mathematical basis and
connect the disciplines of vibration, linear algebra, matrix computations, control, and applied
functional analysis. Each chapter ends with notes on further references and suggests where
more detailed accounts can be found. In this way I hope to capture a big picture approach
without producing an overly large book. The first chapter presents a quick introduction
using single-degree-of-freedom systems (second-order ordinary differential equations) to
the following chapters, which extend these concepts to multiple-degree-of-freedom systems
(matrix theory, systems of ordinary differential equations) and distributed-parameter systems
(partial differential equations and boundary value problems). Numerical simulations and
matrix computations are also presented through the use of MatlabTM . New material has
been added on the use of Matlab, and a brief introduction to nonlinear vibration is given.
New problems and examples have been added, as well as a few new topics.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Jamil M. Renno, a PhD student, for reading the final manuscript
and sorting out several typos and numerical errors. In addition, Drs T. Michael Seigler,
xii PREFACE

Kaihong Wang, and Henry H. Sodano are owed special thanks for helping with the figures.
I would also like to thank my past PhD students who have used the earlier version of the book,
as well as Pablo Tarazaga, Dr Curt Kothera, M. Austin Creasy, and Armaghan Salehian who
read the draft and made wonderful corrections and suggestions. Professor Daniel P. Hess
of the University of South Florida provided invaluable suggestions and comments for which
I am grateful. I would like to thank Ms Vanessa McCoy who retyped the manuscript from
the hard copy of the previous version of this book and thus allowed me to finish writing
electronically.
Thanks are also owed to Wendy Hunter of Wiley for the opportunity to publish this
manuscript and the encouragement to finish it. I would also like to extend my thanks and
appreciation to my wife Cathy Little, son Daniel, and daughters Jennifer and Angela (and
their families) for putting up with my absence while I worked on this manuscript.

Daniel J. Inman
[email protected]
1
Single-degree-of-freedom
Systems

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the vibration of a single-degree-of-freedom system will be analyzed and
reviewed. Analysis, measurement, design, and control of a single-degree-of-freedom system
(often abbreviated SDOF) is discussed. The concepts developed in this chapter constitute an
introductory review of vibrations and serve as an introduction for extending these concepts
to more complex systems in later chapters. In addition, basic ideas relating to measurement
and control of vibrations are introduced that will later be extended to multiple-degree-
of-freedom systems and distributed-parameter systems. This chapter is intended to be a
review of vibration basics and an introduction to a more formal and general analysis for
more complicated models in the following chapters.
Vibration technology has grown and taken on a more interdisciplinary nature. This has
been caused by more demanding performance criteria and design specifications for all types
of machines and structures. Hence, in addition to the standard material usually found in
introductory chapters of vibration and structural dynamics texts, several topics from control
theory and vibration measurement theory are presented. This material is included not to
train the reader in control methods (the interested student should study control and system
theory texts) but rather to point out some useful connections between vibration and control
as related disciplines. In addition, structural control has become an important discipline
requiring the coalescence of vibration and control topics. A brief introduction to nonlinear
SDOF systems and numerical simulation is also presented.

1.2 SPRINGMASS SYSTEM

Simple harmonic motion, or oscillation, is exhibited by structures that have elastic restoring
forces. Such systems can be modeled, in some situations, by a springmass schematic, as
illustrated in Figure 1.1. This constitutes the most basic vibration model of a structure and can
be used successfully to describe a surprising number of devices, machines, and structures.
The methods presented here for solving such a simple mathematical model may seem to be

Vibration with Control D. J. Inman

2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-01051-7
2 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

kx kxs
k

0 0
m

x (t ) mg mg

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1 (a) Springmass schematic, (b) free body diagram, and (c) free body diagram of the static
springmass system.

more sophisticated than the problem requires. However, the purpose of the analysis is to lay
the groundwork for the analysis in the following chapters of more complex systems.
If x = xt denotes the displacement (m) of the mass m (kg) from its equilibrium position
as a function of time t (s), the equation of motion for this system becomes [upon summing
forces in Figure 1.1(b)]

mx + kx + xs  mg = 0

where k is the stiffness of the spring (N/m), xs is the static deflection (m) of the spring
under gravity load, g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 ), and the overdots denote
differentiation with respect to time. (A discussion of dimensions appears in Appendix A, and
it is assumed here that the reader understands the importance of using consistent units.) From
summing forces in the free body diagram for the static deflection of the spring [Figure 1.1(c)],
mg = kx s and the above equation of motion becomes

mxt + kxt = 0 (1.1)

This last expression is the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system and is

a linear, second-order, ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients.
Figure 1.2 indicates a simple experiment for determining the spring stiffness by adding
known amounts of mass to a spring and measuring the resulting static deflection, xs . The
results of this static experiment can be plotted as force (mass times acceleration) versus xs ,
the slope yielding the value of k for the linear portion of the plot. This is illustrated in
Figure 1.3.
Once m and k are determined from static experiments, Equation (1.1) can be solved to
yield the time history of the position of the mass m, given the initial position and velocity
of the mass. The form of the solution of Equation (1.1) is found from substitution of an
assumed periodic motion (from experience watching vibrating systems) of the form

xt = A sinn t +  (1.2)

where n = k/m is the natural frequency (rad/s). Here, the amplitude, A, and the phase
shift, , are constants of integration determined by the initial conditions.
 SPRINGMASS SYSTEM 3

x0
x1
x2
x3

Figure 1.2 Measurement of the spring constant.

14

12

10
Force fk in Newtons

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Displacement, x, in mm

Figure 1.3 Determination of the spring constant.

The existence of a unique solution for Equation (1.1) with two specific initial conditions is
well known and is given by, for instance, Boyce and DiPrima (2000). Hence, if a solution of
the form of Equation (1.2) form is guessed and it works, then it is the solution. Fortunately,
in this case the mathematics, physics, and observation all agree.
To proceed, if x0 is the specified initial displacement from equilibrium of mass m, and v0 is
its specified initial velocity, simple substitution allows the constants A and  to be evaluated.
The unique solution is
   
2n x02 + v02 1  n x0
xt = sin n t + tan (1.3)
2n v0
4 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

Alternatively, xt can be written as

v0
xt = sin n t + x0 cos n t (1.4)
n

by using a simple trigonometric identity.

A purely mathematical approach to the solution of Equation (1.1) is to assume a solution
of the form xt = A et and solve for , i.e.,

m2 et + ket = 0

This implies that (because et = 0, and A = 0)

 
k
 +
2
=0
m

or that
 1/2
k
 = j = n j
m

where j = 11/2 . Then the general solution becomes

xt = A1 en jt + A2 en jt (1.5)

where A1 and A2 are arbitrary complex conjugate constants of integration to be determined

by the initial conditions. Use of Eulers formulae then yields Equations (1.2) and (1.4) (see,
for instance, Inman, 2001). For more complicated systems, the exponential approach is often
more appropriate than first guessing the form (sinusoid) of the solution from watching the
motion.
Another mathematical comment is in order. Equation (1.1) and its solution are valid only
as long as the spring is linear. If the spring is stretched too far, or too much force is applied
to it, the curve in Figure 1.3 will no longer be linear. Then Equation (1.1) will be nonlinear
(see Section 1.8). For now, it suffices to point out that initial conditions and springs should
always be checked to make sure that they fall in the linear region if linear analysis methods
are going to be used.

1.3 SPRINGMASSDAMPER SYSTEM

Most systems will not oscillate indefinitely when disturbed, as indicated by the solution in
Equation (1.3). Typically, the periodic motion dies down after some time. The easiest way
to treat this mathematically is to introduce a velocity based force term, cx, into Equation
(1.1) and examine the equation

mx + cx + kx = 0 (1.6)
 SPRINGMASSDAMPER SYSTEM 5

y
x (t )
k x
fk

Friction-free fc mg
c Surface

N
(a) (b)

Figure 1.4 (a) Schematic of the springmassdamper system and (b) free body diagram of the system
in part (a).

This also happens physically with the addition of a dashpot or damper to dissipate energy,
as illustrated in Figure 1.4.
Equation (1.6) agrees with summing forces in Figure 1.4 if the dashpot exerts a dissipative
force proportional to velocity on the mass m. Unfortunately, the constant of proportionality, c,
cannot be measured by static methods as m and k are. In addition, many structures dissipate
energy in forms not proportional to velocity. The constant of proportionality c is given in
N s/m or kg/s in terms of fundamental units.
Again, the unique solution of Equation (1.6) can be found for specified initial conditions
by assuming that xt is of the form

xt = A et

and substituting this into Equation (1.6) to yield

 
c k
A  + +
2
et = 0 (1.7)
m m

Since a trivial solution is not desired, A = 0, and since et is never zero, Equation (1.7)
yields

c k
2 + + =0 (1.8)
m m
Equation (1.8) is called the characteristic equation of Equation (1.6). Using simple algebra,
the two solutions for  are

c 1 c2 k
12 = 4 (1.9)
2m 2 m2 m

The quantity under the radical is called the discriminant and, together with the sign of m c,
and k, determines whether or not the roots are complex or real. Physically, m c, and k are
all positive in this case, so the value of the discriminant determines the nature of the roots
of Equation (1.8).
6 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

It is convenient to define the dimensionless damping ratio, , as

c
=
2 km

In addition, let the damped natural frequency, d , be defined (for 0 <  < 1) by

d = n 1  2 (1.10)

Then, Equation (1.6) becomes

x + 2n x + 2n x = 0 (1.11)

and Equation (1.9) becomes


12 = n n  2 1 = n d j 0<<1 (1.12)

Clearly, the value of the damping ratio, , determines the nature of the solution of
Equation (1.6). There are three cases of interest. The derivation of each case is left as a
problem and can be found in almost any introductory text on vibrations (see, for instance,
Meirovitch, 1986 or Inman, 2001).

Underdamped. This case occurs if the parameters of the system are such that

0<<1

so that the discriminant in Equation (1.12) is negative and the roots form a complex conjugate
pair of values. The solution of Equation (1.11) then becomes

xt = en t A cos d t + B sin d t (1.13)

or

xt = Cen t sin d t + 

where A, B, C, and  are constants determined by the specified initial velocity, v0 , and
position, x0 :

v0 + n x0 2 + x0 d 2
A = x0  C=
d
 
v + n x0 x 0 d
B= 0   = tan1 (1.14)
d v0 + n x0

The underdamped response has the form given in Figure 1.5 and consists of a decaying
oscillation of frequency d .
 SPRINGMASSDAMPER SYSTEM 7

1.0
Displacement (mm)

Time
0.0 (sec)
10 15

1.0

Figure 1.5 Response of an underdamped system.

Overdamped. This case occurs if the parameters of the system are such that

>1

so that the discriminant in Equation (1.12) is positive and the roots are a pair of negative
real numbers. The solution of Equation (1.11) then becomes

+  2 1 n t   2 1 n t
xt = A e +Be (1.15)

where A and B are again constants determined by v0 and x0 . They are



v0 +  +  2 1 n x0
A= 
2n  2 1


v0 +   2 1 n x0
B= 
2n  2 1

The overdamped response has the form given in Figure 1.6. An overdamped system does
not oscillate, but rather returns to its rest position exponentially.

Critically damped. This case occurs if the parameters of the system are such that

 =1

so that the discriminant in Equation (1.12) is zero and the roots are a pair of negative real
repeated numbers. The solution of Equation (1.11) then becomes

xt = en t v0 + n x0 t + x0

(1.16)
8 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

0.8
Displacement (mm)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time (sec)

Figure 1.6 Response of an overdamped system.

X(0) > 0
0.4
Displacement (mm)

X(0) = 0
0.2 X(0) < 0
0.0

0.2

0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Time (sec)

Figure 1.7 Response of a critically damped system.

The critically damped response is plotted in Figure 1.7 for various values of the initial
conditions v0 and x0 .
It should be noted that critically damped systems can be thought of in several ways. First,
they represent systems with the minimum value of damping rate that yields a nonoscillating
system (Problem 1.5). Critical damping can also be thought of as the case that separates
nonoscillation from oscillation.

1.4 FORCED RESPONSE

The preceding analysis considers the vibration of a device or structure as a result of some
initial disturbance (i.e., v0 and x0 ). In this section, the vibration of a springmassdamper
system subjected to an external force is considered. In particular, the response to harmonic
excitations, impulses, and step forcing functions is examined.
 FORCED RESPONSE 9

y
x (t )
k x
fk

F (t ) fc mg F (t )
c

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 (a) Schematic of the forced springmassdamper system assuming no friction on the
surface and (b) free body diagram of the system of part (a).

In many environments, rotating machinery, motors, and so on, cause periodic motions
of structures to induce vibrations into other mechanical devices and structures nearby. It is
common to approximate the driving forces, Ft, as periodic of the form

Ft = F0 sin t

where F0 represents the amplitude of the applied force and  denotes the frequency of the
applied force, or the driving frequency (rad/s). On summing the forces, the equation for the
forced vibration of the system in Figure 1.8 becomes

mx + cx + kx = F0 sin t (1.17)

Recall from the discipline of differential equations (Boyce and DiPrima, 2000), that the
solution of Equation (1.17) consists of the sum of the homogeneous solution in Equation (1.5)
and a particular solution. These are usually referred to as the transient response and the
steady state response respectively. Physically, there is motivation to assume that the steady
state response will follow the forcing function. Hence, it is tempting to assume that the
particular solution has the form

xp t = X sint  (1.18)

where X is the steady state amplitude and  is the phase shift at steady state. Mathemati-
cally, the method is referred to as the method of undetermined coefficients. Substitution of
Equation (1.18) into Equation (1.17) yields

F0 /k
X= 
1 m2 /k2 + c/k2

or
Xk 1
= (1.19)
F0 1 /n 
2 + 2/n 
2
2
10 SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS

and

c/k 2/n 
tan  = = (1.20)
1 m /k 1 /n 2
2

where n = k/m as before. Since the system is linear, the sum of two solutions is a
solution, and the total time response for the system of Figure 1.8 for the case 0 <  < 1
becomes

xt = en t A sin d t + B cos d t + X sint  (1.21)

Here, A and B are constants of integration determined by the initial conditions and the
forcing function (and in general will be different from the values of A and B determined for
the free response).
Examining Equation (1.21), two features are important and immediately obvious. First,
as t becomes larger, the transient response (the first term) becomes very small, and hence
the term steady state response is assigned to the particular solution (the second term). The
second observation is that the coefficient of the steady state response, or particular solution,
becomes large when the excitation frequency is close to the undamped natural frequency,
i.e.,  n . This phenomenon is known as resonance and is extremely important in design,
vibration analysis, and testing.

Example 1.4.1
Compute the response of the following system (assuming consistent units):

1 3
xt + 04xt + 4xt = sin 3t x0 =  x0 = 0
2 2

First, solve for the particular solution by using the more convenient form of

xp t = X1 sin 3t + X2 cos 3t

rather than the magnitude and phase form, where X1 and X2 are the constants to be determined.
Differentiating xp yields

xp t = 3X1 cos 3t 3X2 sin 3t

xp t = 9X1 sin 3t 9X2 cos 3t

Substitution of xp and its derivatives into the equation of motion and collecting like terms yield

 
1
9X1 12X2 + 4X1 sin 3t + 9X2 + 12X1 + 4X2  cos 3t = 0
2
376 INDEX

Units, 357 Velocity

Unit vector, 60, 61 initial, 3, 6, 13, 41, 98, 129, 283
Unperturbed matrix, 86 Velocity feedback, 44, 49, 326
Upper triangular matrix, 72, 89 Vibration(s)
beam
Variation of parameters, 125, 126, 130 layered, 268, 326
Vector(s) control, 24, 180, 215, 325, 328, 359
basis, 60 design, 66, 145, 148, 180, 272, 331, 357
complete set, 66 longitudinal, 256, 260, 271, 276, 282
conjugate transpose, 62, 65 membrane, 265, 270
control, 170 modes, 68, 253, 316, 330
coordinates, 128 natural frequencies, 64, 71, 83, 158, 253
dependent, 60 natural modes, 253
independent, 60, 66, 71 plate, 264, 270
latent, 74, 75 self-excited, 22, 35
linearly independent, 60, 62, 64 shaft, 257
nodal displacement, 339 string, 249
nodal force, 339 torsional, 257
normalized, 62, 68, 70, 76, 83 transverse, 260, 267, 268, 328
orthogonal, 60 Vibration absorber, 24, 145, 146, 147, 148, 158, 209
orthonormal, 61, 67, 68 Vibration isolation, 145, 146, 147
singular Vibration testing, 221
left, 193 Viscous damping, 270
right, 193 Viscous damping matrix, 41
state
estimated, 185190 Weighting matrices, 180, 182, 183, 214
transpose, 40, 75 Window
unit, 6061, 258, 284 Hanning, 228, 229
Vector space, 40, 292, 295, 361 Window function, 228