Autonomia in the 1970s: The Refusal of Work, the Party and Poweri

Patrick Cuninghame

Autonomy is the ability to give an adequate rule to desire, and not the art of begrudging the

world.

Franco Berardi (Bifo)i

Not only is it freedom, but an anthropological growth that causes an accumulation of

desires, of necessities, of will; it is, principally, a collective phenomenon, it is deeply

cooperative. Autonomy is of the common.

Antonio Negriii

Introduction

The Italian new social movement of the 1970s, Autonomia (Autonomy), was a key

collective actor in late twentiethcentury Italian protest and social conflict. It played a

significant role in the conflictual and relatively rapid transformation of Italy from a recently

industrialised nation to a post-Fordist, post-industrial society. The experience of Autonomia

has highlighted the changing nature of collective identity, political organisation and social

contestation in advanced, urbanised capitalist societies. It represents, furthermore, a still

unfinished chapter in recent Italian history due to the failure of the political class to reach a

i
Published in Cultural Studies Review (special issue on the Italian Effects conference) [University of
Melbourne], Vol. 11, No. 2, September 2005, pp.77-94. I acknowledge and thank the help of the following
people in writing, editing and revising this article: Carolina Ballesteros, Atziri Cuninghame-Ballesteros, Steve
Wright, Eligio Calderon, Michael Goddard, Tim Rayner, Chris Healy and Penny Johnson. I would
particularly like to thank Steve Wright for presenting in my absence the paper on which this article is based at
the Italian Effects: Radical Thought, Biopolitics and Cultural Subversion conference at Sydney University
in September 2004 and for all the encouragement and advice he has very kindly offered me over the years.

1
political solution on the fate of the remaining political prisoners and exiles from the Years

of Lead. The emergency legislation of the 1970s continues to undermine the democratic

fabric of both state and society. The lack of a satisfactory solution for all sides of the virtual

civil war that existed in Italy in the late 1970s has fostered silences, omissions and

distortions in Italian intellectual and academic life on a crucial period, helping to leave

unsolved and unpunished the Strategy of Tension bombings of 196984, allegedly

committed by the state itself. So one of my aims is to unpack the myths and conspiracy

theories surrounding Autonomia and the 1970s to clarify better its role as a movement

involved in the conflicts of a period of almost continuous political and economic upheaval

and of profound cultural and social change.

With reference to the debates surrounding the origins and nature of social movements, it is

surmised that the cultural version of new social movement theory (Alain Touraine and

Alberto Melucci) overemphasises the cultural aspects of new social movements, while

minimising their primarily political goals, forms of organisation and impact on the state and

civil society. The political version (Manuel Castells and Jrgen Habermas) ignores the

cultural impact of new social movements at the symbolic level, considering them as partial

phenomena, unable to effect the state unless in alliance with the parties and trade unions of

the historical left. Both versions tend to ignore the historical links between old and new

social movements in order to emphasise the newness of the latter. Classical Marxism has

tended to treat social movements as potentially reactionary and in any case marginal to the

central labourcapital conflict, while neo-Marxism, in its structuralist and Gramscian

versions (Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, David Plotke), has similar limitations to those

of political new social movement theory: these movements are politically significant only

when in alliance with officially organised labour. Ultimately, all of these perspectives tend to

2
undermine the political significance of new social movements since the 1960s when

compared to institutional politics. Moreover, the centrality of the issue of newness in the

debate between new social movement theory and Marxism seems to be a divergence

compared to other more important aspects. I argue that the academically imposed division

between culturally oriented new social movements and political class struggle is false, as is

the attempt to divide these movements into bad residual/violent/political and good

emergent/non-violent/cultural elements.

Autonomist Marxism has attempted to bridge this gulf, although it can be criticised for

attempting to conflate contradictory phenomena such as feminism and youth counter-culture

with class politics, and, in the case of the Italian workerism (operaismo) from which it

springs, for failing to go beyond the workers centrality focus of classical Marxism. Despite

these limitations, however, it represents a form of political and sociological analysis that has

emerged from within the Italian new social movements themselves and is therefore directly

related to their social composition and forms of organisation and mobilisation. It emphasises

the autonomy of the working class from capital, that is of living labour from dead

labour.iii It valorises difference and identifies as central to the class struggle those sectors

seen by classical Marxism, neo-Marxism and political new social movement theory as

marginals: homemakers, students, youth, precarious workers, the unemployed and Third

World peasants, that is, those who tend to organise spontaneously and autonomously from

the structures of the official left, often as movements. Finally, it uses oral history and

sociological research through the revival of Marxs workers enquiry to generate

hypotheses from the raw material of everyday grassroots struggle, rather than top-down

macro-analysis.

3
Autonomia reached its peak as an incisive socio-political force during the upsurge in

protest and conflict during 1977, but rapidly disintegrated following the waves of arrests of

thousands of militants between 1979 and 1983, accused of forming armed gangs to

subvert the state. According to one ex-political prisoner, over ninety per cent of those

arrested chose to testify against their former comrades as repentant or disassociated

witnesses.iv After this period of criminalisation, during which some 15,000 militants were

preventively incarcerated in special prisons for extensive periods before standing trial, the

remnants of Autonomia revived in the mid 1980s as the antagonist movement.v Some two

hundred activists from the 1970s still live in juridical limbo as unofficial refugees in Paris

with little prospect of an amnesty.vi Nevertheless, given the continuing activity of mainly

counter-cultural youth social movements in Italy, particularly the centri sociali (squatted

social centres),vii and despite (or because of?) the disappearance of the New Left

organisations of the 1970s, how can the continuing resonance of Autonomia in

contemporary Italian society be explained?

One of the central characteristics of the new social movements, separating them from the

spheres of institutional or revolutionary party politics, or indeed from other forms of

collective action such as interest groups and protest campaigns, is that of autonomy. In

the collective sense, it signifies the need of different groups of actors to protect and

advance their own agendas without being subsumed by the demands of a wider collectivity,

whether civil society, the working class or other social movements. Although the emphasis

was on the collective, autonomy was also seen as an individual demand and practice: the

diversity of the needs of the individual could not be subordinated to the voluntarism of

party discipline. This autonomy of the individual within the immediate collectivity of a

social movement and the broader collectivity of civil society found its apposite political

4
expression in the direct, participative democracy of the assembly and the refusal of

delegation or of any form of representative, institutionalised democracy.

The first problem, however, is one of description: which Autonomia are we dealing with?

The Workers Autonomy of the self-organised factory assemblies of Porto Marghera,

Milan, Turin and Rome, of workers autonomy against work and capitalist command as

expressed through the factory system and its wage differentials? The Organized Workers

Autonomy of Antonio Negri, Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno,viii the Padovani and the

Volsci,ix who attempted to build a new kind of revolutionary vanguard party? The

armed Autonomia of those, disillusioned and frustrated by the political containment and

defeat of the 1977 Movement, who established the many tiny and often short-lived groups

of the terrorist second wave? The creative Autonomia of the metropolitan Indians and

the transversalists of Radio Alice and the network of free radio stations, street theatre

collectives and small publishers? Or the diffused area of Autonomia, which not only

encompassed all these realities, including secondary school occupations, womens groups

and neighbourhood committees, but was also in deep contradiction with the more

organised, neo-Leninist part of the movement?

Workers autonomy and the refusal of work

You learnt how to read a wage slip, how to see wage differentials, to see what were the

work processes. How, also, to understand the work processes in a chemicals factory, which

is not easy compared to manufacturing factories. What were the points, for example, of

possible sabotage or that could be blocked with a strike?

Alisa Del Rex

5
The historical core of Autonomia, namely the theory and practice of workers autonomy

and the refusal of work, lasted from the early 1960s to the great defeats of the early 1980s.

The development of the autonomous workers movement was closely related to the

evolution of Italian workerism, its emergence having been researched in their journals,

Quaderni Rossi and Classe Operaia in the early 1960s, before it became an identifiable

collective phenomenon during the Hot Autumn wildcat strike-wave of 1969. However, the

autonomous workers movements main organism, the Autonomous Workers Assemblies,

had an often conflictual relationship with the Factory Councils,xi one of the main gains

from the Hot Autumn as formally constituted in the 1970 Workers Charter.

The autonomous workers saw themselves as a resistance movement against industrial and

technological restructuring and its political basis, the Historical Compromise between the

PCI and the Christian Democrats. Various forms of the refusal of work, wildcat strikes and

industrial sabotage were the weapons in this struggle. The highpoint was what Negri

termed the Workers Party of Mirafiori, the strike and occupation of the giant FIAT plant

in Turin by the Red Bandannas, the most militant autonomous workers, in March 1973.xii

Also important was the relationship with non-industrial workers, particularly in the

growing service sector and the radicalised sections of the professions, as well as with

unpaid labour, like the house workers of the workerist section of the womens

movement, the movements of the unemployed in the south, and the university and school

students movements.

As the autonomous movement of the mass workerxiii began to lose ground in large-scale

industrial conflicts after 1973, Autonomia became more involved in the conflicts of the

6
socialised workerxiv in the new post-Fordist diffused factory: the decentralisation of the

industrial economy into a network of medium and small factories, including black

economy sweatshops (lavoro nero) and the exploitation of family work, which permitted

the creation of a non-unionised, flexible and intelligent work force. The increasingly bitter

struggle of the autonomous workers with the PCI and its associated CGIL trade union

confederation led to the disintegration of working class solidarity within the factories and

the expulsion by management and unions of autonomist activists.xv Political repression

combined with the growing tensions caused by post-Fordist automation, the

decentralisation of production and its resultant mass redundancies, culminating in the

debacle of the March of the 40,000 pro-management workers and the defeat of the

October 1980 FIAT strikethe event signifying the end of the post-1968 long wave of

political and social upheaval.

Colin Crouch and Alessandro Pizzorno state that the regaining of union control over the

most combative sectors (metal and chemical workers) after 1972 and the effects of

economic crisis and industrial restructuring transformed the unions into organs of political

control, so incorporating the base structures of representation created by the 1970 Workers

Charter into their organisational structure.xvi Thus, in their opinion, the autonomous

workers were effectively an unwitting motor for the expansion of trade union control over

industrial conflict, the modernisation of industrial relations and the integration of the

unions into the mechanisms of political consensus and economic regulation.

While partially agreeing with Meluccis observation that the historical workers movement

was no longer the central antagonist of capitalism by the 1960s, Autonomist Marxism

counters the argument that the new social movements represent the end of class-based

7
conflict and politics by positing the locus of the social factory populated by the socialised

worker:

[T]he factory where the working class worked was the society as a

whole, a social factory. The working class had to be redefined to include

nonfactory workers students, women and the unemployed in Italy, but

also similar struggles elsewhere in Europe and the United States as well

as those of peasants in the Third World.xvii

The autonomous workers movement, despite its clear links with the historical organisations

of the industrial working class, needs to be seen, therefore, as a new social movement in

that it organised among the most marginalised sectors of the industrial working class,

including south Italian migrants, women and younger workers, who were in contact with

and were culturally far closer to the students, feminists and counter-cultural youth of the

new social movements, than the more guaranteed unionised workers. While the

autonomous workers movement remained mass workerbased until its demise in 1980, it

also contained non-industrial and unwaged workers and, increasingly, the socialised

worker of the post-Fordist hinterland, as Workers Autonomy became Autonomia.

Marx emphasised the alienation of waged labour from the labourer, causing the worker to

become relatively poorer (both morally and economically) the more wealth he produces,

and that work does not only produce goods but also the worker himself as an objectified

merchandise.xviii The alienation of work was increasingly seen as the removal of time and

opportunities to live a full life, particularly by the 1977 Movement, rather than simply the

exploitation of industrial labour.xix Michel Foucault conceived the formation of modernity

as a disciplinary system that made time for life available to salaried work, but at the

expense of every material quality. Gilles Deleuze and Flix Guattari also recognised

8
capitalism as a system for the expropriation of human time. Thus, capitalist work was

understood by that part of Autonomia closest to the 1977 Movement and the marginality

of mass youth unemployment as more the anthropological expropriation of time for life

than the economic alienation of the worker from her product.xx

The autonomous workers struggle for equality in pay and conditions for blue- and white-

collar workers, for less work and more money, for the democratisation of labour relations

and the unions, and against technological restructuring, union bureaucracy, the post-Fordist

diffused factory, the labour black market and, above all, capitalist work as alienated

activity helped to change the nature of the Italian workplace and its institutions.

Undoubtedly, its revolutionary project of autonomous worker control over production was

defeated by the effects of the post-Fordist transformation of the economy and the

reimposition of union hegemony in place of workers autonomy as a result of political

repression and the historic compromises politics of austerity. What has been its legacy for

contemporary Italian industrial and social relations? Can it be considered a new social

movement or was it simply the extremist wing of the last stand of the industrial mass

working class, the oldest social movement?

The autonomous workers movement should be regarded as a new social movement for its

organisational practice, its social composition and, above all, for its radical break with the

traditional beliefs of the historical workers movement and classical socialism. The

movement was composed of a mixture of mainly young socialised workers in the

diffused factory and older, often southern immigrant, mass workers in the large

factories. This mixture of social and cultural compositions would have made an attempted

national trade union structure out of the question. Thus, the movements organisational

9
model of localised factory committees and assemblieswith some participation in the

Factory Councils, but with no more than city-wide coordination and a minimal national

coordination networkmade it similar to the localised network model of the new social

movements. The strength of this model was to make it far more receptive to the needs of

workers and changes in the workplace than the union bureaucracies, while minimising links

with the hierarchical and nationally organised New Left groups. However, the lack of a

national co-coordinating capacity comparable to the unions ultimately left it vulnerable to

repression and in an isolated, minoritarian position. After 1973 and the switch of emphasis

in the struggle against the diffused factory, its social composition became almost identical

with that of Autonomia, most of whose militants were involved in workplace struggles as

well as those for social appropriation. However, for the antagonist youth of Autonomia

and the 1977 Movement, being a worker, once the essence of proletarian identity, was

more a condition to be avoided and certainly secondary to the counter-cultural and feminist

influences on identity formation. Conversely, particularly among the older mass workers

and those allied with the neo-Leninist position of Organized Autonomy, the workerist

ideals of workers centrality and the primacy of the struggle at the point of production

remained deep-felt and this part of the movement remained ideologically aligned with the

central beliefs, if not practices, of the historical workers movement.

Forms of political organisation and violence: organised, diffused and armed autonomia

The war machine that the prosecutors pointed to was in fact a tank that left pieces all

over the place. [Organised Autonomia] was a reality in which party discipline was

unknown. We amused the judges with our account of this tank that continually broke

10
down, infuriating the public prosecutor who was desperate to prove that this tank did in

fact exist. As it should have done, lets be frank.

Ferruccio Dendenaxxi

Working class autonomy and self-organisation imply a rejection of the historical

organisational forms of the class, namely the political party and the trade union, considered

to be bureaucratic, centralised and hierarchical instruments of mediation and control rather

than vehicles of struggle against capital. Following the FIAT occupation in March 1973 and

the disintegration of the New Left groups, the question of organisation was at the centre of

an inconclusive debate, first within Potere Operaio (Workers Power) and then Autonomia.

Was the loose network of localised collectives and committees that identified with the

project of Workers Autonomy to become centralised as a national party, while avoiding the

sectarianism and bureaucratism of the New Left parties, so as to effectively challenge the

PCI for working class hegemony and eventually state power? Or was it to remain part of

the broader Movement of autonomous workers, women, students and urban youth, to

radicalise them still further and so transform society from the grassroots, obviating the need

to seize power in order to transcend capitalism?

The crisis of the New Left vanguard party model, as adopted by both Potere Operaio and

Lotta Continua (Continuous Struggle), led to the emergence of the area of Autonomia

after 1973. Within Potere Operaio a critique developed of the vanguard party model. Both

Potere Operaio and especially Lotta Continuas demise was conditioned by the feminist

movements influence on their women members and their consequent desire to self-

organise autonomously. Within the area of social Autonomia two organisational

tendencies developed: the movementists and Organized Autonomia, accentuating the

11
diversity of the movement, but also its disarticulation as a coherent, homogenous political

force. Both attempted to break from the New Lefts ideological basis for organisation by

creating structures adapted to the local conditions of class composition and forms of

struggle.

A third form, armed Autonomia, emerged after 1976, opposing the hermetically cellular

armed party model of the Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse) and Front Line (Prima Linea)

with the semi-clandestine parallel structure. Even before the collapse of the 1977

Movement, the intensification of neo-fascist violence and the criminalisation of the

antagonist movements after the Moro Affair,xxii a section of Autonomia had begun to

reorganise itself into parallel structures, part legal political organization, part semi-

clandestine armed group. However, the failure of armed Autonomias attempt to practice a

form of mass armed struggle led some to leave and join the formerly decried armed

parties, on the grounds they were the only effective forms of resistance to state repression

after 1978. Since its inception, Autonomia had practiced various forms of political

violence, including the use of molotov cocktails during riots, armed marches during the

1977 Movement and anti-fascist proletarian patrols (ronde proletare). Nonetheless, many

autonomist intellectuals criticised the Red Brigades in particular as anachronistic, statist

and counter-productive, although widespread sympathy with and ambiguity towards the

armed parties also existed within Autonomia and the broader Movement.xxiii

Organised Workers Autonomy had differing organisational modes and social compositions

in the Veneto region, Rome and Milan, showing that it too was far more a heterogeneous

entity rather than a uniform structure. The arrest of most of its intelligentsia on 7 April

1979 on terrorism charges marked the launch of the full-scale repression and

12
criminalisation of Autonomia, along with most of the new social movements and political

organisations to the left of the PCI. The repressive and marginalising roles of the PCI, the

judiciary and the media, the experience of mass incarceration in the special prisons, the

effects of laws permitting reductions in sentences in return for repentance or

disassociation, the exile of over two hundred of Autonomias most active intellectuals and

militants, and the demobilisation of the new social movements and their withdrawal into

private life (a phenomenon described in Italian as riflusso) were all important factors in

Autonomias relatively rapid disintegration as a mass movement after 1979.

Autonomia emerged as a loosely coordinated network of localised collectives from the

remnants of the New Left vanguard parties, whose organisational model was essentially

in continuity with the Old Left. Within the broader area of autonomy, Organised Workers

Autonomy, in its different regional forms, unsuccessfully attempted to reconstruct itself as

a political party. Armed Autonomia attempted to practice a semi-clandestine form of mass

armed struggle, based on parallel structures as an attempt to create a counter power to

the state, rather than as an insurrectional strategy for the conquest of state power as

practised by the armed parties. However, the logics of clandestine military organisation

and state repression ultimately forced the literally hundreds of armed Autonomia and

second wave groups into adopting the same clandestine structures and modus operandi as

the armed parties. In addition, parts of Organised Workers Autonomy attempted to

reorganise along semi-clandestine lines, but were thwarted by the difficulties of combining

open political activity with illegal clandestine violence. The states attempt to equate

Autonomia with the Red Brigades in particular and terrorism in generalthe Calogero

Theoremmay have been a crudely cynical manoeuvre. However, it served the purpose of

mobilising public opinion through the press to support, at least passively, emergency

13
measures of a dubious constitutional nature, initially used more against Autonomia and

other antagonistic social movements than the terrorist groups themselves. In such a political

climate of fear, repression and the effective suspension of basic human and civil rights,

Autonomia rapidly dissolved, although a small core of collectives remained active,

particularly in Rome and Padua.

In March 1977, the peak of the 1977 Movement, Autonomia was visibly the main political

force to the left of the PCI, the remnants of the New Left groups either still operating in a

dislocated fashion or present as individual activists (cani sciolti) within the 1977

Movement, contesting Organised Workers Autonomys attempt to hegemonise it.

Autonomia at its peak had a widespread network of local publications and radio stations

and was capable of mobilising well over 100,000 militants and sympathisers for major

national demonstrations, such as the banned May Day march in Milan. However, its hubris

was to be brief and, as a movement, it became the victim of its own organisational success,

sliding into todays ghettoised antagonist movement via repression and demobilisation.

Autonomia successfully disputed the New Left groups institutional strategy of promoting

the government of the lefts.xxiv However, it did not develop a sufficient critique of the

New Left organisational model, its style of militancy, or of the internal social relations of

the collective movements, thus failing to break completely with New Left praxis and its

verticism, centralism, bureaucratism and male chauvinism.xxv Thus Autonomia,

organisationally and ideologically, represented more an attempted than a real rupture from

the continuities of the Old and New Left. The rupture, instead, was to come from the 1977

Movement, with which Autonomia was the only postNew Left movement able to interact,

if in a highly problematic manner.

14
In conclusion, Autonomias attempt to organise the social conflicts expressed by a new

generation of actors contained an unresolved tension between the movementist desire to

accentuate the autonomy of these conflicts through a decentralised, horizontal network,

based on collective consensual decision making at the local level, and the organised

tendencys aim of harnessing these conflicts into a revolutionary force through a revised

version of the party form, based on parallel structures. The contradictions between these

two models led to, on one hand, the diffused form of armed struggle practised by armed

Autonomia, which ultimately only provided fresh recruits for the armed parties, and, on

the other, an internally divided movement, which was vulnerable to criminalisation and

repression. From a new social movement theory perspective, Autonomias organisational

experiments represented the pouring of the new wine of the most marginalised new social

movements into the old bottle of a revised version of an essentially residual organisational

form, the Marxist revolutionary party. For orthodox Marxists, Autonomias rejection of

democratic centralism and the historical party form, and its endeavour to organise

marginal sections of the working class as a movement, not in subordinated alliance with

the organised labour movement but in opposition, made it at best adventurist and at worst

reactionary. From an autonomist Marxist perspective, however, Autonomia represented

the first massified attempt in Italy to break from the Old, New and Armed Lefts

ideological and organisational method of the party form, in order to organise

autonomously the emerging socialised workers struggles against work and for the direct

appropriation of social and cultural needs. In that sense, it greatly influenced the future

organisational forms of the Italian and European antagonist social movements at the turn

of the new century.

15
Youth counter-cultures and antagonist communication: creative autonomia and the 1977

movement

Bologna was the happiest moment of this broader Autonomia, it [was] the only town

where there was not a strong Red Brigades presence ... Instead [social Autonomia] was

prominent culturally and intellectually. It had a sort of leadership ... also in the physical

battle, but not in terrorism. The broader church of Autonomia worked very well in Bologna,

so much so that [Organised Autonomia] was rather marginalised I disliked [Organised

Autonomia] intensely then, as I intensely disliked the Red Brigades ... because I thought

there was a plan, a utopia that they were putting over our shoulder, that we were their

donkeys.

Enrico Palandrixxvi

In the cycle of political and social conflict between 1973 and 1980the parabola of

Autonomia from birth to growth to suppression1977 was undoubtedly the strategic year.

The mass movement that emerged during the springan aggregation of students,

unemployed and counter-cultural youth, radical feminists, gays, lesbians, ecologists and

cani sciolti, Autonomia and the remnants of the New Leftwas collectively categorised as

the second society.xxvii The counter-cultural and anti-political components that had been

prominent in the 1968 movements returned to the fore, challenging the neo-Leninist and

operaist premises of Autonomia and the New Left through the ironic communicative

action of the metropolitan Indians and the linguistic transversalism of creative

Autonomia. However, unlike 1968 there was no workers movement in tandem or

potential allies in the institutional left. The rupture with the political institutions was

complete, the stakes were raised to their highest point and only one side could emerge

16
intact from such an uncompromising confrontation. Whereas 1968 saw an explosion of

antagonist movements, behaviours and mentalities that spread throughout Italian society,

synchronising with a profound process of global social, economic and cultural crisis and

change, the 1977 Movement, as the culmination of that process in Italy, represented finally

an implosion of that tendency and its dispersion throughout society in an individualised

rather than a collective form. The outburst of political, social and cultural innovation and

creativity represented in and by the 1977 Movement ultimately fell into a void of

repression and terrorism, its actors unable to maintain the tremendous momentum of

February and March. The issues that had dominated Autonomias agenda since 1973the

refusal of work, new organisational forms, anti-fascism, armed struggle and the

construction of a territorial counter powerwere absorbed and transcended in a matter of

weeks. Autonomia, as the only remaining postNew Left mass entity, was the only overtly

political movement with a space and a voice within the 1977 Movement. However,

Organised Workers Autonomys attempts to hegemonise the movement and to raise the

level of conflict with the state were the object of permanent contestation, whose divisive

effects contributed to the movements crisis and premature demise. While post-Marxist

sociological accounts have emphasised the 1977 Movements violent, self-destructive

aspects and minimised its long-term importance,xxviii more sympathetic views have stressed

its innovatory contribution to the evolution of contemporary Italian and European

society.xxix

From a new social movement theory perspective, 1977 represented the grafting of the new

identity-based demands of youth onto problems created by the economic crisis, particularly

the disequilibria between the graduate supply and labour market demand.xxx Youth and

graduate unemployment had become a major social problem, emphasising the parking lot

17
role of universities.xxxi The movement seemed split between a quest for personal creativity

and freedom, on one hand, and the protest against austerity measures and rationalisation, on

the other. It was characterised by the students awareness of their own social marginality

and imminent unemployment. It also contained a strong anti-nuclear movement, whose

success can be judged by the fact that today, in 2005, there are still no nuclear reactors in

Italy.xxxii It evoked a strongly repressive reaction from the state, with violent police action

against large demonstrations, and forcible evictions from squatted youth centres and

university occupations. Crude measures, such as the banning of all public demonstrations

for three months, the killing of a student by the Carabinieri (paramilitary police force) and

the use of tanks in Bologna, and the slaying of a feminist pacifist by plain clothes police

disguised as autonomists in Rome led to the degeneration of collective action into violence

and encouraged, according to Melucci, the hegemony of the most extremist groups.xxxiii

Evaluating the significance of the 1977 Movement and within it of creative Autonomia, it

can be said this was more cultural and social than political. Its social compositionthe

socialised worker of the diffused social factory from an autonomist Marxist perspective;

unemployed intellectuals and the marginalised youth of the urban periphery from a

sociological viewpointwas anticipatory of similar, but less politically radical movements

in the 1980s and 1990s, particularly the centri sociali. The 1977 Movement represented

the re-vitalisation of the subversive side of the 1960s counter-culture, but in an inhospitable

environment of increasing conformism in official culture, mass unemployment and the

closure of space for collective action by state repression and the terrorism of the extreme

left and right. Although youth issues, such as the creation of social spaces alternative to the

family and work, access to cultural needs and the struggle against mass heroin addiction,

were represented in the 1977 Movement, they have remained largely unresolved.xxxiv In

18
fact, the 1977 Movement had more success in campaigning around more immediate

environmental issues, particularly against nuclear power, anticipating the emergence of the

1980s green movement. Although the movement developed localised communicative

networks based on alternative radio and periodical journalism, and was characterised by its

remarkable linguistic innovation, which allowed it to constantly bewilder and wrong foot

its political enemies, it was unable to prevent its political isolation.

The movements relations with Autonomia were problematic and Organised Workers

Autonomys attempt to hegemonise its strategic direction led to constant friction with the

feminists, creative Autonomia and the remnants of the New Left groups. Organised

Workers Autonomys objective of raising the level of conflict with the state to take full

advantage of the level of mobilisation and the economic and political crises was directly

aimed at forcing the PCI to abandon its historical compromise with the Christian

Democrats. However, its revolutionary political agenda based on violent direct action

clashed with the feminists and creative Autonomias rejection of politics and the exNew

Lefts aim of involving the grassroots of the PCI and unions who were dissatisfied with the

historic compromise. These four tendencies within 1977 were increasingly divided by the

effects of repression, and the attempt to reunite them and revive the overall movement at

the Bologna convention in September failed, as neither Organised Workers Autonomy nor

the Group of 11xxxv were prepared to reach a compromise position, the feminists were

increasingly involved in creating alternative social services and the creatives had already

decided to abandon the political terrain. Thus, the movements long-term significance has

come to be seen as primarily socio-cultural, with its dominant characteristics of counter-

cultural and linguistic innovation, particularly in communicational forms.

19
The 1977 Movement itself represented the emergence of a metropolitan culture with its

attendant new individualism.xxxvi Italian youth subcultures effectively merged with similar

currents in Western societies, indeed inspiring new versions of antagonist youth cultures

and forms of political action in supposedly more advanced countries in the following

decades. However, it also represented the definitive decline of the revolutionary Marxist

form of political action, based on collective solidarity, unity and ideology, only heightened

by the slide of a significant section of that political tradition into terrorism in the late 1970s.

Hence, the movement has been defined as a post-political and even anti-communist

movement.xxxvii However, despite its rejection of many of the premises of the historic

communist movement (including the Old and New Lefts and much of Organised

Autonomia) and its violent relations with the PCI (which it considered Stalinist rather than

communist), ideologically it regarded itself (including the creatives) as a communist

and certainly anti-capitalist movement. It threw open the whole question of what is

communism and how capitalist social relations were to be transformed, rejecting any notion

of taking power, indeed of power itself. It anticipated the hedonistic individualism of

the 1980s, the collapse of social solidarity and a strongly defined working class collective

identity. Despite the seismic changes induced by and since the fall of the Berlin Wall, its

questions on the nature of the transition to a post-capitalist society remain unanswered.

Conclusions: the ambiguity of refusal

So, we have to premise that this word, autonomy, is at the same time a very complex

word but also highly ambiguous. What is important is not to create through this ambiguity

some major contradictions. Keeping in mind that in fact that the thought of Organized

20
Autonomy, in particular that of Toni Negri, is a system of thought which in a certain sense

has theorized ambiguity.

Sergio Bolognaxxxviii

Autonomy is rich but also a big doubt because one doesn't know if autonomy will prevail.

That depends on responsibility, on individual activity and it depends on militancy.

Antonio Negrixxxix

The relatively brief experience of Autonomia in 1970s Italy embodied the ambiguity of

revolutionary action in the post-industrial, post-modern era. The refusal of work was to be

the means by which the working class liberated its time for life from the shackles of

capitalism. The failure of the Autonomous Workers Movement and the radical base of the

unions, however, to gain control of the technological restructuration process instead of

leading to working less so that everyone can have a jobxl resulted in fewer working far

more and under the precarious conditions of the casualised, flexibilised post-Fordist

organisation of labour. The refusal of the party form was the logical consequence of the

spread of the autonomous self-organisation of social conflict from the factory to the social

factory, the working class urban communities, the universities and secondary schools, the

hospitals, offices, prisons and barracks. But did the decentralised horizontal network of

localised collectives fully replace the statist pretensions of the neo-Leninist vanguard

party? Even if it did, was this not simply the substitution of the tyranny of the vertical

structure with that of unaccountable structurelessness, visible hierarchy with invisible

cliquism? These issues remain unresolved and the search for an organisational model that is

both participatively democratic and structurally transparent continues.

21
The refusal of clandestinity was part of the dividing line between Autonomia and the

terrorist formations to which the organisation and practice of violence could not be

delegated, in the same way that workplace and social struggles could not be delegated to

the trade union or the political party.xli Yet the very variety of positions within Autonomia

and the 1977 Movement over the use of political violence, ranging from the non-violence

of many but by no means all of the feminists and creatives to Organised Workers

Autonomys militarism, and its ambiguity towards the actions of the Red Brigades, laid it

open to unfounded accusations of being fellow travellers if not active terrorists, so

hastening its criminalisation and repression. The attempt to extend the use of political

violence through the use of the parallel structure instead of heightening the movements

self-defensive capability led to its fragmentation as the different armed Autonomia groups

were forced to separate from the movement and disappear into clandestinity, some later

merging with the once much criticised Red Brigades.

The refusal of politics was the expression of the alienation of counter-cultural youth and

much of feminism with the at times dryness and macho self-importance of the

revolutionary Marxist politics of the New Left and Organised Workers Autonomy. It was

also an experiment in discovering a new language of antagonism, more suited to the playful

needs of the generation of 1977 than the dense jargon of Marxist discourse, and a new

means of communication through the transversalism of the free radio station. But this

impolitic refusal of the stolid traditions of the revolutionary left quickly disintegrated into

the desperate search for individual solutions to the crisis of the movements, some through

heroin addiction or neo-mysticism, some through repentance or disassociation, some

tragically through suicide, most through the return to the normality of private life and the

psychological self-removalxlii of their transgressive past. Combined with their innovatory

22
skills in the linguistic and communicational fields and chastened by their recent experience

of repression, their new individualism also found an outlet in the mediatisation of Italian

society in the 1980s and the rise of Bettino Craxi, Silvio Berlusconi, Umberto Bossi, the

new social rightxliii and neo-liberalism.xliv

Nevertheless, despite the ambiguities of its legacy, Autonomias relevance to the

development of Italian, European and global social movements in the late twentieth and

early twenty-first centuries is clear. In attempting to transcend the teleological basis of both

the Old and New Lefts by opposing the power of the capitalist state while refusing to seek

power either within it or by capturing its apparatus, Autonomia presaged the need for a new

politics of protest and revolution beyond the boundaries of both the nation-state and the

continental block. In particular, many of the 300,000 global anti-capitalist demonstrators

who protested against the G8 Summit in Genoa in July 2001 could trace their political roots

to Autonomia, particularly the Disobedenti, the centri sociali and the COBAS, and to a

certain extent the north European Autonomen (the backbone of the demonised Black

Block), even, arguably, Reclaim the Streets.xlv However, whereas violence was an accepted

part of social conflict in the 1970s, it is now rejected by the vast majority of Italian and

global social movement participants, partly because of the bitter and still-unconcluded

chapters of the past. Despite the killing of Carlo Giuliani, the first during a demonstration

in Italy since that of Giorgiana Masi in May 1977, the terrible beatings given to sleeping

demonstrators at the Diaz school, and the brutal repression and torture to which the

authorities subjected demonstrators, Genoa was a significant step forward by the

vulnerable, divided, but growing movement of movements. It has marked the return of

widespread international interest in the history and theory of Italian political and social

movements, including the tumultuous experience of Autonomia. Autonomismthe most

23
recent term for the version of Western neo-Marxism rooted in the practice of the twentieth-

century Council Communist uprisings, French and US-dissident Trotskyism, above all in

the extraordinary experience of Italian workerism and Autonomia, and now transformed by

the innovative post-workerist thought of Negri, Michael Hardt, Paolo Virno, Maurizio

Lazzarato, Giorgio Agamben and othersis now a rising force, part of the processes of

cultural and ideological cross-fertilisation within the global anti-capitalist movements,

constantly challenging the state-centredness and verticist orthodoxy of the as-yet dominant

and still fundamentally Old Left New Left factions within the World and European Social

Forums.

Patrick Cuninghame completed a PhD thesis on Autonomia at Middlesex University,

London, and now lectures in sociology at the Universidad Autnoma Ciudad Jurez in

Mexico. <[email protected]>

24
i
Autonomia la capacit di darsi una regola adeguata al desiderio, e non larte di tenere il broncio

al mondo. Settantasette [discontinued], <http://www.taonet.it/77web.htm>. (All translations from

Italian and Spanish into English are mine unless otherwise indicated.)
ii
Fernando Del Corro, Toni Negri y un mundo desmesurado que se quedo sin teora del valor

[interview], Autonomia Social, 2004, <http://usuarios.lycos.es/pete_baumann/Reportaje%20del

%20Corro.htm>.
iii
Mario Tronti, Workers and Capital, Telos, vol. 14, winter 1972, pp. 2562; Harry Cleaver, The

Inversion of Class Perspective in Marxian Theory: From Valorization to Self-valorization, in

Werner Bonefeld, Richard Gunn and Kosmas Psychopedis (eds), Essays in Open Marxism, Pluto

Press, London, 1991, pp. 10644.

iv
Interview in Italian with Ferruccio Dendena, Garbaniate Milanese, August 1998.
v
Figures taken from Nanni Balestrini and Primo Moroni, LOrda dOro: 19681977. La Grande

Ondata Rivoluzionaria e Creativa, Politica ed Esistenziale, Feltrinelli, Milan, 1997 [1988], p. 14.

Of the 15,000 incarcerated (often for up to the legally stipulated maximum of five years and four

months of remand before standing trial) after 1979, 6,000 were sentenced. 40,000 political arrests

took place approximately between 1968 and 1982; almost South American data, as one informant

commented.

vi
Ruggiero, Vincenzo, Sentenced to Normality: The Italian Political Refugees in Paris, Crime,

Law and Social Change Vol. 19, 1993, pp. 3350; Oreste Scalzone and Paolo Persichetti, Il Nemico

Inconfessabile: Sovversione Sociale, Lotta Armata e Stato di Emergenza in Italia dagli Anni

Settanta a Oggi, Odradek, Rome, 1999. Scalzone, a former 1968 students movement leader, co-

founder of Potere Operaio, Autonomia intellectual and organiser and now the unofficial

spokesperson of the remaining Italian exile community in France, went on hunger strike in April

2005 in protest against deteriorating prison conditions and the obstructionism of the political class

and media in Italy on the issue of amnesty or pardon (indulto) as a solution for the remaining

political prisoners and exiles from the 1970s. (Intervista: Senza Cibo per lAmnistia, Il
Manifesto, <http://orestescalzone.over-blog.com/article-281313.html>).

vii
Often squatted and sometimes conceded public buildings, such as disused schools or factories,

taken over by groups of youth, usually from the area antagonista (the successors of Autonomia) or

anarchists (but also extra-comunitari immigrants and even football fans) to use as meeting places

and centres of cultural, social and political activities, given the lack of the provision of such

facilities by local government. A social phenomenon once unique to Italy, where squatted housing is

now much rarer than in Britain, it mushroomed in the 1990s resulting in over one hundred centri

sociali occupati/autogestiti (squatted/self-managed social centres).

viii
Antonio Negri, Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno were founders of Potere Operaio (196873),

the New Left workerist organisation that successfully campaigned to link the 1968 student

movement to the factory-based class struggle, an alliance which lasted far longer in Italy than

anywhere else in Europe. On Potere Operaios dissolution all three were to become leading

intellectual activists within Organised Autonomia and were arrested on 7 April 1979, falsely

accused of being the strategic leadership of the Red Brigades.

ix
The Paduans and the Volsci (named after a street in Rome where they were based) were the axis

around which Organised Autonomia mobilised.

x
Interview in Italian with Alisa Del Re, Padua, 2 June 1999.
xi
Consigli di fabbrica: an attempt to gather together different political positions and restore

hegemony to the unions in a unitary organisational form, capable of expressing the will of the rank

and file.
xii
Antonio Negri, The Workers Party of Mirafiori, in Working Class Autonomy and the Crisis:

Italian Marxist Texts of the Theory and Practice of a Class Movement: 196479, Red Notes/CSE

Books, London, 1979, pp. 615.

xiii
The operaio massa was an Italian workerist concept describing the dominant class composition

in the factories of northern Italy from the mid 1950s, constituted principally of young, unskilled and

semi-skilled internal immigrant assembly line workers from southern Italy, most typically employed
at FIATs Mirafiori plant in Turin, with a similar economic role to other immigrant workers in

Europe such as the Turkish guest workers in West Germany and the Commonwealth immigrants

in the UK.
xiv
A category in fact first used by Marx in Grundrisse in 1858, this further development of the

concept of the mass worker by Negri was an attempt to theorise the new class composition of the

diffused factory; the product of the new social movements, industrial restructuring,

marginalisation and the refusal of work become movement. It remains a more controversial and

less well-defined social figure than the mass worker. For an acute critique of this concept, see

Steve Wright, Storming Heaven: Class Composition and Struggle in Italian Autonomist Marxism,

Pluto Press, London, 2002.

xv
Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro (Italian General Confederation of Labour), the

largest of the three union confederations (CGIL, CISL and UIL). While the CGIL was linked to the

PCI and the PSI (Italian Socialist Party), the CISL was a Catholic organisation with links to the

Christian Democrats, while the UIL mainly had relations with the centre-right secular parties. It is

worth noting that while all these political parties disappeared or changed their names between 1989

and 1993, the union confederations continue to exist with approximately the same political

alliances.
xvi
Colin Crouch and Alessandro Pizzorno (eds), The Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western

Europe since 1968, Macmillan, London, 1978; cited in Alberto Melucci, Challenging Codes:

Collective Action in the Information Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p. 263.
xvii
Harry Cleaver, Reading Capital Politically, AK Press/AntiTheses, Edinburgh/Leeds, 2000

[1979], pp. 578.

xviii
Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, in Early Writings, Pelican/New Left

Review, London, 1975 [1932], pp. 279400.

xix
Franco Berardi (Bifo), DellInnocenza. 1977: LAnno della Premonizione, ombre corte edizioni,

Verona, 1997.
xx
Berardi.
xxi
Interview in Italian with Ferruccio Dendena, Garbaniate Milanese, August 1998.
xxii
At the moment of his kidnapping on 16 March 1978, Aldo Moro, the president of the Christian

Democrat Party, was negotiating with Enrico Berlinguer on possible ways of bringing the PCI more

fully into government. Antonio Negri, Between Historic Compromise and Terrorism: Reviewing

the Experience of Italy in the 1970s, Le Monde Diplomatique (English ed.), September 1998, n. 8

<http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/en/1998/09/11negri>.
xxiii
Interview in Italian with Alisa Del Re, Padua, 2 June 1999.
xxiv
Until their dissolution in the mid 1970s, the tri-partite revolutionary leftLotta Continua,

Avanguardia Operaia and Partito della Unit Proletaria per il Comunismo (a fragile alliance

between PDUP and Il Manifesto) each with its own national daily newspaper (Lotta Continua, Il

Quotidiano dei Lavoratori and Il Manifesto respectively)dominated extra-parliamentary politics

and the sphere of the movements, its objective the government of the lefts (a hypothetical coalition

of the PCI, the PSI and the New Left parties) to replace the weakened and discredited Christian

Democrats regime, apparently in terminal crisis. By 1973 they had evolved into fully fledged

national parties along historical left lines, capable of organising national demonstrations to

intervene on all the major national and international issues, and with an increasingly bureaucratic

and neo-reformist political line, according to their critics in Autonomia.

xxv
R Borgogno, Dai Gruppi allAutonomia, Per il Sessantotto, vol. 11, 1997, pp. 3846.
xxvi
Interview in English with Enrico Palandri, London, June 1999.
xxvii
Alberto Asor Rosa, Le Due Societ, Einaudi, Turin, 1977.
xxviii
Donatella Della Porta, Movimenti Collettivi e Sistema Politico in Italia 19601995, Editori

Laterza, Rome, 1996; Robert Lumley, States of Emergency: Cultures of Revolt in Italy from 1968 to

1978, Verso, London, 1990; Melucci.

xxix
Berardi; Cleaver, 2000; Marco Grispigni, Il Settantasette: Un Manuale per Capire, un Saggio

per Riflettere, il Saggiatore, Milan, 1997; George Katsiaficas, The Subversion of Politics: European
Autonomous Social Movements and the Decolonization of Everyday Life, Humanities Press, New

Jersey, 1997; and Wright.

xxx
Melucci.
xxxi
Unemployment rose from 5.4 per cent of the total workforce in 1975 to 7.7 per cent in 1979, the

highest in Western Europe. Unusually for an advanced capitalist country, female unemployment in

1975 (1.2 million) was double that of men (600,000), reflecting both the huge increase in the

number of women in higher education and the lack of jobs for female graduates or openings in the

labour market for any woman influenced by the feminist movement and keen to escape her

traditional role in the family. (La Societ pre-77, Settantasette [discontinued],

<http://www.taonet.it/77web.htm>).
xxxii
Robin Pomeroy, Kyoto forces Italy to rethink nuclear ban, Independent, 4 March 2005, <

http://www.climateark.org/articles/reader.asp?linkid=39674>.

xxxiii
Melucci, pp. 26872.
xxxiv
Heroin addiction, although less visible than in the first half of the 1980s when parks and streets

near high schools were littered with hypodermic syringes, is still a major social problem in Italy,

now affecting most social strata, not just unemployed, marginalised urban youth. According to a

Milanese informant, around three hundred skilled factory workers in northern Italy died from heroin

addiction or overdoses in 1997. (Interview in Italian with three informants from Milan, July 1998).
xxxv
A group of intellectuals and prominent ex-New Left activists who virulently opposed Organised

Autonomia in the assemblies of the 1977 Movement. Some of the former political foes now work

together in the COBAS autonomous trade union movement.

xxxvi
Grispigni.
xxxvii
Grispigni.
xxxviii
In Patrick Cuninghame, For an Analysis of Autonomia: An Interview with Sergio Bologna,

Left History, vol. 7, no. 2, fall 2001, p. 97.

xxxix
In Del Corro.
xl
Lavorare meno per lavorare tutti, a slogan of the Autonomous Workers Movement, Autonomia

and the 1977 Movement.

xli
Interview with Teresa Ciaccio, Rome, November 1982, Welschen Archive,

<http://www.xs4all.nl/welschen/archivio.html>.

xlii
Rimozione.
xliii
Nuova destra sociale: the term used in Italy to describe the growth of the populist rightist

movements of the Northern League, Forza Italia and the post-fascist Allianza Nazionale (ex-

Movimento Sociale Italiano) in the early 1990s.

xliv
Grispigni.
xlv
The Disobedient, formerly known as the White Overalls Movement (the Wombles in Britain),

now base their political action on the practice of active civil disobedience. For a monograph in

English, see Nicola Montagna, Questioning While Walking: The Centri Sociali and the Forms of

Conflict in the Globalised Societies, in Colin Barker and Mike Tyldesley (eds), Conference Papers

Vol. I: Eighth International Conference on Alternative Futures and Popular Protest, Manchester

Metropolitan University, Manchester, 2002, page numbers unavailable.