Structural Mechanics Module

Users Guide

VERSION 4.3
Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide
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Part No. CM021101

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Structural Mechanics Module 14

Why Structural Mechanics is Important for Modeling . . . . . . . . . 14
What Problems Can It Solve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The Structural Mechanics Physics Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Available Study Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Geometry Levels for Study Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Show More Physics Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . . 28
Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Overview of the Users Guide 34

Chapter 2: Structural Mechanics Modeling

Applying Loads 39
Units, Orientation, and Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Singular Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Moments in the Solid Mechanics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Acceleration Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Temperature LoadsThermal Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Total Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Defining Constraints 44
Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Symmetry Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Kinematic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Rotational Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

CONTENTS |3
 Calculating Reaction Forces 47
Using Predefined Variables to Evaluate Reaction Forces . . . . . . . . 47
Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces . . . . . . . . . 48
Using Surface Traction to Evaluate Reaction Forces . . . . . . . . . . 49

Introduction to Material Models 50

Introduction to Linear Elastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Introduction to Linear Viscoelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Mixed Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Defining Multiphysics Models 52

Thermal-Structural Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Acoustic-Structure Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Thermal-Electric-Structural Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity 54

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Solid Mechanics Interface . . . . . . . 55
Geometric Nonlinearity for the Shell, Plate, Membrane and Truss Interfaces 56
Prestressed Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Geometric Nonlinearity, Frames, and the ALE Method . . . . . . . . 57

Linearized Buckling Analysis 61

Introduction to Contact Modeling 63

Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Contact Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Boundary Settings for Contact Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Time-Dependent Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Multiphysics Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Solver and Mesh Settings for Contact Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Monitoring the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Eigenfrequency Analysis 69

Using Modal Superposition 71

Modeling Damping and Losses 73

Overview of Damping and Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 | CONTENTS
 Linear Viscoelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Rayleigh Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Equivalent Viscous Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Loss Factor Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Explicit Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Piezoelectric Losses 81
About Piezoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Piezoelectric Material Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Piezoelectric Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
No Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References for Piezoelectric Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Springs and Dampers 93

Tips for Selecting the Correct Solver 95

Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Selecting Iterative Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Specifying Tolerances and Scaling for the Solution Components . . . . . 97

Using Perfectly Matched Layers 98

PML Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Known Issues When Modeling Using PMLs . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Chapter 3: Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics Geometry and Structural Mechanics Physics Symbols

104
3D Solid Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2D Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Axisymmetric Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Physics Symbols for Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
About Coordinate Systems and Physics Symbols . . . . . . . . . . 108
Displaying Physics Symbols in the Graphics WindowAn Example . . . 108

CONTENTS |5
 The Solid Mechanics Interface 111
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Solid Mechanics
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
About the Body, Boundary, Edge, and Point Loads . . . . . . . . . 123
Body Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Boundary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Free. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fixed Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Prescribed Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Antisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Perfectly Matched Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Linear Viscoelastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Thermal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Rigid Connector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Harmonic Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Applied Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Applied Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Mass and Moment of Inertia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Rigid Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Pairs for the Solid Mechanics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Initial Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Perfectly Matched Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Prescribed Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Prescribed Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Spring Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

6 | CONTENTS
 Pre-Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Thin Elastic Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Added Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Low-Reflecting Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface 160

Material and Spatial Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Coordinate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Lagrangian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
About Linear Elastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Strain-Displacement Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Stress-Strain Relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Plane Strain and Plane Stress Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Pressure Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Equation Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Setting up Equations for Different Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Damping Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Modeling Large Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
About Linear Viscoelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
About Contact Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Theory for the Rigid Connector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Initial Stresses and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
About Spring Foundations and Thin Elastic Layers . . . . . . . . . 201
About Added Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface . . . 205
About the Low-Reflecting Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . 209
Cyclic Symmetry and Floquet Periodic Conditions . . . . . . . . . 210

Chapter 4: Shells and Plates

The Shell and Plate Interfaces 214

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Shell and Plate
Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

CONTENTS |7
 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Initial Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
About the Body Load, Face Load, Edge Load, and Point Load Features . 226
Body Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Face Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Pinned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
No Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Prescribed Displacement/Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Prescribed Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Prescribed Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Antisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Rigid Connector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Results Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Theory for the Shell and Plate Interfaces 241

About Shells and Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Theory Background for the Shell and Plate Interfaces . . . . . . . . 242
Reference for the Shell Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Chapter 5: Beams

The Beam Interface 254

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Beam Interface . . . 256
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Initial Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Cross Section Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

8 | CONTENTS
 Section Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
About the Edge Load and Point Load Features. . . . . . . . . . . 268
Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Prescribed Displacement/Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Prescribed Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Prescribed Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Pinned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
No Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Antisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Point Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Point Mass Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Theory for the Beam Interface 282

About Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
In-Plane Euler Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
3D Euler Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Strain-Displacement/Rotation Relation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Stress-Strain Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Thermal Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Initial Load and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Stress Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Thermal Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Common Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

C h a p t e r 6 : Tr u s s e s

The Truss Interface 304

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Truss Interface . . . 306
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Initial Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

CONTENTS |9
 Cross Section Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
About the Edge Load and Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Straight Edge Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Pinned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Prescribed Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Prescribed Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Prescribed Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Antisymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Point Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Point Mass Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Theory for the Truss Interface 318

About Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Theory Background for the Truss Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Chapter 7: Membranes

The Membrane Interface 326

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Membrane Interface . . 328
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Initial Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Face Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Edge Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Prescribed Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Theory for the Membrane Interface 335

About Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Theory Background for the Membrane Interface . . . . . . . . . . 336

10 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 8: Multiphysics Interfaces

The Thermal Stress Interface 341

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Thermal Stress
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Thermal Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Thermal Hyperelastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface 351

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Fluid-Structure
Interaction Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Prescribed Mesh Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Basic Modeling Steps for Fluid-Structure Interaction . . . . . . . . 358

Theory for the Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface 360

The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface 362

Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Joule Heating and
Thermal Expansion Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

The Piezoelectric Devices Interface 369

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Piezoelectric Devices
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Piezoelectric Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Electrical Material Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Damping and Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Remanent Electric Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Dielectric Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

CONTENTS | 11
 Theory for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface 382
The Piezoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Piezoelectric Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Piezoelectric Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Piezoelectric Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Initial Stress, Strain, and Electric Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . 386
Geometric Nonlinearity for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface . . . . 386
Damping and Losses Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
References for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface . . . . . . . . . 392

Chapter 9: Materials

Material Library and Databases 394

About the Material Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
About Using Materials in COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Opening the Material Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Using Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Liquids and Gases Material Database 401

Liquids and Gases Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database . . . . . . . 403

MEMS Materials Database 405

References for the MEMS Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . 408

Piezoelectric Materials Database 409

Chapter 10: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 414

12 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Structural Mechanics Module, an optional add-on

package that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics modeling environment with
customized physics interfaces that solve problems in the fields of structural and
solid mechanics, including special physics interface for modeling of shells, beams,
plates, and trusses.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module and includes a
summary of the physics interfaces as well as information about where you can find
additional documentation and model examples. The last section is a brief overview
with links to each chapter in this guide.

About the Structural Mechanics Module

Overview of the Users Guide

13
 About the Structural Mechanics
Module
In this section:

Why Structural Mechanics is Important for Modeling

What Problems Can It Solve?
The Structural Mechanics Physics Guide
Available Study Types
Geometry Levels for Study Capabilities
Show More Physics Options
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
Typographical Conventions

Overview of the Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

Why Structural Mechanics is Important for Modeling

The Structural Mechanics Module solves problems in the fields of structural and solid
mechanics, adding special physics interfaces for modeling shells and beams, for
example.

The physics interfaces in this module are fully multiphysics enabled, making it possible
to couple them to any other physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics or the other
modules. Available physics interfaces include:

Solid mechanics for 2D plane stress and plane strain, axial symmetry, and 3D solids
Piezoelectric modeling
Beams in 2D and 3D, Euler theory
Truss and cable elements
Shells and plates

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The modules study capabilities include static, eigenfrequency, time dependent
(transient), frequency response, and parametric studies, as well as contact and friction.
There are also predefined interfaces for linear elastic and viscoelastic materials.
Materials can be isotropic, orthotropic, or fully anisotropic, and you can use local
coordinate systems to specify material properties. Large deformations can also be
included in a study.

Coupling structural analysis with thermal analysis is one example of multiphysics easily
implemented with the module, which provides predefined multiphysics interfaces for
thermal stress and other types of multiphysics. Piezoelectric materials, coupling the
electric field and strain in both directions are fully supported inside the module
through special multiphysics interfaces solving for both the electric potential and
displacements. Piezoelectric materials can also be analyzed with the constitutive
relations on either stress-charge or strain-charge form. Structural mechanics couplings
are common in simulations done with COMSOL Multiphysics and occur in interaction
with, for example, fluid flow (fluid-structure interaction, FSI), chemical reactions,
acoustics, electric fields, magnetic fields, and optical wave propagation.

What Problems Can It Solve?

The Structural Mechanics Module contains a set of physics interfaces adapted to a
broad category of structural-mechanics analysis. The module serves as an excellent tool
for the professional engineer, researcher, and teacher. In education, the benefit of the
short learning curve is especially useful because educators need not spend excessive
time learning the software and can instead focus on the physics and the modeling
process.

The module is a collection of physics interfaces for COMSOL Multiphysics that

handles static, eigenfrequency, transient, frequency response, parametric, transient
thermal stress, and other analyses for applications in structural mechanics, solid
mechanics, and piezoelectricity.

STATIC ANALYSIS
In a static analysis the load and constraints are fixed in time.

EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS
An eigenfrequency analysis finds the undamped eigenfrequencies and mode shapes of
a model. Sometimes referred to as the free vibration of a structure.

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 15

 TR A N S I E N T A N A L Y S I S
A transient analysis finds the transient response for a time-dependent model, taking
into account mass, mass moment of inertia. The transient analysis can be either direct,
or using a modal solution.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

A frequency-response analysis finds the steady-state response from harmonic loads.
The frequency-response analysis can be either direct, or using a modal solution.

LINEAR BUCKLING STUDY

A linear buckling analysis uses the stiffness coming from stresses and material to define
an eigenvalue problem where the eigenvalue is a load factor that, when multiplied with
the actual load, gives the critical load in a linear context.

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
A parametric analysis finds the solution dependence due to the variation of a specific
parameter, which could be, for instance, a material property or the position of a load.

THERMAL STRESS
In a transient thermal stress study, the program neglects mass effects, assuming that the
time scale in the structural mechanics problem is much smaller than the time scale in
the thermal problem.

LARGE DEFORMATIONS
You can model large deformations via a number of available Hyperelastic Materials.
You can also enable the geometric nonlinearity for the Linear Elastic Material under all
solid mechanics interfaces except the Beam interface. The interface then replaces the
small strain with the Green-Lagrange strain and the stress with the second
Piola-Kirchhoff stress. Such material is suitable to study deformations accompanied by
possible large rotations but small to moderate strains in the material, and it is
sometimes referred to as Saint Venant-Kirchhoff hyperelastic material. To solve the
problem, the program uses a total Lagrangian formulation..

The hyperelastic material and elastoplastic material features are available

with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 Additional functionality and material models for geomechanics and soil
mechanicssoil plasticity, concrete, and rock material modelsis
Tip available with the Geomechanics Module.

ELASTOPLASTIC MATERIALS
An elastoplastic analysis involves a nonlinear material with or without hardening. Three
different hardening models are available:

Isotropic
Kinematic
Perfectly plastic

The elastoplastic materials are available in the Solid Mechanics interface.

The hyperelastic material and elastoplastic material features are available

with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

HYPERELASTIC MATERIALS
In hyperelastic materials the stresses are computed from a strain energy density
function. They are often used to model rubber, but also used in acoustic elasticity. Four
different models are available:

Neo-Hookean
Mooney-Rivlin
Murnaghan
User-defined by providing the strain energy function

The hyperelastic materials are available in the Solid Mechanics interface.

The hyperelastic material and elastoplastic material features are available

with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 17

 LINEAR VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS
Viscoelastic materials have a time-dependent response, even if the loading is constant.
For this type of materials a viscoelastic transient initialization is needed to precompute
initial states for transient and quasi-static transient analyses. The initialization is a
regime of instantaneous deformation and/or loading. The Linear Viscoelastic Material
is available in the Solid Mechanics interface.

CONTACT MODELING
You can model contact between parts of a structure. The Solid Mechanics interface
supports contact with or without friction. The contact algorithm is implemented based
on the augmented Lagrangian method.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND APPLICATIONS

Examples of applications include thin plates loaded in a plane (plane stress), thick
structures with no strain in the out-of-plane direction (plane strain), axisymmetric
structures, thin-walled 3D structures (shells), and general 3D structures modeled
using solid elements.

The Structural Mechanics Physics Guide

The Acoustic-Structure Interaction and Poroelasticity Interfaces require

and couple with the Structural Mechanics Module and are discussed in
the applicable user guides. For details about the Acoustic-Structure
Interaction interface, see the Acoustic Module Users Guide. For details
Note
about the Poroelasticity interface, see the Subsurface Flow Module
Users Guide.

At any time, a new model can be created or physics added. Right-click the Root (top)
node and select Add Model to open the Model Wizard, or right-click a Model node and
select Add Physics.

Depending on the physics interface, specify parameters defining a problem on points,

edges (3D), boundaries, and domains. It is possible to specify loads and constraints on
all available geometry levels, but material properties can only be specified for the

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 domains, except for shells, beams, and trusses, where they are defined on the boundary
or edge level.

Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

Available Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also
Structural Mechanics Modeling

PHYSICS ICON TAG SPACE PRESET STUDIES

DIMENSION

Fluid Flow

Fluid-Structure fsi 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Interaction axisymmetric
Structural Mechanics

Solid Mechanics* solid 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

axisymmetric prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Thermal Stress ts 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric frequency domain; time
dependent
Shell shell 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;
prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 19

 PHYSICS ICON TAG SPACE PRESET STUDIES
DIMENSION

Plate plate 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Beam beam 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal; time
dependent; time dependent
modal
Truss truss 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Membrane mem 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric prestressed analysis,
eigenfrequency; time
dependent; time dependent
modal; frequency domain;
frequency-domain modal;
prestressed analysis,
frequency domain
Joule Heating and tem 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Thermal Expansion axisymmetric time dependent
Piezoelectric Devices pzd 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric time dependent;
time-dependent modal;
frequency domain; frequency
domain modal

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS ICON TAG SPACE PRESET STUDIES
DIMENSION

Optimization opt all dimensions stationary; eigenfrequency;

time dependent; frequency
domain; eigenvalue
Sensitivity sens all dimensions stationary; eigenfrequency;
time dependent; frequency
domain; eigenvalue
* This is an enhanced interface, which is included with the base COMSOL package but has
added functionality for this module.

Available Study Types

The Structural Mechanics Module performs stationary, eigenfrequency,
time-dependent, frequency domain (frequency response), linear buckling, parametric,
quasi-static, and viscoelastic transient initialization studies. The different study types
require different solvers and equations.

STATIONARY STUDY
A static analysis solves for stationary displacements, rotations, and temperature
(depending on the type of physics interface). All loads and constraints are constant in
time. The equations include neither mass nor mass moment of inertia.

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDY
An eigenfrequency study solves for the eigenfrequencies and the shape of the
eigenmodes. When performing an eigenfrequency analysis, specify whether to look at
the mathematically more fundamental eigenvalue, , or the eigenfrequency, f, which is
more commonly used in a structural mechanics context.

f = ---------
2i

If damping is included in the model, an eigenfrequency solution returns the damped

eigenvalues. In this case, the eigenfrequencies and mode shapes are complex.

TIME-DEPENDENT STUDY
A time-dependent (transient) study solves a time-dependent (unsteady) problem
where loads and constraints can vary in time. Time dependent studies can be
performed using either a direct or a modal method.

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 21

 For transient analysis, COMSOL Multiphysics models damping with the Rayleigh
damping model, which assumes that the damping matrix C is a linear combination of
the stiffness matrix K and the mass matrix M:

C = dM M + dK K

FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDY

A frequency domain study (frequency response analysis) solves for the linear response
from harmonic loads. For this study type, you can model damping using Rayleigh
damping (in the same way as in a transient analysis) or using loss factor damping, where
a loss factor is specified. Frequency domain studies can be performed using either a
direct or a modal method.

For a frequency domain study, the module divides harmonic loads into two parts:

The amplitude, F
The phase (FPh)

Together they define a harmonic load whose amplitude and phase shift can depend on
the excitation angular frequency or excitation frequency f.

F freq = F cos t + F Ph ----------
180
= 2f

The result of a frequency response analysis is a complex time-dependent displacement

field, which can be interpreted as an amplitude uamp and a phase angle uphase. The
actual displacement at any point in time is the real part of the solution:

u = u amp cos 2f t + u phase

COMSOL Multiphysics allows the visualization of the amplitudes and phases as well
as the solution at a specific angle (time). The Solution at angle parameter makes this
i
task easy. When plotting the solution, the program multiplies it by e , where is the
angle in radians that corresponds to the angle (specified in degrees) in the Solution at
angle field. COMSOL Multiphysics plots the real part of the evaluated expression:

u = u amp cos + u phase

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The angle is available as the variable phase (in radians) and is allowed in plotting
expressions. Both freq and omega are available variables.

In a frequency response analysis, everything is treated as harmonic:

prescribed displacements, velocities, accelerations, thermal strains, and
Note initial stress and strains; not only the forces.

LINEAR BUCKLING STUDY

A linear buckling study includes the stiffening effects from stresses coming from
nonlinear strain terms. The two stiffnesses from stresses and material define an
eigenvalue problem where the eigenvalue is a load factor that, when multiplied with
the actual load, gives the critical loadthe value of a given load that causes the
structure to become unstable in a linear context. The linear buckling study step uses
the eigenvalue solver.

Another way to calculate the critical load is to include large deformation effects and
increase the load until the load has reached its critical value. Linear buckling is available
in the Solid Mechanics, Shell, Plate, and Truss interfaces.

Linearized Buckling Analysis

See Also

PRESTRESSED ANALYSIS, EIGENFREQUENCY AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN

The Prestressed Analysis, Eigenfrequency, and Prestress Analysis, Frequency Domain
study types make it possible to compute the eigenfrequencies and the response to
harmonic loads that are affected by a static preload.

These studies involve two study steps for the solver (a Static study step
plus an Eigenfrequency or Frequency Domain study step). You need to
add a new study to the model to get access to such combined study types,
and they cannot be added directly as new study steps to the existing study
Note
(solver sequence). You also have them available when starting a new
model.

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 23

 For an example of a Prestressed Analysis, Eigenfrequency study, see
Eigenfrequency Analysis of a Rotating Blade: Model Library path
Model Structural_Mechanics_Module/Dynamics_and_Vibration/rotating_blade

Eigenfrequency Analysis
See Also

V I S C O E L A S T I C TR A N S I E N T I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N
A viscoelastic transient initialization precomputes initial states for transient and
quasi-static transient analyses when the Linear Viscoelastic Material is used. It is a
regime of instantaneous deformation and/or loading.

Viscoelastic transient initialization is available only in the Solid Mechanics interfaces.

THERMAL COUPLINGS
Solids expand with temperature, which causes thermal strains to develop in the
material. These thermal strains combine with the elastic strains from structural loads
to form the total strain:

= el + th

Thermal strain depends on the temperature, T, the stress-free reference temperature,

Tref, and the coefficient of thermal expansion, :

th = T T ref

Thermal expansion affects displacements, stresses, and strains. This effect is added
automatically in The Thermal Stress Interface and The Joule Heating and Thermal
Expansion Interface. Also add thermal expansion to the other interfaces. Only the
coefficient of thermal expansion needs to be specified and the two temperature fields,

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
T and Tref. The temperature field is a model input that typically is computed by a Heat
Transfer interface. Temperature coupling can be used in any type of study.

Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity

Eigenfrequency Analysis
Tips for Selecting the Correct Solver
See Also
Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide
Available Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Geometry Levels for Study Capabilities

The column for the dependent variables shows the field variables that formulate the
underlying equations. Depending on the engineering assumptions and the geometry
dimension, these variables include a subset of the displacement field u, v, and w in the
global coordinate system, pressure, and temperature. The Piezoelectric Devices
interface also includes the electric potential V. The Shell and Plate interfaces use as
dependent variables the variables ax, ay, and az, which are the displacements of the
shell normals in the global x, y, and z directions, respectively. Such variables can be
expressed in terms of customary rotations x,y, and z about the global axes.

For each physics interface, the table indicates the availability of various analysis
capabilities. Finally the table lists the geometry levels (where data such as material
properties, loads, and constraints are specified). Edges exist only in 3D geometries.

Solver Studies and Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide
See Also Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 25

 PHYSICS STUDY TYPES GEOMETRY
LEVEL

BUILT-IN TEMPERATURE COUPLING

QUASI-STATIC TRANSIENT

NONLINEAR MATERIALS
DEPENDENT VARIABLES

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

LARGE DEFORMATION
EIGENFREQUENCY

LINEAR BUCKLING
DEFAULT NAME

STATIONARY

BOUNDARIES
PARAMETRIC
TRANSIENT

DOMAINS
POINTS

EDGES
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Solid solid u, (p)

Mechanics
Shell shell u, ax,
ay, az
Plate plate u, ax, ay
Beam beam u,
Truss truss u
Thermal ts u, (p), T
Stress
Joule Heating tem u, (p),
and Thermal
Expansion T, V
Piezoelectric pzd u,V
Devices
FLUID FLOW

Fluid-Structur fsi usolid,

e Interaction
ufluid, p

Show More Physics Options

There are several features available on many physics interfaces or individual nodes. This
section is a short overview of the options and includes links to the COMSOL

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 Multiphysics Users Guide or COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide where
additional information is available.

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide do not work in the
Important PDF, only from within the online help.

To locate and search all the documentation for this information, in

COMSOL, select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either
enter a search term or look under a specific module in the documentation
Tip
tree.

To display additional features for the physics interfaces and feature nodes, click the
Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the applicable option.

After clicking the Show button ( ), some sections display on the settings window
when a node is clicked and other features are available from the context menu when a
node is right-clicked. For each, the additional sections that can be displayed include
Equation, Advanced Settings, Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent
Stabilization.

You can also click the Expand Sections button ( ) in the Model Builder to always show
some sections or click the Show button ( ) and select Reset to Default to reset to
display only the Equation and Override and Contribution sections.

For most physics nodes, both the Equation and Override and Contribution sections are
always available. Click the Show button ( ) and then select Equation View to display
the Equation View node under all physics nodes in the Model Builder.

Availability of each feature, and whether it is described for a particular physics node, is
based on the individual physics selected. For example, the Discretization, Advanced

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 27

 Settings, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization sections are often
described individually throughout the documentation as there are unique settings.

SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN

COMSOL
MULTIPHYSICS USER
GUIDE OR
REFERENCE GUIDE

Show More Options and Showing and Expanding Advanced Users Guide
Expand Sections Physics Sections
The Model Builder Window
Discretization Show Discretization Users Guide
Element Types and Discretization
Finite Elements Reference Guide
Discretization of the Equations
Discretization - Splitting Compile Equations Reference Guide
of complex variables
Pair Selection Identity and Contact Pairs Users Guide
Specifying Boundary Conditions for
Identity Pairs
Consistent and Show Stabilization Users Guide
Inconsistent Stabilization
Stabilization Techniques Reference Guide
Numerical Stabilization
Geometry Working with Geometry Users Guide
Constraint Settings Using Weak Constraints Users Guide

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL
Multiphysics, including licensing and technical information. The electronic

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 documentation, Dynamic Help, and the Model Library are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer, the
blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in a
different users guide. However, if you are using the online help in
Important COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to other modules, model
examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide describe all interfaces and functionality included with the basic COMSOL
Multiphysics license. These guides also have instructions about how to use COMSOL
Multiphysics and how to access the documentation electronically through the
COMSOL Multiphysics help desk.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:

Press F1 for Dynamic Help,

Click the buttons on the toolbar, or
Select Help>Documentation ( ) or Help>Dynamic Help ( ) from the main menu

and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.

THE MODEL LIBRARY

Each model comes with documentation that includes a theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL
as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications.

SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions in
most examples, but other unit systems are available.

To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library ( ) from the main menu, and
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Dynamic

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 29

 Help button ( ) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or
browse by module.

The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update ( ) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.

If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at [email protected].

CONT ACT ING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.

COMSOL WEB SITES

Main Corporate web site www.comsol.com

Worldwide contact information www.comsol.com/contact
Technical Support main page www.comsol.com/support
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase
Product updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL User Community www.comsol.com/community

Typographical Conventions
All COMSOL users guides use a set of consistent typographical conventions that make
it easier to follow the discussion, understand what you can expect to see on the
graphical user interface (GUI), and know which data must be entered into various
data-entry fields.

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
In particular, these conventions are used throughout the documentation:

CONVENTION EXAMPLE

text highlighted in blue Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information

in the PDF. When you are using the online help desk in
COMSOL Multiphysics, these links also work to other
modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
boldface font A boldface font indicates that the given word(s) appear
exactly that way on the COMSOL Desktop (or, for toolbar
buttons, in the corresponding tip). For example, the Model
Builder window ( ) is often referred to and this is the
window that contains the model tree. As another example,
the instructions might say to click the Zoom Extents button
( ), and this means that when you hover over the button
with your mouse, the same label displays on the COMSOL
Desktop.
Forward arrow symbol > The forward arrow symbol > is instructing you to select a
series of menu items in a specific order. For example,
Options>Preferences is equivalent to: From the Options
menu, choose Preferences.
Code (monospace) font A Code (monospace) font indicates you are to make a
keyboard entry in the user interface. You might see an
instruction such as Enter (or type) 1.25 in the Current
density field. The monospace font also is an indication of
programming code or a variable name.
Italic Code (monospace) An italic Code (monospace) font indicates user inputs and
font parts of names that can vary or be defined by the user.
Arrow brackets <> The arrow brackets included in round brackets after either
following the Code a monospace Code or an italic Code font means that the
(monospace) or Code content in the string can be freely chosen or entered by the
(italic) fonts user, such as feature tags. For example,
model.geom(<tag>) where <tag> is the geometrys tag
(an identifier of your choice).
When the string is predefined by COMSOL, no bracket is
used and this indicates that this is a finite set, such as a
feature name.

KEY TO THE GRAPHICS

Throughout the documentation, additional icons are used to help navigate the
information. These categories are used to draw your attention to the information

ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 31

 based on the level of importance, although it is always recommended that you read
these text boxes.

ICON NAME DESCRIPTION

Caution A Caution icon is used to indicate that the user should proceed
carefully and consider the next steps. It might mean that an
action is required, or if the instructions are not followed, that
there will be problems with the model solution.
Important An Important icon is used to indicate that the information
provided is key to the model building, design, or solution. The
information is of higher importance than a note or tip, and the
user should endeavor to follow the instructions.
Note A Note icon is used to indicate that the information may be of
use to the user. It is recommended that the user read the text.
Tip A Tip icon is used to provide information, reminders, short
cuts, suggestions of how to improve model design, and other
information that may or may not be useful to the user.
See Also The See Also icon indicates that other useful information is
located in the named section. If you are working on line, click
the hyperlink to go to the information directly. When the link is
outside of the current PDF document, the text indicates this,
for example See The Laminar Flow Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide. Note that if you are in
COMSOL Multiphysics online help, the link will work.
Model The Model icon is used in the documentation as well as in
COMSOL Multiphysics from the View>Model Library menu. If
you are working online, click the link to go to the PDF version
of the step-by-step instructions. In some cases, a model is only
available if you have a license for a specific module. These
examples occur in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.
The Model Library path describes how to find the actual model
in COMSOL Multiphysics, for example
If you have the RF Module, see Radar Cross Section: Model
Library path RF_Module/Tutorial_Models/radar_cross_section
Space Dimension Another set of icons are also used in the Model Builderthe
model space dimension is indicated by 0D , 1D , 1D
axial symmetry , 2D , 2D axial symmetry , and 3D
icons. These icons are also used in the documentation to
clearly list the differences to an interface, feature node, or
theory section, which are based on space dimension.

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
ABOUT THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE | 33
 Overview of the Users Guide
The Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Model Library? this information is also searchable from the Help menu on
Tip the COMSOL Desktop.

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S , G L O S S A R Y, A N D I N D E X
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

MODELING WITH THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODULE

The Structural Mechanics Modeling chapter gives you an insight on how to approach
the modeling of various structural mechanics problems. The contents cover subjects
including Applying Loads, Defining Constraints, Calculating Reaction Forces, and
Eigenfrequency Analysis. It also provides you with an Introduction to Material Models
helps you start Defining Multiphysics Models and Modeling with Geometric
Nonlinearity.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE

The Solid Mechanics chapter describes The Solid Mechanics Interface, which is used
to model 3D solids, not thin or slender, and plane strain and plane stress 2D models
and axisymmetric models. an overview of Solid Mechanics Geometry and Structural
Mechanics Physics Symbols and the Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface is also
included.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES

The Shells and Plates chapter describes The Shell and Plate Interfaces, which are used
to model thin 3D structures (shell) and out-of-plane loaded plates (plate). The
underlying theory for each interface is also included at the end of the chapter.

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE BEAM INTERFACE
The Beams chapter describes The Beam Interface, which models Euler
(Euler-Bernoulli) beams for modeling slender 3D and 2D structures. Typical examples
are frameworks and latticeworks. The underlying theory for the interface is also
included at the end of the chapter.

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E
The Trusses chapter describes The Truss Interface, which models slender 3D and 2D
structures with components capable to withstand axial forces only. Typical example is
latticeworks. The underlying theory for the interface is also included at the end of the
chapter.

THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE

The Membranes describes The Membrane Interface, which can be used for prestressed
membranes, cladding on solids, and balloons, for example. The underlying theory for
the interface is also included at the end of the chapter.

THE MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Multiphysics Interfaces chapter describes these interfaces found under the
Structural Mechanics branch of the Model Wizard:

The Thermal Stress Interface combines a Solid Mechanics interface with a Heat
Transfer interface. The coupling appears on the domain level, where the
temperature from the Heat Transfer interface acts as a thermal load for the Solid
Mechanics interface, causing thermal expansion.
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface combines solid mechanics
using a thermal linear elastic material with an electromagnetic Joule heating model.
This is a multiphysics combination of solid mechanics, electric currents, and heat
transfer for modeling of, for example, thermoelectromechanical (TEM)
applications.
The Piezoelectric Devices Interface include a piezoelectric material but also full
functionality for Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics. Piezoelectric materials in 3D,
2D plane strain and plane stress, and axial symmetry, optionally combined with
other solids and air, for example.

The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface, which is found under the Fluid Flow branch
of the Model Wizard, is also described in this chapter. The interface combines fluid
flow with solid mechanics to capture the interaction between the fluid and the solid
structure. A Solid Mechanics interface and a single-phase flow interface model the

O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E | 35
 solid and the fluid, respectively. The fluid-structure interactions appear on the
boundaries between the fluid and the solid.

MATERIALS
The Materials chapter describes the material databases included with the Structural
Mechanics ModuleLiquids and Gases, with temperature-dependent fluid dynamic
and thermal properties, MEMS, an extended solid materials library with metals,
semiconductors, insulators, and polymers common in MEMS devices, and a
Piezoelectric database with over 20 common piezoelectric materials. The materials
include temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.

36 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Structural Mechanics Modeling

The goal of this chapter is to give you an insight on how to approach the modeling
of various structural mechanics problems. In this chapter:

Applying Loads
Defining Constraints
Calculating Reaction Forces
Introduction to Material Models
Defining Multiphysics Models
Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity
Linearized Buckling Analysis
Introduction to Contact Modeling
Eigenfrequency Analysis
Using Modal Superposition
Modeling Damping and Losses
Piezoelectric Losses
Springs and Dampers

37
 Tips for Selecting the Correct Solver
Using Perfectly Matched Layers

38 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Apply i ng L o a ds
An important aspect of structural analysis is the formulation of the forces applied to
the modeled structure. The freedom is available to use custom expressions, predefined
or user-defined coordinate systems, and even variables from other modeling interfaces.

Loads can be applied in the structural mechanics interfaces on the body, face, edge, or
point levels. Add The Solid Mechanics Interface ( ) to the Model Builder, then
right-click the node to select Body Load, Face Load, Edge Load, or Point Load from the
context menu. This guide includes a detailed description of the functionality for each
physics interface.

In this section:

Units, Orientation, and Visualization

Load Cases
Singular Loads
Moments in the Solid Mechanics Interface
Pressure
Acceleration Loads
Temperature LoadsThermal Expansion
Total Loads

Units, Orientation, and Visualization

USING UNITS
Enter loads in any unit, independently of the base SI unit system in the model, because
COMSOL Multiphysics automatically converts any unit to the base SI unit system. To
use the feature for automatic unit conversion, enter the unit in square brackets, for
example, 100[lbf/in^2].

PREDEFINED AND CUSTOM COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In this module, different predefined coordinate systems are available when loads are
specified. There is always the global coordinate system. Depending on the
dimensionality of the part being worked with, there can also be predefined coordinate
systems such as and the local tangent and normal coordinate system for boundaries.

APPLYING LOADS | 39
 Custom coordinate systems are also available and are useful, for example, to specify a
load in any direction without splitting it into components. Right-click the Definitions
node ( ) in the Model Tree, to select a Coordinate System from the context menu.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Using Units
See Also
Coordinate Systems

Some coordinate systems can have solution dependent axis directions. If

you use such a system for defining a load, the directions of the load follow
the moving coordinate axis directions if the Include geometric nonlinearity
Note check box is selected under the Study settings section of the current study
step.

Load Cases
Similar to the familiar concept of load cases, but more powerful, is the parametric
solver. The Parametric feature is available as an attribute to the Stationary solver
operation feature. Under the General section of the Parametric nodes settings window,
name parameters and specify the corresponding list of values. With the parameters
defined, the magnitude, distribution, and location of loads can easily be controlled.
Moreover, the parameters are available for use in any expression of a model.

Solver Studies and Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide
See Also

For an example about how to set up expressions for controlling position

and distribution of loads using the parametric solver, see Pratt Truss
Bridge: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/
Model
Civil_Engineering/pratt_truss_bridge

40 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Singular Loads
In reality, loads always act on a finite area. However, in a model a load defined on a
point or an edge, which leads to a singularity. The reason for this is that points and lines
have no area, so the stress becomes infinite. Because of the stress singularity, there are
high stress values in the area surrounding the applied load. The size of this area and
the magnitude of the stresses depend on both the mesh and the material properties.
The stress distribution at locations far from these singularities is unaffected according
a to a well-known principle in solid mechanics, the St. Venants principle. It states that
for an elastic body, statically equivalent systems of forces produce the same stresses in
the body, except in the immediate region where the loads are applied.

Figure 2-1 shows a plate with a hole in plane stress loaded with a distributed load and
a point load of the same magnitude. The mesh consists of triangular elements with
quadratic shape functions. The high stress around the point load is dissipated within
the length of a few elements for both mesh cases. The stresses in the middle of the plate
and around the hole are in agreement for the distributed load and the point load. The
problem is that due to the high stress around the singular load it is easy to overlook
the high stress region around the hole. When the point load is applied, the range must
be manually set for the stress plot to get the same visual feedback of the high stress
region around the hole in the two cases. This is because the default plot settings
automatically set the range based on the extreme values of the expression that is
plotted.

Despite these findings it is good modeling practice to avoid singular loads because it is
difficult to estimate the size of the singular region. In the Structural Mechanics
Module it is possible to define loads on all boundary types. However, avoid singular
loads altogether with elastoplastic materials.

The Plasticity feature is available as a subnode to Linear Elastic Material

nodes with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

APPLYING LOADS | 41
 normal mesh size

finer mesh size

Figure 2-1: A plate with a hole subject to a distributed load (left) and a point load (right).

Moments in the Solid Mechanics Interface

The Solid Mechanics interface, as opposed to the Beam, Plate, and Shell interfaces,
does not have rotational degrees of freedom. This makes the direct specification of
moment loads somewhat more complicated. To specify moments, attach a rigid
connector to the loaded area. The rigid connector has rotational degrees of freedom,
and it is possible to apply moments directly.

Pressure
A pressure is a load acting toward the normal of a face of the structure. If there are
large deformations in the model and the Include geometric nonlinearity check box is
selected under the Study settings section of the current study step, the pressure acts as
a follower load. The pressure is then defined with respect to the geometry and, as the
geometry deforms locally, the orientation of the load changes.

42 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Acceleration Loads
Acceleration loads can be found, for example, in the structural mechanics analysis of
an airplane seat. Acceleration or deceleration of the aircraft produces a force that an
accurate simulation must include. Because expressions can be used when specifying
loads, it is easy to model acceleration loads.

For modeling rotating parts under static conditions, use centrifugal acceleration loads.
The body load in the radial direction is

K r = 2 r (2-1)

where is the density of the material, is the angular frequency, and r is the radial
distance from the axis of rotation. A cylindrical coordinate system is often useful here.

Temperature LoadsThermal Expansion

When performing thermal expansion analysis, temperature loads are specified by
entering a temperature and a reference temperature in a thermal expansion feature,
which are added by right-clicking a material node (a Linear Elastic Material node, for
example). Enter a constant temperature or an analytic expression that can depend on
the coordinates or dependent variables. For beams, plates, and shells it is also possible
to specify bending temperature loads. More details are available in the descriptions for
each physics interface.

When a separate physics interface is used to model heat transfer in the material, the
entry for the temperature is the dependent variable for the temperature from that
physics interface, typically T. In most cases, possible temperature variables from other
interfaces can be directly selected from a list.

For more information about how to couple heat transfer analysis with
structural mechanics analysis, see Thermal-Structural Interaction. This
Note module also includes The Thermal Stress Interface.

Total Loads
You can specify a load either as a distributed load per unit length, area, or volume, or
as a total force to be uniformly distributed on a boundary.

APPLYING LOADS | 43
 Defining Constraints
Defining the proper constraints for structural mechanics models is just as important as
defining the loads as together they make up the model boundary conditions. This
module has many useful predefined features to define the constraints or to create user
defined expressions that define constraints.

In this section:

Orientation
Symmetry Constraints
Kinematic Constraints
Rotational Joints

Orientation
You can specify constraints in global as well as in any previously defined local
coordinate system.

Coordinate Systems in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also

Symmetry Constraints
In many cases symmetry of the geometry and loads can be used to your advantage in
modeling. Symmetries can often greatly reduce the size of a model and hence reduce
the memory requirements and solution time. When a structure exhibits axial
symmetry, use the axisymmetric physics interfaces. A solid that is generated by rotating
a planar shape about an axis is said to have axial symmetry. In order to make use of the
axisymmetric physics interfaces, all loads and constraints must also be the same around
the circumference.

For other types of symmetry, use the predefined symmetry and antisymmetry
constraints. This means that no expressions need to be enteredinstead just add the
type of constraint to apply to the model.

44 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 If the geometry exhibits two symmetry planes (Figure 2-2), model a quarter of the
geometry by using the Symmetry feature for the two selected surfaces.

Physics Axial Symmetry Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide
See Also

Symmetry planes Apply symmetry constraints

Figure 2-2: If the geometry exhibits two symmetry planes, model a quarter of the geometry
by using the Symmetry feature for the two selected surfaces.

Both geometric symmetry and loads are important when selecting the
correct constraints for a model.
Important

Figure 2-3 shows symmetric and antisymmetric loading of a symmetric geometry.

When modeling half of the geometry, the correct constraint for the face at the middle

DEFINING CONSTRAINTS | 45
 of the object would be Antisymmetry in the case of antisymmetric loading and
Symmetry in the case of symmetric loading of the object.

Symmetry plane Antisymmetry plane

Figure 2-3: Symmetry plane (left) and antisymmetry plane (right).

Kinematic Constraints
Kinematic constraints are equations that control the motion of solids, faces, edges, or
points. Add a Prescribed Displacement constraint to enter expressions for constraints.
You can define the equations using predefined coordinate systems as well as custom
coordinate systems. Special constraints, for instance to keep an edge of body straight
or to make a boundary rotate, require such constraint equations.

In the 2D and 3D Solid Mechanics interfaces there is a special constraint

called a Rigid Connector. A rigid connector is applied to one or more
2D boundaries and force them to behave as connected to a common rigid
body. The rigid connector can be given prescribed displacements and
3D rotations and thus simplifies the realization of some constraints.

Rotational Joints
Joints between elements in The Truss Interface are automatically rotational joints
because the truss elements have no rotational degrees of freedom. For beams, however,
the rotational degrees of freedom are by default coupled between elements. To create
a rotational joint between two beam elements, add one additional 2D or 3D Beam
interface to a geometry. Make sure that it is only active for the boundary that includes
the point where the joint is positioned and that no other physics interface is active here.
Couple the translational degrees of freedom and leave the rotational degrees of
freedom uncoupled at the joint.

46 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Calculating Reaction Forces
There are different ways to evaluate reaction forces and these are discussed in this
section.

Using Predefined Variables to Evaluate Reaction Forces

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces
Using Surface Traction to Evaluate Reaction Forces

Except for the special situations, use the predefined variables as this is the simplest and
most accurate method. While weak constraints give equally accurate results as the
predefined variables, the method requires adding extra degrees of freedom to the
model. Using weak constraints, however, does have the advantage that it is possible to
visualize the reactions as a continuous fields. Evaluating the surface traction on
constrained boundaries, on the other hand, is more direct but provides only
approximate values. The following sections describe these methods.

Using Predefined Variables to Evaluate Reaction Forces

The results analysis capabilities include easy access to the reaction forces and moments.
They are available as predefined variables. To compute the sum of the reaction forces
over a region, use Volume Integration, Surface Integration, or Line Integration under
Derived Values. Reaction forces are computed as the sum of the nodal values over the
selected volume, face, or edge. Reaction moments are calculated as the sum of the
moment from the reaction forces with respect to a reference point, and any explicit
reaction moments (if there are rotational degrees of freedom).

Specify the coordinates of the Reference Point for Moment Computation at the top level
of the physics interface main nodes settings window. After editing the reference point
coordinates, right-click the study node and select Update Solution for the change to
take effect on the reaction moment calculation.

Reaction forces are not available for eigenfrequency analysis or when weak
constraints are used.
Note

CALCULATING REACTION FORCES | 47

 Defining Derived Values and Tables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide
See Also

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

Select the Use weak constraints check box to get accurate distributed reactions. Extra
variables that correspond to the reaction traction distribution are automatically added
to the solution components.

With weak constraints activated, COMSOL Multiphysics adds the reaction forces to
the solution components. The variables are denoted X_lm, where X is the name of the
constrained degree of freedom (as, for example, u_lm and v_lm). The extension lm
stands for Lagrange multipliers. It is only possible to evaluate reaction forces on
constrained boundaries in the constraint directions. To compute the total reaction
force on a boundary, integrate one of the variables X_lm using Volume Integration,
Surface Integration, or Line Integration under Derived Values.

If the constraint is defined in a local coordinate system, the degrees of

freedom for the weak constraint variables are defined along the directions
Note of that system.

Because the reaction force variables are added to the solution components, the number
of DOFs for the model increases slightly, depending on the mesh size for the
boundaries in question. Boundaries that are adjacent to each other must have the same
constraint settings. The reason for this is that adjacent boundaries share a common
node.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Defining Derived Values and Tables

See Also
Using Weak Constraints

48 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Using Surface Traction to Evaluate Reaction Forces
As an alternative method, you can obtain approximations to the reaction forces on
constrained boundaries by using boundary integration of the relevant components of
the surface traction vector.

For 2D models, multiply the surface traction by the cross section thickness
before integrating to calculate the total reaction force. Because the surface
traction vector is based on computed stress results, this method is less
2D accurate than solving for the reaction forces using the reaction force
variables or weak constraints.

CALCULATING REACTION FORCES | 49

 Introduction to Material Models
The Structural Mechanics Module provides a variety of material models. These models
can be modified and extended, and custom material models can be defined. Each
interface is described including background theory and information about entering
material settings, as well as interface-specific information. While all material models are
available in the Solid Mechanics interface, the other interfaces use only linear elastic
stress-strain relationship. This section lists some tips and tricks related to the use of
materials.

In this section:

Introduction to Linear Elastic Materials

Introduction to Linear Viscoelastic Materials
Mixed Formulation

Introduction to Linear Elastic Materials

While for the isotropic case two parameters are enough to describe the material
behavior, the number of parameters increases to (at most) 21 for the anisotropic case
in 3D. When setting up a model, make sure that the parameters used are defined in
agreement with the definitions used. The stress-strain relationship for linear elastic
materials is discussed in the Solid Mechanics interface theory section About Linear
Elastic Materials. If necessary, transform the material data before entering it in the user
interface. For example, for orthotropic materials calculate the Poissons ratio xy by

Ex
xy = yx ------
Ey

About Linear Elastic Materials

See Also Linear Elastic Material

50 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 Introduction to Linear Viscoelastic Materials
For viscoelastic materials the generalized Maxwell model is used. The material can be
described as consisting of branches with a spring and a dashpot parallel to a linear
elastic material. For each branch the shear modulus and the relaxation time are entered
into a table.

About Linear Viscoelastic Materials

See Also Linear Viscoelastic Material

Mixed Formulation
As described in the Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface, the negative mean stress
becomes an additional dependent variable when the Nearly incompressible material
check box is selected in the settings window for the material. Select this setting when
the Poissons ratio of a material is close to 0.5, which means that the material is nearly
incompressible. The mixed formulation is useful not only for linear elastic materials but
also for elastoplastic materials, hyperelastic materials, and linear viscoelastic materials.

The Hyperelastic Material and Plasticity features are available with the
Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

Not all iterative solvers work together with mixed formulation because the stiffness
matrix becomes indefinite.

Because the shape function for the pressure must be one order less than
the shape functions for the displacements, it is not possible to use linear
elements for the displacement variables on the domains where mixed
Important
formulation is turned on.

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL MODELS | 51

 Defining Multiphysics Models
The following modeling tips are about how to define multiphysics models. A good
place to start reading is in Multiphysics Modeling in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide. This includes an overview about the predefined multiphysics interfaces and
information about how to add or remove different physics in a model and introduce
multiphysics couplings.

In this section:

Thermal-Structural Interaction
Acoustic-Structure Interaction
Thermal-Electric-Structural Interaction

Thermal-Structural Interaction
The Thermal Stress Interface included with this module has a predefined one-way
coupling for thermal-structure interaction (thermal stress), which combines a Solid
Mechanics interface with a Heat Transfer interface from the Heat Transfer Module or
COMSOL Multiphysics.

By default, COMSOL Multiphysics takes advantage of the one-way coupling and

solves the problem sequentially using the segregated solver: solve for temperature and
then perform the stress-strain analysis using the computed temperature field from the
heat transfer equation.

This approach, using a single iteration, does not produce a correct result
if there are thermal properties that depend on the displacements, for
example, a heat source caused mechanical losses (damping) in the
Note
material.

Acoustic-Structure Interaction
Model acoustic-structure interaction when the Structural Mechanics Module is used
with an acoustics interface from the Acoustics Module. Additional tools are made
available, including a transient solver and the means to simulate absorbing or radiation
boundary conditions.

52 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Use the Acoustic-Structure Interaction, Frequency Domain interfaces to simplify
modeling of acoustic-structure interaction. It defines group settings for the solid
domain and the fluid domain as well as for the fluid load from the acoustics pressure
and the structural acceleration from the displacements at the fluid-solid boundaries.

Coupled acoustic-structure models have symmetric matrices, which means you can
take advantage of the SPOOLES solver to reduce memory requirements. There are
several interfaces available that are documented and described in the Acoustic Module
Users Guide.

Thermal-Electric-Structural Interaction
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface enables
thermal-electric-structural interaction to combine with thermal expansion, which is a
one-way coupling that includes a solid mechanics interface and a heat transfer interface
from the Heat Transfer Module or COMSOL Multiphysics, with Joule heating and
temperature-dependent electrical conductivity, which is a two-way coupling that
includes a solid mechanics interface from the Structural Mechanics Module and a heat
transfer interface from the Heat Transfer Module or COMSOL Multiphysics.

By default, COMSOL Multiphysics takes advantage of the one-way coupling and solve
the problem sequentially using the segregated solver: solve for temperature and electric
potential using a coupled approach and then perform the stress-strain analysis using
the computed temperature field from the heat transfer equation.

These settings, using a single iteration, does not produce a correct result
if there are thermal properties that depend on the displacements, making
Note the thermal-structure part into a two-way coupling.

DEFINING MULTIPHYSICS MODELS | 53

 Modeling with Geometric
Nonlinearity
This section discusses how to model problems where displacements or strains are of a
size where the deformation of the structure has to be taken into account when
formulating the equations. Examples of the type of problems where this feature is
useful include:

Thin structures, where the deflection is of the same order of magnitude as the
thickness.
Where the structure exhibits large rotations. A rigid body rotation of only a few
degrees causes significant strains and stresses in a material where a linear strain
representation is used.
Where the strains are larger than a few percent.
Contact problems.
Where a prestress must be taken into account for computing the dynamic response
of a structure.
Buckling problems.
Where a deformed mesh is used.
Fluid-structure interaction problems.

In this section:

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Solid Mechanics Interface

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Shell, Plate, Membrane and Truss Interfaces
Prestressed Structures
Geometric Nonlinearity, Frames, and the ALE Method

54 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface
Geometric Nonlinearity for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface
Introduction to Contact Modeling
The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
See Also
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

The Moving Mesh Interface

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Solid Mechanics Interface

For the Solid Mechanics interface, or any multiphysics interface derived from it, you
enable a geometrically nonlinear analysis for a certain study step by selecting the Include
geometric nonlinearity check box in the Study Settings section of a study step.

If any active feature in the model requires the analysis to be geometrically nonlinear,
the Include geometric nonlinearity check box is selected automatically, and it cannot be
cleared. The features which force this behavior are:

Hyperelastic materials, which are always formulated for large strains,

The Hyperelastic Material feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module.
Tip

Contact, because the deformation between the contacting boundaries must be part
of the solution
The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface.

Usually you would also want to use geometric nonlinearity when a Moving Mesh
interface is present, but this is not forced by the program.

When you select a geometrically nonlinear study step, the behavior of several features
differs from that in a geometrically linear case:

There is an important difference between using uppercase (X, Y, Z, R) and

lowercase (x, y, z, r) coordinates in expressions. The lowercase coordinates
represent the deformed position, and this introduces a dependency on the solution.

MODELING WITH GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY | 55

 Many features, such as coupling operators, can be specified as operating either in the
material (X, Y, Z) or the spatial (x, y, z) frame. This setting does not make a
difference unless a geometrically nonlinear analysis is performed. In most cases you
would want to do the operation in the material frame.
The strain representation is changed from using engineering strains to
Green-Lagrange strains, unless the Force linear strains check box is selected in the
Geometric Nonlinearity section of a certain material.
Where Green-Lagrange strains are used, Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses are also
used. This means that material data must be given in terms of these quantities. This
distinction is important only when the strains actually are large.
Pressure loads are interpreted as follower loads, so that the direction of the load as
well as the loaded area are deformation dependent.
Rigid connectors take finite rotations into account.

Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

See Also Adding Study Steps in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Shell, Plate, Membrane and Truss

Interfaces
For the Shell, Plate, and Truss interfaces, a geometrically nonlinear analysis is enabled
in the same way described above. The formulation in the Membrane interface is always
geometrically nonlinear, and does not interact with the settings in the study step.

The effect of using geometric nonlinearity in these interfaces is limited to the stress and
strain representation as the other effects described in Geometric Nonlinearity for the
Solid Mechanics Interface are not relevant.

Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

See Also Adding Study Steps in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

56 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Prestressed Structures
You can analyze eigenfrequency or frequency domain problems where the dynamic
properties of the structure are affected by a preload, such as a tensioned string.

For an example of prestressed analysis, see Bracket Eigenfrequency

tutorial model, which is described in the Introduction to the Structural
Mechanics Module: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/
Model
Tutorial_Models/bracket_eigenfrequency

Usually, a study of a prestressed problem uses two study steps. The first step is a
Stationary step in which the static preload is applied. The effects of the preload can be
computed with or without taking geometric nonlinearity into account. In the second
study step, where the you compute the Eigenfrequency or the Frequency Response, it is
necessary to take geometric nonlinearity into account. Even if the displacements and
strains are small, this is what gives the prestress contribution to the equations.

The same principles apply also to a linear buckling analysis, except that both study steps
should be geometrically linear. The nonlinear contribution is included in the
formulation of the buckling eigenvalue itself.

There are three Preset study types which can be used to set up these two
study steps: Prestressed Analysis, Eigenfrequency; Prestressed Analysis,
Tip Frequency Domain; and Linear Buckling.

Prestressed Analysis, Eigenfrequency, Prestressed Analysis, Frequency

Domain, and Linear Buckling in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Guide
See Also
Available Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Geometric Nonlinearity, Frames, and the ALE Method

Consider the bending of a beam in the general case of a large deformation (see
Figure 2-4). In this case the deformation of the beam introduces an effect known as
geometric nonlinearity into the equations of solid mechanics.

MODELING WITH GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY | 57

 Figure 2-4 shows that as the beam deforms, the shape, orientation, and position of the
element at its tip changes significantly. Each edge of the infinitessimal cube undergoes
both a change in length and a rotation that depends on position. Additionally the three
edges of the cube are no longer orthogonal in the deformed configuration (although
typically for practical strains the effect of the non-orthogonality can be neglected in
comparison to the rotation).

From a simulation perspective it is desirable to solve the equations of solid mechanics

on a fixed domain, rather than on a domain that changes continuously with the
deformation. In COMSOL this is achieved by defining a displacement field for every
point in the solid, usually with components u, v, and w. At a given coordinate (X, Y, Z)
in the reference configuration (on the left of Figure 2-4) the value of u describes the
displacement of the point relative to its original position. Taking derivatives of the
displacement with respect to X, Y, and Z enables the definition of a strain tensor,
known as the Green-Lagrange strain (or material strain). This strain is defined in the
reference or Lagrangian frame, with X, Y, and Z representing the coordinates in this
frame. In the Solid Mechanics interface, the Lagrangian frame is equivalent to the
material frame. An element at point (X, Y, Z) specified in this frame moves with a
single piece of material throughout a solid mechanics simulation. It is often convenient
to define material properties in the material frame as these properties move and rotate
naturally together with the volume element at the point at which they are defined as
the simulation progresses. In Figure 2-4 this point is illustrated by the small cube
highlighted at the end of the beam, which is stretched, translated, and rotated as the
beam deforms. The three mutually perpendicular faces of the cube in the Lagrange
frame are no longer perpendicular in the deformed frame. The deformed frame is

58 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 called the Eulerian or (in COMSOL) the spatial frame. Coordinates in this frame are
denoted (x, y, z) in COMSOL.

Figure 2-4: An example of the deformation of a beam showing the undeformed state (left)
and the deformed state (right) of the beam itself with an element near its tip highlighted
(top), of the element (center) and of lines parallel to the x-axis in the undeformed state
(bottom).

It is important to note that, as the solid deforms, the Lagrangian frame

becomes a non-orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system (see the lower
part of Figure 2-4 to see the deformation of the X-axis). Particular care is
Important
therefore required when defining physics in this coordinate system.

For example, in the Eulerian system it is easy to define forces per unit area (known as
tractions) that act within the solid, and to define a stress tensor that represents all of
these forces that act on a volume element. Such forces could be physically measured,
for example using an implanted piezoresistor. The stress tensor in the Eulerian frame
is called the Cauchy or true stress tensor (in COMSOL this is referred to as the spatial
stress tensor). To construct the stress tensor in the Lagrangian frame a tensor
transformation must be performed on the Cauchy stress. This produces the second
Piola-Kirchhoff (or material) stress, which can be used with the Lagrange or material

MODELING WITH GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY | 59

 strain to solve the solid mechanics problem in the (fixed) Lagrangian frame (this is how
the Solid Mechanics interface works when geometric nonlinearities are enabled).

If the strains are small (significantly less than 10 percent), and there are no
significant rotations involved with the deformation (significantly less than
10 degrees), geometric nonlinearity can be disabled, resulting in a linear
equation system which solves more quickly (Ref. 1). This is often the case
for many practical MEMS structures.
Tip
Geometric nonlinearity can be enabled or disabled within a given model
by changing the Include geometric nonlinearity setting in the relevant
solver step.

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also

In the case of solid mechanics, the material and spatial frames are associated directly
with the Lagrangian and Eulerian frames, respectively. In a more general case (for
example, when tracking the deformation of a fluid, such as a volume of air surrounding
a moving structure) tying the Lagrangian frame to the material frame becomes less
desirable. Fluid must be able to flow both into and out of the computational domain,
without taking the mesh with it. The Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
method allows the material frame to be defined with a more general mapping to the
spatial or Eulerian frame. In COMSOL, a separate equation is solved to produce this
mappingdefined by the mesh smoothing method (Laplacian, Winslow, or
hyperelastic) with boundary conditions that determine the limits of deformation (these
are usually determined by the physics of the system, whilst the domain level equations
are typically being defined for numerical convenience). The ALE method offers
significant advantages since the physical equations describing the system can be solved
in a moving domain.

REFERENCE
1. A. F. Bower, Applied Mechanics of Solids, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2010
(http://www.solidmechanics.org).

60 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Linearized Buckling Analysis
A linearized buckling analysis can be used for estimating the critical load at which a
structure becomes unstable. This is a predefined study type which consists of two study
steps: One step in which a load is applied to the structure, and a second step in which
an eigenvalue problem is solved for the critical buckling load.

Solver Features and Linear Buckling in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Guide

See Also Solver Studies and Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide

The idea behind this type of analysis, can be described in the following way:

Consider the equation system to be solved for a stationary load f,

Ku = K L + K NL u = f

Here the total stiffness matrix, K, has been split into a linear part, KL, and a nonlinear
contribution, KNL.

In a first approximation, KNL is proportional to the stress in the structure and thus to
the external load. So if the linear problem is solved first,

KL u0 = f0

for an arbitrary initial load level f0, then the nonlinear problem can be approximated as

K L + K NL u 0 u = f 0

where is called the load multiplier.

An instability is reached when this system of equations becomes singular so that the
displacements tend to infinity. The value of the load at which this instability occurs can
be determined by, in a second study step, solving an eigenvalue problem for the load
multiplier .

K L + K NL u 0 u = 0

LINEARIZED BUCKLING ANALYSIS | 61

 COMSOL reports a critical load factor, which is the value of at which the structure
becomes unstable. The corresponding deformation is the shape of the structure in its
buckled state.
The level of the initial load used is immaterial. If the initial load actually was larger than
the buckling load, then the critical value of will be smaller than 1.

You should not select geometric nonlinearity in a linearized buckling

analysis. Since the nonlinear effect of the stress is already taken into
account in the formulation, an explicit use of geometric nonlinearity
Important would make the computed buckling load dependent on the load level
used in the pre-load study step.

Be aware that for some structures, the true buckling load may be
significantly smaller that what is computed using a linearized analysis.
This phenomenon is sometimes called imperfection sensitivity. Small
deviations from the theoretical geometrical shape can then have a large
Note
impact on the actual buckling load. This is especially important for curved
shells.

For a structure which exhibits axial symmetry in geometry, constraints

and loads, the critical buckling mode shape can still be non-axisymmetric.
Note A full 3D model should always be used when computing buckling loads.

62 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Introduction to Contact Modeling
You should not select geometric nonlinearity in a linearized buckling
analysis. Since the nonlinear effect of the stress is already taken into
account in the formulation, an explicit use of geometric nonlinearity
Note would make the computed buckling load dependent on the load level
used in the pre-load step.

This section has some suggestions regarding important aspects of creating models
involving contact, with or without friction, between parts. Contact is implemented
based on the augmented Lagrangian method, which is described in About Contact
Modeling in the theory section for The Solid Mechanics Interface. When modeling
contact between structural parts, set up contact pairs, which define where the parts
may come into contact. A contact pair consists of two sets of boundaries, which are the
source and destination boundaries. The 2D and 3D structural interfaces use the pairs
to set up equations that prevent the destination boundaries to penetrate the source
boundaries.

When creating contact models it can often be to advantage to set up a prototype in 2D

before attempting a 3D model. Similarly it is often good to start using linear elements
to make the model smaller and faster to solve. When this is working, switch to
quadratic elements if required.

In this section:

Constraints
Contact Pairs
Boundary Settings for Contact Pairs
Time-Dependent Analysis
Multiphysics Contact
Solver and Mesh Settings for Contact Modeling
Monitoring the Solution

Constraints
Make sure that the bodies are sufficiently constrained, also in the initial position. If the
bodies are not in contact in the initial configuration, and there are no constraints on

INTRODUCTION TO CONTACT MODELING | 63

 the bodies, an under-constrained state (the parts are free in space) results. This causes
the solver to fail and must be avoided. One way to fix this problem is to set initial values
for the displacement variables so that a small penetration in the initial configuration
results. Another way is to use a displacement-controlled model rather than a
force-controlled one. It is then the best solution to use prescribed displacements when
possible. When it is not possible, in the beginning of the simulation, temporarily add
a weak spring instead. Assuming that a parameter p ranging from 0 to 1 is used for
applying the external load, introduce a stabilizing spring with stiffness kx in the x
direction as

p 10
k x = k 1 p 2

and similarly in any other direction that needs to be restrained. It is not important
whether the spring is applied to domains, boundaries, or edges, but a value for the
parameter k must be chosen so that the generated extra force balances the external load
at a displacement that is of the same order of magnitude as a characteristic element size
in the contact region.

Contact Pairs
For efficiency, only include those boundaries that may actually come in contact in the
destination. For the source, it is often a bit more efficient to make it so large that every
destination point has a corresponding source point. The corresponding source point
is obtained by following the normal to the destination until it reaches the source.

To decide which boundaries to assign as source and destination in a contact pair

consider the following guidelines:

Make sure that the source boundary stiffness in the normal direction is higher than
the destination boundary stiffness. This is especially important if the difference in
stiffness is quite large (for example, over ten times larger). Also keep in mind that
for elastoplastic or hyperelastic materials there can be a significant change in stiffness
during the solution process, and choose the source and destination boundaries
accordingly. For such materials the penalty factor might have to be adjusted as the
solution progresses.

The Hyperelastic Material and Plasticity features are available with the
Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

64 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 When the contacting parts have approximately the same stiffness, consider the
geometry of the boundaries instead. Make a concave boundary the source and a
convex boundary the destination rather than the opposite.

Once the source and destination boundaries are chosen, mesh the destination finer
than the source. Do not make the destination mesh just barely finer than the source
because this often causes nonphysical oscillations in the contact pressure. Make the
destination at least two times finer than the source.

Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also

Boundary Settings for Contact Pairs

PENA LT Y FACT OR S

In the augmented Lagrangian method, the value of the penalty factor

does not affect the accuracy of the final solution, like it does in the penalty
Note method. It does however strongly influence the convergence rate.

When running into convergence problems, check the penalty parameters. If the
iteration process fails in some of the first augmented iterations, lower the penalty
parameters. If the model seems to converge but very slowly, consider increasing the
maximum value of the penalty parameters.

Increasing the penalty factor can lead to an ill-conditioned Jacobian matrix and
convergence problems in the Newton iterations. This is often seen by noting that the
damping factor becomes less than 1 for many Newton iterations. If this occurs,
decrease the penalty factors.

The default values for the penalty factors is based on an equivalent Youngs modulus
Eequiv of the material on the destination side. For linear elastic isotropic materials
Eequiv is equal to the actual Youngs modulus. For other types of materials Eequiv is
defined an estimate of a similar stiffness at zero strain. For elastoplastic and other
nonlinear materials where the stiffness changes with deformation it may be found that
the default value works fine until there is a significant change in stiffness. This can give
rise to convergence problems for the nonlinear solver because the penalty factor

INTRODUCTION TO CONTACT MODELING | 65

 becomes too large. To aid convergence, specify an expression for the stiffness that
depends, for example, on the solver parameter.

The Hyperelastic Material and Plasticity features are available with the
Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Tip

For materials which are user defined or in other senses nonstandard, for example
anisotropic with large differences in stiffness in different directions, Eequiv may need
to be replaced with another estimate.

INITIAL VALUE
In force-controlled contact problems where no other stiffness prohibits the
deformation except the contact, the initial contact pressure is crucial for convergence.
If it is too low the parts might pass through each other in the first iteration. If it is too
high they never come into contact.

Time-Dependent Analysis
The contact formulation is strictly valid only for stationary problems. It is still possible
to use contact modeling also in a time-dependent analysis, as long as inertial effects are
not important in the contact region. In practice, this means that you can solve both
quasi-static problems and truly dynamic problems, as long as situations with impact are
avoided. When in doubt, try to do an a posteriori check of conservation of momentum
and energy to ensure that the solution is acceptable.

Multiphysics Contact
Multiphysics contact problems are often very ill conditioned, which leads to
convergence problems for the nonlinear solver. For example, take heat transfer
through the contact area, where initially only one point is in contact. The solution for
the temperature is extremely sensitive to the size of the contact area (that is, the
problem to determine the temperature is ill conditioned).

It is important to resolve the size of the contact area accurately, that is, to
use a very fine mesh in the contact area.
Important

66 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

If the contact area is larger, a fine mesh is not required because then the temperature
solution is not that sensitive to the size of the contact area. If possible, start with an
initial configuration where the contact area is not very small.

You can use the contact variables (gap and contact pressure) in expressions for
quantities in other physics interfaces. As an example, a thermal resistance in the contact
region can depend on the contact pressure.

Solver and Mesh Settings for Contact Modeling

The following solver and mesh settings can help to successfully solve contact models:

Use a direct solver instead of an iterative solver if the problem size allows it. Direct
solvers are less sensitive and can provide better convergence.
As a default, the Double dogleg nonlinear solver is selected when a stationary study
is generated and Contact features are present in the model. For the majority of
contact problems this solver has more stable convergence properties than the
Newton solver, which is the general default solver. Using the same settings, the
Double dogleg solver tends to be somewhat slower than the Newton solver on
problems where both solvers converge. It is however often possible to user larger
load steps when using the Double dogleg solver. For some problems, the Newton
solver may still be the better choice, so if you experience problems using the default
settings, try to switch solver.
For some contact problems, it may be necessary to let the parametric solver use a
more defensive strategy when going to the next parameter step. This can be
controlled by setting the value of Predictor in the Parametric feature to Constant.
A coarse mesh on a curved contact surface might lead to convergence problems, so
make sure that the mesh is sufficiently fine on the contact surface.
If the model includes friction, solve the problem without friction first. When that
model seems to work without friction, friction can then be added.
Always solve contact problems with friction incrementally using a parametric or
time-dependent solver because the development of friction forces is history
dependent. For contact problems without friction an incremental strategy is not
necessary but often a good choice.

INTRODUCTION TO CONTACT MODELING | 67

 Monitoring the Solution
It is often useful to monitor the solution during a contact analysis. This can be done
in different ways.

Using the Results while solving functionality in the study step is a good practice. You
can either use a stress plot, or a plot of the contact pressure. If there are more than one
contact pair, superimpose several plots. In most cases, the scale of a deformed plot
should be set to 1 when monitoring contact problems. Note that if you select Results
while solving also in the Segregated feature, the plot will be updated after each iteration,
thus allowing you to monitor the convergence in detail.

For each contact pair, two global variables which can be used in probe plots are
available. These are the maximum contact pressure (solid.Tnmax_pair) and the
minimum gap distance (solid.gapmin_pair).

68 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Eigenfrequency Analysis
An eigenfrequency study solves for the eigenfrequencies and the shape of the
eigenmodes. When performing an eigenfrequency analysis, specify whether to look at
the mathematically more fundamental eigenvalue, , or the eigenfrequency, f, which is
more commonly used in a structural mechanics context.

f = ---------
2i

If damping is included in the model, an eigenfrequency solution returns the damped

eigenvalues. In this case, the eigenfrequencies and mode shapes are complex. A
complex eigenfrequency can be interpreted so that the real part represents the actual
frequency, and the imaginary part represents the damping. In a complex mode shape
there are phase shifts between different parts of the structure, so that not all points
reach the maximum at the same time under free vibration.

Because only the shape and not the size of the modes (eigenvectors) have physical
significance, the computed modes can be scaled arbitrarily. Select the method for
scaling in the Eigenvalue Solver node of the solver sequence. If output of mass
participation factors is required, then Scaling of eigenvectors must be set to Mass matrix.
This means that the eigenmodes U are orthogonalized with respect to the mass matrix
M so that

T
U i MU i = 1 (2-2)

This is a common choice for the scaling of eigenvectors within the structural mechanics
field.

The mass (or modal) participation factor for mode i in direction j, rij, is defined as

T
r ij = U i Md j

Here, dj is a vector containing unity displacement in all degrees of freedom

representing translation in direction j. The mass participation factor gives an indication
of to which extent a certain mode might respond to an excitation in this direction.

The mass participation factors have the important property that when their squares for
a certain direction are summed over all modes, this sum approaches the total mass of
the model:

EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS | 69
 n

rij =
2
m tot
i

In practice you seldom solve for all possible modes but just a limited number. Then
this property can be used for investigating how well a certain number of selected
modes represent the total mass of the system.

The mass participation factors are available as a global variables, and these can be
shown in a table using a Global Evaluation node under Derived Values in the Results
branch, for example. The participation factor variables are available as predefined
variables in the Solver submenu.

Available Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide:

Eigenvalue Solver
See Also
Study Types
Defining Derived Values and Tables

For an example showing how to compute modal mass, see In-Plane

Framework with Discrete Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia: Model
Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/Verification_Models/
Model
inplane_framework_freq

70 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Using Modal Superposition
Analyzing forced dynamic response for large models can be very time-consuming. You
can often improve the performance dramatically by using the modal superposition
technique. The following requirements must be met for a modal solution to be
possible:

The analysis is linear. It is however possible that the structure has been subjected to
a preceding non-linear history. The modal response can then be a linear
perturbation around that state.
There are no non-zero prescribed displacements.
The important frequency content of the load is limited to a range which is small
when compared to all the eigenfrequencies of the model, so that its response can be
approximated with a small number of eigenmodes. In practice, this excludes wave
and shock type problems.
If the modal solution is performed in the time domain, all loads must have the same
dependency on the time.

When using the Structural Mechanics Module, there are two predefined study types
for modal superposition: Time-Dependent Modal and Frequency-Domain Modal. Both
these study types consist of two study steps: One step for computing the
eigenfrequencies and one step for the modal response.

In practice, you will often have computed the eigenfrequencies already, and then want
to use them in a modal superposition. In this case, start by adding an empty study, and
then add a Time-Dependent Modal or Frequency-Domain Modal study step to it. After
having added the study step this way, you must point the modal solver to the solution
containing the eigenfrequencies and eigenmodes. You do this by first selecting Show
default solver at the study level, and then selecting the eigenfrequency solution to be
used in the Eigenpairs section of the generated modal solver.

In a modal superposition, the deformation of the structure is represented by a linear

combination of its eigenmodes. The amplitudes of these modes are the degrees of
freedom of the reduced problem. You must select which eigenmodes to include in the
analysis. This choice is usually based on a comparison between the eigenfrequencies of
the structure and the frequency content of the load. As a rule of thumb, select
eigenmodes up to approximately twice the highest frequency of the excitation.

USING MODAL SUPERPOSITION | 71

 In a modal superposition analysis, the full model is projected onto the subspace
spanned by the eigenmodes. A problem having the number of degrees equal to the
number of included modes is then solved. This means that there are no restrictions on
the type of damping that can be used in a modal superposition analysis, as it would have
been the case if the modal equations were assumed to be totally decoupled.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

All loads are assumed to have a harmonic variation. This is a perturbation type analysis,
so only loads having the Harmonic perturbation property selected will be included in
the analysis.

TIME DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

Only the part of the load which is independent of time should be specified in the load
features. The dependency on time is specified as Load factor under the Advanced section
of the modal solver. This factor is then applied to all loads.

Available Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide:

See Also Modal Solver

Study Types

For example showing how to perform modal superposition in time and

frequency domain, see Various Analyses of an Elbow Bracket: Model
Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/Tutorial_Models/ielbow_bracket

72 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Modeling Damping and Losses
Damping and losses are important in time-dependent and frequency-domain studies.
This section describes how to model damping and loss using different damping
models. In this section:

Overview of Damping and Loss

Linear Viscoelastic Materials
Rayleigh Damping
Equivalent Viscous Damping
Loss Factor Damping
Explicit Damping
Piezoelectric Losses
No Damping
References for Piezoelectric Damping

Overview of Damping and Loss

In some cases damping is included implicitly in the material model. This is the case for
Linear Viscoelastic Materials, for which damping operates on the shear components of
stress and strain. Damping must be added explicitly as a subnode of the material node
for material models that do not include damping, such as linear elastic materials.

Phenomenological damping models are typically invoked to model the intrinsic

frictional damping present in most materials (material damping). These models are
easiest to understand in the context of a system with a single degree of freedom. The
following equation of motion describes the dynamics of such a system with viscous
damping:

2
d u du
m ---------- + c ------- + ku = f t (2-3)
dt dt

In this equation u is the displacement of the degree of freedom, m is its mass, c is the
damping parameter, and k is the stiffness of the system. The time (t) dependent forcing
term is f(t). This equation is often written in the form:

MODELING DAMPING AND LOSSES | 73

 2
d u- du 2 ft
--------- + 2 0 ------- + 0 u = --------- (2-4)
dt dt m

where c2m0 and 02km. In this case is the damping ratio (1 for critical
damping) and 0 is the resonant frequency of the system. In the literature it is more
common to give values of than c. can also be readily related to many of the various
measures of damping employed in different disciplines. These are summarized in
Table 2-1.
TABLE 2-1: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MEASURES OF DAMPING

DAMPING DEFINITION RELATION TO

PARAMETER DAMPING RATIO

Damping ratio = c c critical

Logarithmic u t0 d 2
decrement d = ln ---------------------- 1
u t0 +
where t0 is a reference time and is the
period of vibration for a decaying, unforced
degree of freedom.
Quality factor Q = Q 1 2
where is the bandwidth of the amplitude 1
resonance measured at 1 2 of its peak.
Loss factor 1 Qh At the resonant
= ------ --------
2 W h frequency:
where Qh is the energy lost per cycle and Wh 2
is the maximum potential energy stored in the 1
cycle. The variables Qh and Wh are available
in COMSOL as: solid.Qh and solid.Wh.

In the frequency domain, the time dependence of the force and the displacement can
be represented by introducing a complex force term and assuming a similar time
dependence for the displacement. The equations

jt jt
f t = Re Fe and u t = Re Ue

are written where is the angular frequency and the amplitude terms U and F can in
general be complex (the arguments provide information on the relative phase of
signals). Usually the real part is taken as implicit and is dropped subsequently.
Equation 2-3 takes the following form in the frequency domain:

2
mU + jcU + kU = F (2-5)

74 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

where the time dependence has canceled out on both sides. Alternatively this equation
can be written as:

2 2 F
U + j 0 U + 0 U = ----- (2-6)
m

There are two basic damping models available in COMSOL Rayleigh damping and
models based on introducing complex quantities into the equation system.

Rayleigh Damping introduces damping in a form based on Equation 2-3. This means
that the method can be applied generally in either the time or frequency domain. The
parameter c in Equation 2-3 is defined as a fraction of the mass and the stiffness using
two parameters, dM and dK, such that

c = dM m + dK k (2-7)

Although this approach seems cumbersome with a one degree of freedom system,
when there are many degrees of freedom m, k, and c become matrices and the
technique can be generalized. Substituting this relationship into Equation 2-3 and
rearranging into the form of Equation 2-4 gives:

2
d u- 2 du 2 ft
--------- + dM + dK 0 ------- + 0 u = ---------
dt dt m

Rayleigh damping can therefore be identified as equivalent to a damping factor at

resonance of:

1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 0 (2-8)
2 0

Note that Equation 2-8 holds separately for each vibrational mode in the system at its
resonant frequency. In the frequency domain it is to use frequency dependent values
of dM and dK. For example setting dM0 and dK2/0 produces a Equivalent
Viscous Damping model at the resonant frequency.

While Rayleigh damping is numerically convenient, the model does not agree with
experimental results for the frequency dependence of material damping over an
extended range of frequencies. This is because the material damping forces behave
more like frictional forces (which are frequency independent) than viscous damping
forces (which increase linearly with frequency as implied by Equation 2-5). In the
frequency domain it is possible to introduce loss factor damping, which has the desired
property of frequency independence.

MODELING DAMPING AND LOSSES | 75

 Loss Factor Dampingintroduces complex material properties to add damping to the
model. As a result of this it can only be used in the frequency domain (for
eigenfrequency, frequency domain, or time harmonic studies). In the single degree of
freedom case this corresponds to a complex value for the spring constant k. Setting
c=0, but modifying the spring constant of the material to take a value k1j where
is the loss factor, modifies the form of Equation 2-5 to:

2
mU + jkU + kU = F (2-9)

Alternatively writing this in the form of Equation 2-6 gives:

2 2 2 F
mU + j 0 U + 0 U = -----
m

Comparing these equations with Equation 2-5 and Equation 2-6 shows that the loss
factor is related to and c by:

= 2 ------ = ---- c
0 k

Equation 2-9 shows that the loss factor has the desired property of frequency
independence. However it is clear that this type of damping cannot be applied in the
time domain. In addition to using loss factor damping the material properties can be
entered directly as complex values in COMSOL, which results in Explicit Damping

Piezoelectric Losses are more complex and include coupling and electrical
losses in addition to the material terms.

For piezoelectric materials, dK only used as a multiplier of the structural

contribution to the stiffness matrix when building-up the damping matrix
Note as given by Equation 2-7. In the frequency domain studies, you can use
the coupling and dielectric loss factors equal to dK to effectively
achieve the Rayleigh damping involving the whole stiffness matrix.

Linear Viscoelastic Materials

Rayleigh Damping
Equivalent Viscous Damping
See Also
Loss Factor Damping
Explicit Damping

76 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 Linear Viscoelastic Materials
If Linear Viscoelastic Material is selected for the Solid Mechanics interface, the
viscoelastic branches include damping automatically and no more damping is required.
In the frequency domain the damping using a viscoelastic material corresponds to loss
factor damping applied to the shear components of the material properties.

Rayleigh Damping
As discussed for a model with a single degree of freedom, the Rayleigh damping model
defines the damping parameter c in terms of the mass m and the stiffness k as

c = dM m + dK k

where dM and dK are the mass and stiffness damping parameters, respectively. At any
resonant frequency, f, this corresponds to a damping factor, given by:

1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 2f (2-10)
2 2f

Using this relationship at two resonant frequencies f1 and f2 with different damping
factors 1 and 2 results in an equation system

1 -
----------- f
4f 1 1 dM 1
=
1 - dK 2
----------- f
4f 2 2

As a result of its non-physical nature, the Rayleigh damping model can only be tuned
to give the correct damping at two independent resonant frequencies or to give an
approximately frequency independent damping response (which is physically what is
usually observed) over a limited range of frequencies.

Using the same damping factors 1 and 2 at frequencies f1 and f2 does

not result in the same damping factor in the interval. It can be shown that
the damping parameters have the same damping at the two frequencies
and less damping in between (see Figure 2-5).
Important
Care must therefore be taken when specifying the model to ensure the
desired behavior is obtained.

MODELING DAMPING AND LOSSES | 77

 Damping factor
Rayleigh damping

Specified damping

f1 f2
f

Figure 2-5: An example of Rayleigh damping.

For many applications it is sufficient to leave dM as zero (the default value) and to
define damping only using the dK coefficient. Then according to Equation 2-10
linearly increasing damping is obtained. If the damping ratio f0 or loss factor f0
is known at a given frequency f0, the appropriate value for dK is:

dK = f 0 = 2f 0

This model results in a well-defined, linearly increasing damping term that has the
defined value at the given frequency.

All physics interfaces under the Structural Mechanics branch use zero
default values (that is, no damping) for dM and dK. These default values
Tip must be changed to meet the specific modeling situation.

Equivalent Viscous Damping

Although equivalent viscous damping is independent of frequency, it is only possible
to use it in a frequency response analysis. Equivalent viscous damping also uses a loss
factor as the damping parameter, and can be implemented using the Rayleigh damping
feature, by setting the stiffness damping parameter dK, to the loss factor, , divided
by the excitation frequency:

78 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING


dK = --------- = ----
2f

The mass damping factor, dM, should be set to zero.

Loss Factor Damping

Loss factor damping (sometimes referred to as material or structural damping) takes
place when viscoelasticity is modeled in the frequency domain. The complex modulus
G*() is the frequency-domain representation of the stress relaxation function of
viscoelastic material. It is defined as

G = G + jG = 1 + j s G

where G' is the storage modulus, G'' is the loss modulus, and their ratio sG''G' is
the loss factor. The term G' defines the amount of stored energy for the applied strain,
whereas G'' defines the amount of energy dissipated as heat; G', G'', and s can all be
frequency dependent.

In COMSOL Multiphysics the loss information appears as a multiplier of the total

strain in the stress-strain relationship:

= D 1 + j s th 0 + 0 .

For hyperelastic materials the loss information appears as a multiplier in strain energy
density, and thus in the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress, S:

W s
S = 1 + j s ----------
E

Loss factor damping is available for frequency response analysis and damped
eigenfrequency analysis in all interfaces, but it is not defined for elastoplastic materials

The Hyperelastic Material and Elastoplastic Material features are available

with the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module.
Note

MODELING DAMPING AND LOSSES | 79

 Explicit Damping
It is possible to define damping by modeling the dissipative behavior of the material
using complex-valued material properties. In COMSOL Multiphysics enter the
complex-valued data directly, using i or sqrt(-1) for the imaginary unit.

80 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Piezoelectric Losses
In this section:

About Piezoelectric Materials

Piezoelectric Material Orientation
Piezoelectric Losses
No Damping
References for Piezoelectric Damping

About Piezoelectric Materials

Piezoelectric materials become electrically polarized when strained. From a
microscopic perspective, the displacement of atoms within the unit cell (and when the
solid is deformed) results in electric dipoles within the medium. In certain crystal
structures this combines to give an average macroscopic dipole moment or electric
polarization. This effect, known as the direct piezoelectric effect, is always
accompanied by the converse piezoelectric effect, in which the solid becomes strained
when placed in an electric field.

Within a piezoelectric there is a coupling between the strain and the electric field,
which is determined by the constitutive relation:

T
S = sE T + d E
(2-11)
D = dT + T E

Here, S is the strain, T is the stress, E is the electric field, and D is the electric
displacement field. The material parameters sE, d, and T, correspond to the material
compliance, the coupling properties and the permittivity. These quantities are tensors
of rank 4, 3, and 2 respectively, but, since the tensors are highly symmetric for physical
reasons, they can be represented as matrices within an abbreviated subscript notation,
which is usually more convenient. In the Piezoelectric Devices interface, the Voigt
notation is used, which is standard in the literature for piezoelectricity but which differs
from the defaults in the Solid Mechanics interface. Equation 2-11 is known as the
strain-charge form of the constitutive relations. The equation can be re-arranged into
the stress-charge form, which relates the material stresses to the electric field:

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 81
 T
T = cE S e E
(2-12)
D = eS + S E

The material properties, cE, e, and S are related to sE, d, and T. Note that in
COMSOL it is possible to use either form of the constitutive relations. In addition to
Equation 2-11 or Equation 2-12, the equations of solid mechanics and electrostatics
must also be solved within the material.

The Piezoelectric Devices Interface

See Also Theory for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface

Piezoelectric Material Orientation

The orientation of a piezoelectric crystal cut is frequently defined by the system
introduced by the I.R.E. standard of 1949 (Ref. 8). This standard has undergone a
number of subsequent revisions, with the final revision being the IEEE standard of
1989 (Ref. 9). Unfortunately the more recent versions of the standard have not been
universally adopted, and significant differences exist between the 1949 and the 1987
standards. The 1987 standard was ultimately withdrawn by the IEEE. COMSOL
follows the conventions used in the book by Auld (Ref. 10) and defined by the 1987
standard. While these conventions are often used for many piezoelectric materials,
unfortunately practitioners in the quartz industry usually adhere to the older 1947
standard, which results in different definitions of crystal cuts and of material
properties.

The stiffness, compliance, coupling, and dielectric material property matrices are
defined in COMSOL with the crystal axes aligned with the local coordinate axes. In
the absence of a user defined coordinate system, the local system corresponds to the
global X, Y, and Z coordinate axes.

The material properties are defined in the material frame, so that if the
solid rotates during deformation the material properties rotate with the
Note solid. See Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity.

The crystal axes used to define material properties in COMSOL correspond to the
1987 IEEE standard. All piezoelectric material properties are defined using the Voigt

82 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

form of the abbreviated subscript notation, which is almost universally employed in the
literature (this differs from the standard notation used for the Solid Mechanics
interface material properties). To define a particular crystal cut, a local set of rotated
coordinates must be defined; this local system then corresponds to the orientation of
the crystal axes within the model.

For some materials, the crystal X, Y, and Z axes are defined differently
between the 1987 IEEE standard and the 1949 I.R.E. standard.
Figure 2-6 shows the case of right-handed quartz (which is included in
the COMSOL material library as quartz; see Piezoelectric Materials
Database), which has different axes defined within the two standards.
Note The different axes sets result in different material properties so, for
example, the elasticity or stiffness matrix component cE14 of quartz takes
the value 18 GPa in the 1987 standard and 18 GPa in the 1949
standard.

The crystal cuts are also defined differently within the 1949 and 1987 standards. Both
standards use a notation that defines the orientation of a virtual slice (the plate)
through the crystal. The crystal axes are denoted X, Y, and Z and the plate, which is
usually rectangular, is defined as having sides l, w, and t (length, width, and thickness).
Initially the plate is aligned with respect to the crystal axes and then up to three
rotations are defined, using a right-handed convention about axes embedded along the
l, w, and t sides of the plate. Taking AT cut quartz as an example, the 1987 standard
defines the cut as: (YXl) 35.25. The first two letters in the bracketed expression
always refer to the initial orientation of the thickness and the length of the plate.
Subsequent bracketed letters then define up to three rotational axes, which move with
the plate as it is rotated. Angles of rotation about these axes are specified after the
bracketed expression in the order of the letters, using a right-handed convention. For
AT cut quartz only one rotation, about the l axis, is required. This is illustrated in
Figure 2-7. Note that within the 1949 convention AT cut quartz is denoted as: (YXl)
35.25, since the X-axis rotated by 180 in this convention and positive angles
therefore correspond to the opposite direction of rotation (see Figure 2-6).

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 83
 Figure 2-6: Crystallographic axes defined for right-handed quartz in COMSOL and the
1987 IEEE standard (color). The 1949 standard axes are shown for comparison (gray).

Figure 2-6 is reproduced with permission from: IEEE Std 176-1987 -

IEEE Standard on Piezoelectricity, reprinted with permission from
IEEE, 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997 USA, Copyright
Note 1987, by IEEE. This figure may not be reprinted or further distributed
without prior written permission from the IEEE.

84 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 Because COMSOL allows user-defined material parameters, it is possible
to add a user-defined material defined within the 1949 standard if the use
of the 1987 standard is inconvenient. In any case, significant care must be
taken when entering material properties and when defining the rotated
Caution
coordinate system for a given cut. In the literature, the particular standard
being employed to define material properties and cuts is rarely cited.

Figure 2-7: Definition of the AT cut of quartz within the IEEE 1987 standard. The AT
cut is defined as: (YXl) 35.25. The first two bracketed letters specify the initial
orientation of the plate, with the thickness direction, t, along the crystal Y axis and the
length direction, l, along the X axis. Then up to three rotations about axes that move with
the plate are specified by the corresponding bracketed letters and the subsequent angles. In
this case only one rotation is required about the l axis, of 35.25 (in a right-handed
sense).

When defining material properties in COMSOL it is necessary to consider the

orientation of the plate with respect to the global coordinate system in addition to the
orientation of the plate with respect to the crystallographic axes. Consider once again
the example of AT cut quartz in Figure 2-7. The definition of the appropriate local
coordinate system depends on the desired final orientation of the plate in the global
coordinate system. One way to set up the plate is to orientate its normal parallel to the
Y axis in the global coordinate system. Figure 2-8 shows how to define the local

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 85
 coordinate system in this case. Figure 2-9 shows how to define the local system such
that the plate has its normal parallel to the global Z axis.

In both cases it is critical to keep track of the orientation of the local

system with respect to the global system, which is defined depending on
the desired orientation of the plate in the model.
Important
There are also a number of methods to define the local coordinate system
with respect to the global system.

Usually it is most convenient to define the local coordinates with a Rotated System
node, which defines three Euler angles according to the ZXZ convention (rotation
about Z, then X, then Z again). Note that these Euler angles define the local (crystal)
axes with respect to the global axesthis is distinct from the approach of defining the
cut (global) axes with respect to the crystal (local) axes.

Figure 2-8: Defining an AT cut crystal plate within COMSOL, with normal in the global
Y-direction. Within the 1987 IEEE standard the AT cut is defined as (YXl) 35.25.
Start with the plate normal or thickness in the Ycr direction (a) and rotate the plate

86 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

35.25 about the l axis (b). The global coordinate system rotates with the plate. Finally
rotate the entire system so that the global coordinate system is orientated as it appears in
COMSOL (c). The local coordinate system should be defined with the Euler angles (ZXZ
- 0, 35.25, 0).(d) shows a coordinate system for this system in COMSOL.

Figure 2-9: Defining an AT cut crystal plate within COMSOL, with normal in the global
Z-direction. Within the 1987 IEEE standard the AT cut is defined as (YXl) 35.25.
Begin with the plate normal in the Zcr-direction, so the crystal and global systems are
coincident. Rotate the plate so that its thickness points in the Ycr-direction (the starting
point for the IEEE definition), the global system rotates with the plate (b). Rotate the plate
35.25 about the l axis (d). Finally rotate the entire system so that the global coordinate
system is orientated as it appears in COMSOL (d). The local coordinate system should be

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 87
 defined with the Euler angles (ZXZ: 0, -54.75, 0). (e) shows a coordinate system for this
system in COMSOL.

Piezoelectric Losses
Losses in piezoelectric materials can be generated both mechanically and electrically.

In the frequency domain these can be represented by introducing complex material

properties in the elasticity and permittivity matrices, respectively. Taking the
mechanical case as an example, this introduces a phase lag between the stress and the
strain, which corresponds to a Explicit Damping. These losses can be added to the
Piezoelectric Materialby a Damping and Losssubnode, and are typically defined as a
loss factor (see below). For the case of electrical losses, hysteretic electrical losses are
usually used to represent high frequency electrical losses that occur as a result of
friction impeding the rotation of the microscopic dipoles that produce the material
permittivity. Low frequency losses, corresponding to a finite material conductivity, can
be added to the model through an Electrical Conductivity (Time Harmonic) node.
This feature also operates in the frequency domain. Note that the option to add
Rayleigh damping, or explicit damping (which is a particular case of Rayleigh damping
in the frequency domain), is also available in the Damping and Loss node for the
frequency domain.

In the time domain, material damping can be added using the Rayleigh Damping
option in the Damping and Loss node. Electrical damping is currently not available in
the time domain.

Rayleigh Damping

See Also Explicit Damping

HYSTERETIC LOSS
In the frequency domain, the dissipative behavior of the material can be modeled using
complex-valued material properties, irrespective of the loss mechanism. Such hysteretic
losses can be applied to model both electrical and mechanical losses. For the case of
piezoelectric materials, this means that the constitutive equations are written as
follows:

For the stress-charge formulation

88 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 T
= c E e E
D = e + E
S

and for the strain-charge formulation

T
= s E + d E
D = d + E
T

where c E , d , and are complex-valued matrices, where the imaginary part defines the
dissipative function of the material.

Both the real and complex parts of the material data must be defined so as to respect
the symmetry properties of the material being modeled and with restrictions imposed
by the laws of physics.

A key requirement is that the dissipation density is positive; that is, there
is no power gain from the passive material. This requirement sets rules for
the relative magnitudes for all material parameters. This is important
Important
when defining the coupling losses.

In COMSOL Multiphysics the complex-valued data can be entered directly, or by

means of loss factors. When loss factors are used, the complex data X is represented as
pairs of a real-valued parameter

X = real X

and a loss factor

X = imag X real X

the ratio of the imaginary and real part, and the complex data is then:

X = X 1 j X

where the sign depends on the material property used. The loss factors are specific to
the material property, and thus they are named according to the property they refer to,
for example, cE. For a structural material without coupling, simply use s, the
structural loss factor.

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 89
 The Piezoelectric Devices interface defines the loss factors such that a positive loss
factor corresponds to a positive loss. The complex-valued data is then based on sign
rules. For piezoelectric materials, the following equations apply (m and n refer to
elements of each matrix):

m n m n m n
c E = c E 1 + j cE
m n m n m n
e =e 1 j e
m n m n m n
S = S 1 j S
(2-13)
m n m n m n
s E = s E 1 j sE
m n m n m n
d =d 1 j d
m n m n m n
T = T 1 j T

The losses for non-piezoelectric materials are easier to define. Again, using the
complex stiffness and permittivity, the following equations describe the material:

m n m n m n
D = 1 + j D
(2-14)
m n m n m n
e = 1 j e e

Often there is no access to fully defined complex-valued data. The Piezoelectric

Devices interface defines the loss factors as full matrices or as scalar isotropic loss factors
independently of the material and the other coefficients. For more information about
hysteretic losses, see Ref. 1 to Ref. 4.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (TIME HARMONIC)

For frequency domain analyses the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric and
decoupled material (see Ref. 2, Ref. 5, and Ref. 6) can be defined. Depending on the
formulation of the electrical equation, the electrical conductivity appears in the
variational formulation (the weak equation) either as an effective electric displacement

Jp
D = r 0 E j ------

(the actual displacement variables do not contain any conductivity effects) or in the
total current expression J = Jd Jp where Jp = eE is the conductivity current and
Jd is the electric displacement current.

90 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Both a dielectric loss factor (Equation 2-13 and Equation 2-14) and the electrical
conductivity can be defined at the same time. In this case, ensure that the loss factor
refers to the alternating current loss tangent, which dominates at high frequencies,
where the effect of ohmic conductivity vanishes (Ref. 7).

The use of electrical conductivity in a damped eigenfrequency analysis leads to a

nonlinear eigenvalue problem, which must be solved iteratively. To compute the
correct eigenfrequency, run the eigenvalue solver once for a single mode. Then set the
computed solution to be the linearization point for the eigenvalue solver, defined in
the settings window for the Eigenvalue Solver node. Re-run the eigenvalue solver
repeatedly until the solution no longer changes. This process must be repeated for each
mode separately.

Selecting a Stationary, a Time-Dependent, or an Eigenvalue Solver in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also Eigenvalue Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

No Damping
By default, there is no damping until a Damping or Damping and Loss node is added. In
The Piezoelectric Devices Interface an undamped model can be created by selecting
No damping from the Damping type list in the settings window for the Damping and Loss
node.

References for Piezoelectric Damping

1. R. Holland and E.P. EerNisse, Design of Resonant Piezoelectric Devices, Research
Monograph No. 56, The M.I.T. Press, 1969.

2. T. Ikeda, Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity, Oxford University Press, 1990.

3. A.V. Mezheritsky, Elastic, Dielectric, and Piezoelectric Losses in Piezoceramics:

How It Works All Together, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and
Frequency Control, vol. 51, no. 6, June 2004.

4. K. Uchino and S. Hirose, Loss Mechanisms in Piezoelectrics: How to Measure

Different Losses Separately, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and
Frequency Control, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 307321, January 2001.

PIEZOELECTRIC LOSSES | 91
 5. P.C.Y. Lee, N.H. Liu, and A. Ballato, Thickness Vibrations of a Piezoelectric Plate
With Dissipation, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency
Control, vol. 51, no. 1, January 2004.

6. P.C.Y. Lee and N.H. Liu, Plane Harmonic Waves in an Infinite Piezoelectric Plate
With Dissipation, Frequency Control Symposium and PDA Exhibition, pp. 162
169, IEEE International, 2002.

7. C.A. Balanis, Electrical Properties of Matter, Advanced Engineering

Electromagnetics, John Wiley & Sons, Chapter 2, 1989.

8. Standards on Piezoelectric Crystals, 1949, Proceedings of the I. R. E.,vol. 37,

no.12, pp. 1378 - 1395, 1949.

9. IEEE Standard on Piezoelectricity, ANSI/IEEE Standard 176-1987, 1987.

10. B. A. Auld, Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, Krieger Publishing Company,
1990.

92 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

S pr i ng s a nd D a m p ers
The Spring Foundation and Thin Elastic Layer features available with the Solid Mechanics
interface, supply elastic and damping boundary conditions for domains, boundaries,
edges, and points.

The features are completely analogous, with the difference that a Spring Foundation
feature connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed ground, while the
Thin Elastic Layer acts between two parts, either on an internal boundary or on a pair.

The following types of data are defined by these features:

Spring Data
Loss Factor Damping
Viscous Damping

SPRING DATA
The elastic properties can be defined either by a spring constant or by a force as
function of displacement. The force as a function of displacement may be more
convenient for nonlinear springs. Each spring feature has three displacement variables
defined, which can be used to describe the dependency on deformation. These
variables are named uspring1_tag, uspring2_tag, and uspring3_tag for the three
directions given by the local coordinate system. In the variable names, tag represents
the tag of the feature defining the variable The tag could for example be spf1 or tel1
for a Spring Foundation or a Thin Elastic Layer respectively. These variables measure the
relative extension of the spring after subtraction of any predeformation.

LOSS FACTOR DAMPING

The loss factor damping adds a loss factor to the spring data above, so that the total
force exerted by the spring with loss is

f sl = 1 + i f s

where fs is the elastic spring force, and is the loss factor.

Loss factor damping is only applicable in for eigenfrequency and frequency domain
analysis. In time dependent analysis the loss factor is ignored.

SPRINGS AND DAMPERS | 93

 VISCOUS DAMPING
It is also possible to add viscous damping to the Spring Foundation and Thin Elastic
Layer features. The viscous damping adds a force proportional to the velocity (or in
the case of Thin Elastic Layer: the relative velocity between the two boundaries. The
viscosity constant of the feature can be dependent on the velocity by using the variables
named vdamper1_phys_id, vdamper2_phys_id, and vdamper3_phys_id, which
contain the velocities in the three local directions.

The Spring Foundation features is most commonly used for simulating boundary
conditions with a certain flexibility, such as the soil surrounding a construction. An
other important use is for stabilizing parts that would otherwise have a rigid body
singularity. This is a common problem in contact modeling before an assembly has
actually settled. In this case a Spring Foundation acting on the entire domain is useful
because it avoids the introduction of local forces.

A Thin Elastic Layer between used as a pair condition can be used to simulate thin
layers with material properties which differ significantly from the surrounding
domains. Common applications are gaskets and adhesives.

When a Thin Elastic Layer is applied on an internal boundary, it usually simulates one
local flexibility, such as a fracture zone in a geological model.

94 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Tips for Selecting the Correct Solver
Many solver settings are available in COMSOL Multiphysics. To make it easier to use
a suitable solver and its associated solver parameters, the interfaces have different
default settings based on the study type. In some situations the default settings must
be changed. This section helps you select a solver and its settings to solve structural
mechanics and related multiphysics problems.

In this section:

Symmetric Matrices
Selecting Iterative Solvers
Specifying Tolerances and Scaling for the Solution Components

Solvers and Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also Solver Features in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

Symmetric Matrices
The Matrix symmetry list displays in the General section of the settings window for the
Advanced subnode under a solver node such as Stationary Solver. Specify if the
assembled matrices (stiffness matrix, mass matrix) resulting from the compiled
equations are symmetric or not.

Normally the matrices from a single-physics structural mechanics problem are

symmetric, but there are exceptions, including the following cases:

Multiphysics models solving for several physics simultaneously, for example, heat
transfer and structural mechanics. Solving for several structural mechanics physics
interfaces, such as shells combined with beams, does not create unsymmetric
matrices.
Linear viscoelastic materials
Elastoplastic analysis

TIPS FOR SELECTING THE CORRECT SOLVER | 95

 The Plasticity feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural Materials
Module.
Tip

One of the benefits of using the symmetric solvers is that they use less memory and are
faster. The default option is Automatic, which means the solver automatically detects if
the system is symmetric or not. Some solvers do not support symmetric matrices and
always solve the full system regardless of symmetry.

Selecting the Symmetric option for a model with unsymmetric matrices

produces incorrect results.
Caution

Complex matrices can be unsymmetric, symmetric, or Hermitian. Hermitian matrices

do not appear in structural mechanics problems.

Selecting the Hermitian option for a model with complex-valued

symmetric matrices produces incorrect results.
Caution

Selecting Iterative Solvers

The default solver for structural mechanics is the MUMPS direct solver in both 2D and
3D. For large 3D problems (several hundred thousands or millions of degrees of
freedom) it is beneficial to use iterative solvers when possible to save time and memory.
The drawback is that they are more sensitive and might not converge if the mesh
quality is low. The iterative solvers also have more options than the direct solvers.

These solver settings are recommended for 3D structural mechanics models:

For stationary and time-dependent studies, use the GMRES iterative solver with
geometric multigrid (GMG) as the preconditioner.

Check the mesh quality when using the GMG preconditioner. It does not work well
when using the option to scale the geometry before meshing. When using extruded
meshes, the mesh cases might need to be created manually.

96 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

For slender geometries, use an SOR Line as presmoother and postsmoother can get
better results compared to SOR, which is the default for GMG preconditioner.

For eigenfrequency/eigenvalue and frequency-domain studies, use the default

direct solver (MUMPS).

Specifying a positive shift greater than the lowest eigenfrequency results

in indefinite matrices.
Note

Solvers and Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also Solver Features in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

Specifying Tolerances and Scaling for the Solution Components

The absolute-tolerance parameters are used for time-dependent studies are very
problem specific. By default, the absolute tolerance is applied to scaled variables, with
the default value being 0.001 for all solution components.

The default scaling for the displacement components is based on the size of the
geometry in the model, and certain reasonable scales are used for the pressure and
contact force variables, if any. You are encouraged to change these scales as soon as
better values are known or can be guessed or estimated from the applied forces, yield
stress, reaction forces, maximum von Mises stress. The same suggestion applies to the
displacement scale, which can be estimated easily if the problem is displacement
controlled. This approach can significantly improve the robustness of the solution. The
scales need to be entered using the main unit system within the model.

TIPS FOR SELECTING THE CORRECT SOLVER | 97

 Using Perfectly Matched Layers
One of the challenges in finite element modeling is how to treat open boundaries in
wave-propagation. One option is to use perfectly matched layers (PMLs). A PML is
strictly speaking not a boundary condition but an additional domain that absorbs the
incident radiation without producing reflections. It provides good performance for a
wide range of incidence angles and is not particularly sensitive to the shape of the wave
fronts. This section describes how to use the semiautomatic frequency domain PMLs
in to create planar, cylindrical, and spherical PMLs. Transient PMLs are not supported.

In this section:

PML Implementation
Known Issues When Modeling Using PMLs

PML Implementation
This PML implementation uses the following coordinate transform for the general
coordinate variable t.

t n
t' = ------- 1 i F (2-15)
w

The coordinate, t, and the width of the PML region, w, are geometrical parameters
that are automatically extracted for each region. The other parameters are the PML
scaling factor F and the PML order n that can be modified in the PML feature (both
default to unity). The software automatically computes the value for w and the
orientation of the transform for PML regions that are Cartesian, cylindrical, or
spherical.

There is no check that the geometry of the region is correct, so it is

important to draw a proper geometry and select the corresponding region
Important type.

98 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

Typical examples of PML regions that work nicely are shown in the figures for the first
three PML types.

CartesianPMLs absorbing in Cartesian coordinate directions. It is available in 2D

and 3D (Figure 2-10).
CylindricalPMLs absorbing in cylindrical coordinate directions from a specified
axis. It is available in 3D, 2D, and 2D axisymmetry. In axisymmetry, the cylinder axis
is the z-axis (Figure 2-11).
SphericalPMLs absorbing in the radial direction from a specified center point. It
is available in 2D axisymmetry and 3D (Figure 2-12).
GeneralGeneral PMLs or domain scaling with user-defined coordinate
transformations.

Figure 2-10: A cube surrounded by typical PML regions of the Cartesian type.

Figure 2-11: A cylinder surrounded by typical cylindrical PML regions.

USING PERFECTLY MATCHED LAYERS | 99

 Figure 2-12: A sphere surrounded by a typical spherical PML region.

Known Issues When Modeling Using PMLs

When modeling with PMLs be aware of the following:

A separate Perfectly Matched Layers node must be used for each isolated PML
domain. That is, to use one and the same Perfectly Matched Layers node, all PML
domains must be in contact with each other. Otherwise the PMLs do not work
properly.
The coordinate scaling resulting from PMLs also yields an equivalent scaling of the
mesh that may effectively result in a poor element quality. (The element quality
displayed by the mesh statistics does not account for this effect.) This typically
happens when the geometrical thickness of the PML deviates much from one
wavelength (local wavelength rather than free space wavelength). The poor element
quality causes poor convergence for iterative solvers and make the problem
ill-conditioned in general.
The expressions resulting from the stretching get quite complicated for spherical
PMLs in 3D. This increases the time for the assembly stage in the solution process.
After the assembly, the computation time and memory consumption is comparable
to a problem without PMLs. The number of iterations for iterative solvers might
increase if the PML regions have a coarse mesh.
PML regions deviating significantly from the typical configurations shown in the
beginning of this section can cause the automatic calculation of the PML parameter

100 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING

 to give erroneous result. Enter the parameter values manually if it is found that this
is the case.
The PML region is designed to model uniform regions extended toward infinity.
Avoid using objects with different material parameters or boundary conditions that
influence the solution inside an PML region.

Also use parts of the shapes shown, but the PML scaling does probably not work for
complex shapes that deviate significantly from these shapes.

USING PERFECTLY MATCHED LAYERS | 101

102 | CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS MODELING
 3

Solid Mechanics

This chapter describes the Solid Mechanics interface, which is found under the
Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard. Solid mechanics in this
context means that no simplifications are available and that you solve for the
displacements without involving rotations.

In this chapter:

Solid Mechanics Geometry and Structural Mechanics Physics Symbols

The Solid Mechanics Interface
Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

103
 Solid Mechanics Geometry and
Structural Mechanics Physics Symbols
The Solid Mechanics interface in the Structural Mechanics Module is available for
these space dimensions, which are described in this section:

3D Solid Geometry
2D Geometry (plane stress and plane strain)
Axisymmetric Geometry

There are also physics symbols available with structural mechanics features as described
in these sections:

Physics Symbols for Boundary Conditions

About Coordinate Systems and Physics Symbols
Displaying Physics Symbols in the Graphics WindowAn Example

3D Solid Geometry
The degrees of freedom (dependent variables) in 3D are the global displacements u, v,
and w in the global x, y, and z directions, respectively, and the pressure help variable
(used only if a nearly incompressible material is selected), and the viscoelastic strains
(used only for viscoelastic materials).

Figure 3-1: Loads and constraints applied to a 3D solid using the Solid Mechanics
interface.

104 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

2D Geometry

PLANE STRESS
The plane stress variant of the 2D interface is useful for analyzing thin in-plane loaded
plates. For a state of plane stress, the out-of-plane components of the stress tensor are
zero.

Figure 3-2: Plane stress models plates where the loads are only in the plane; it does not
include any out-of-plane stress components.

The 2D interface for plane stress allows loads in the x and y directions, and it assumes
that these are constant throughout the materials thickness, which can vary with x and
y. The plane stress condition prevails in a thin flat plate in the xy-plane loaded only in
its own plane and without any z direction restraint.

PLANE STRAIN
The plane strain variant of the 2D interface that assumes that all out-of-plane strain
components of the total strain z, yz, and xz are zero.

Figure 3-3: A geometry suitable for plane strain analysis.

Loads in the x and y directions are allowed. The loads are assumed to be constant
throughout the thickness of the material, but the thickness can vary with x and y. The

SOLID MECHANICS GEOMETRY AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS PHYSICS SYMBOLS | 105

 plane strain condition prevails in geometries, whose extent is large in the z direction
compared to in the x and y directions, or when the z displacement is in some way
restricted. One example is a long tunnel along the z-axis where it is sufficient to study
a unit-depth slice in the xy-plane.

Axisymmetric Geometry
The axisymmetric variant of the Solid Mechanics interface uses cylindrical coordinates r,
(phi), and z. Loads are independent of , and the axisymmetric variant of the
interface allows loads only in the r and z directions.

The 2D axisymmetric geometry is viewed as the intersection between the original

axially symmetric 3D solid and the half plane , r 0. Therefore the geometry is
drawn only in the half plane r 0 and recover the original 3D solid by rotating the 2D
geometry about the z-axis.

Figure 3-4: Rotating a 2D geometry to recover a 3D solid.

Physics Symbols for Boundary Conditions

To display the physics symbols, select Options>Preferences>Graphics from the Main
menu and select the Show physics symbols check box to display the boundary condition
symbols listed in Table 3-1. These symbols are available with the applicable structural
mechanics features.
TABLE 3-1: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS BOUNDARY CONDITION PHYSICS SYMBOLS

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DISPLAYED BY FEATURE NOTES

Added Mass1 Added Mass

Antisymmetry1 Antisymmetry

Body Load1 Body Load

106 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

TABLE 3-1: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS BOUNDARY CONDITION PHYSICS SYMBOLS

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DISPLAYED BY FEATURE NOTES

3D Coordinate Green indicates the Y direction, blue

System indicates the Z direction, and red
indicates the X direction.
2D Coordinate Green indicates the Y direction and
System red indicates the X direction.
Distributed Force Boundary Load Can be displayed together with the
Face Load Distributed Moment symbol,
depending on the values given in the
Edge Load
feature.
Damping1 Spring Foundation Can be displayed together with the
Spring symbol, depending on the
values given in the feature.
Distributed Boundary Load Can be displayed together with the
Moment1 Face Load Distributed Force symbol, depending
on the values given in the feature.
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint Fixed Constraint

No Rotation1 No Rotation

Pinned1 Pinned

Point Force Point Load Can be displayed together with the

Point Moment symbol, depending on
the values given in the feature.
Point Mass1 Point Mass

Point Moment1 Point Load Can be displayed together with the

Point Force symbol, depending on the
values given in the feature.
Prescribed Prescribed
Displacement Displacement
Prescribed Prescribed Velocity
Velocity1
Rigid Connector1 Rigid Connector

Roller Roller

SOLID MECHANICS GEOMETRY AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS PHYSICS SYMBOLS | 107

 TABLE 3-1: STRUCTURAL MECHANICS BOUNDARY CONDITION PHYSICS SYMBOLS

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DISPLAYED BY FEATURE NOTES

Spring1 Spring Foundation Can be displayed together with the

Thin Elastic Layer Damping symbol, depending on the
values given in the feature.
Symmetry Symmetry

1
Requires the Structural Mechanics Module

About Coordinate Systems and Physics Symbols

Physics symbols connected to a feature for which input can be given in different
coordinate systems are shown together with a coordinate system symbol. This symbol
is either a triad or a single arrow. The triad is shown if data are to be entered using
vector components, as for a force. The single arrow is displayed when a scalar value,
having an implied direction, is given. An example of the latter case is a pressure.

In both cases, the coordinate directions describe the direction in which a positive value
acts. The coordinate direction symbols do not change with the values actually entered
for the data.

Physics symbols are displayed even if no data values have been entered in the feature.

In some cases a single feature can display more than one feature. An example is the
Point Load feature in the Beam interface, which can display either the Point Force
symbol ( ), the Point Moment symbol ( ), or both, depending on the data
actually entered.

For cases when physics symbol display is dependent on values actually

given in the feature, it may be necessary to move to another feature before
Important the display is actually updated on the screen.

Displaying Physics Symbols in the Graphics WindowAn Example

1 Select Options>Preferences>Graphics from the Main menu and select the Show
physics symbols check box. Click OK.

108 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

2 Add a physics interface, for example, Solid Mechanics, from the Structural Mechanics
branch of the Model Wizard.

The physics symbols also display for any multiphysics interface that
includes Structural Mechanics feature nodes.
Note

3 Add any of the feature nodes listed in Table 3-1 to the interface. Availability is based
on license and interface.
4 When adding the boundary, edge, or point (a geometric entity) to the Selection list
in the feature settings window, the symbol displays in the Graphics window. See
Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5: Example of the Boundary Load physics symbols as displayed in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Model Library model Deformation of a Feeder Clamp.

SOLID MECHANICS GEOMETRY AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS PHYSICS SYMBOLS | 109

 5 After assigning the boundary condition to a geometric entity, to display the symbol,
click the top level physics interface node and view it in the Graphics window. See
Figure 3-6.

Figure 3-6: Example of Roller and Boundary Load physics symbols as displayed in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Model Library model Tapered Membrane End Load.

110 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

The Solid Mechanics Interface
The Solid Mechanics interface ( ), found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( )
in the Model Wizard, has the equations and features for stress analysis and general linear
and nonlinear solid mechanics, solving for the displacements. The Linear Elastic
Material is the default material, which adds a linear elastic equation for the
displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic material properties.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Linear Elastic Material, Free (a boundary condition where boundaries are free, with no
loads or constraints), and Initial Values. Right-click the Solid Mechanics node to add
nodes that implement other solid mechanics features.

When you also have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module,

Hyperelastic Material is also available and described in the Nonlinear
Note Structural Materials Module Users Guide.

Stresses in a Pulley: Model Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Structural_Mechanics/stresses_in_pulley

Model
Eigenvalue Analysis of a Crankshaft: Model Library path
COMSOL_Multiphysics/Structural_Mechanics/crankshaft

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is solid.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the displacements
and the equations that describe the solid mechanics. To choose specific domains, select
Manual from the Selection list.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 111

 2D APPROXIMATION

From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain (the
default). For more information see the theory section.

When modeling using plane stress, the Solid Mechanics interface solves for
2D
the out-of-plane strain, ez, in addition to the displacement field u.

THICKNESS

Enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit: m).

The default value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models, where it

represents a a unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress models, enter
the actual thickness, which should be small compared to the size of the
2D plate for the plane stress assumption to be valid.

In rare cases, use a Change Thickness node to change thickness in parts of

the geometry.

S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Quasi-static or Include inertial terms to
treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass effects; that is, no second-order
time derivatives) or as a mechanical wave in a time-dependent study. The default is to
include the inertial terms to model the mechanical wave.

REFERENCE PO INT F OR MO MENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation xref (SI unit: m;
COMSOL Multiphysics variable refpnt). All summed moments (applied or as
reactions) are then computed relative to this reference point.

TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D
The typical wave speed cref is a parameter for the perfectly matched layers (PMLs) if
used in a solid wave propagation model. The default value is solid.cp, the
pressure-wave speed. If you want to use another wave speed, enter a value or
expression in the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers field.

112 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES
The interface includes a field variable for the Displacement field u. The names can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select a
Displacement fieldLinear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, Quartic, or (in 2D) Quintic.
Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the
default).

Show More Physics Options

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Solid
Mechanics Interface
See Also About the Body, Boundary, Edge, and Point Loads
Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Solid
Mechanics Interface
The Solid Mechanics Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
features listed in alphabetical order. The list also includes subfeatures.

Added Mass
Applied Force
Applied Moment
Antisymmetry
Body Load
Boundary Load
Change Thickness
Contact
Damping
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 113

 Free
Friction
Initial Stress and Strain
Initial Values
Linear Elastic Material
Linear Viscoelastic Material
Low-Reflecting Boundary
Mass and Moment of Inertia
Periodic Condition
Phase
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Prescribed Acceleration
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity
Rigid Connector
Rigid Domain
Roller
Spring Foundation
Symmetry
Thermal Expansion
Thin Elastic Layer

If there are subsequent boundary conditions specified on the same

geometrical entity, the last one takes precedence.
Note

For 2D axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry feature to the model that is valid on the axial symmetry
2D Axi
boundaries only.

114 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also Identity and Contact Pairs

Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Material feature adds the equations for a linear elastic solid and an
interface for defining the elastic material properties. Right-click to add a Damping
subnode.

Also right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add Thermal Expansion
and Initial Stress and Strain subnodes.

When you also have the Geomechanics Module, right-click to add

Plasticity, Soil Plasticity, Concrete, Creep, and Rocks nodes. These are
described in the Geomechanics Module Users Guide.
Note
When you have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, Plasticity,
Creep, and Viscoplasticity are also available and described in the Nonlinear
Structural Materials Module Users Guide.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define a linear elastic solid and compute
the displacements, stresses, and strains.

MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 115

 COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes (except boundary
coordinate systems). The coordinate system is used for interpreting directions of
orthotropic and anisotropic material data and when stresses or strains are presented in
a local system.

LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL

Define the Solid model and the linear elastic material properties.

Solid Model
Select a linear elastic Solid modelIsotropic, Orthotropic, or Anisotropic. Select:

Isotropic for a linear elastic material that has the same properties in all directions.
Orthotropic for a linear elastic material that has different material properties in
orthogonal directions, so that its stiffness depends on the properties Ei, ij, and Gij.
Anisotropic for a linear elastic material that has different material properties in
different directions, and the stiffness comes from the symmetric elasticity matrix, D.

Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

Orthotropic Material
See Also
Anisotropic Material

To use a mixed formulation by adding the pressure as an extra dependent variable to

solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box.

Specification of Elastic Properties for Isotropic Materials

If Isotropic is selected, from the Specify list, select a pair of elastic properties for an
isotropic material. Select:

Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus)
E (SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio (dimensionless). For an isotropic material
Youngs modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form is E
where is the stress and is the strain. Poissons ratio defines the normal strain in
the perpendicular direction, generated from a normal strain in the other direction
and follows the equation = .
Youngs modulus and shear modulus to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus)
E (SI unit: Pa) and the shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). For an isotropic material
Youngs modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form is E

116 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 where is the stress and is the strain. The shear modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to shear deformations.
Bulk modulus and shear modulus to specify the bulk modulus K (SI unit: Pa) and the
shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). The bulk modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to volume changes. The shear modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to shear deformations.
Lam constants to specify the first and second Lam constants (SI unit: Pa) and
(SI unit: Pa).
Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds to specify the pressure-wave speed
(longitudinal wave speed) cp (SI unit: m/s) and the shear-wave speed (transverse
wave speed) cs (SI unit: m/s).

This is the wave speed for a solid continuum. In plane stress, for example,
the actual speed with which a longitudinal wave travels is lower than the
Note value given.

For each pair of properties, select from the applicable list to use the value From material
or enter a User defined value or expression.

Each of these pairs define the elastic properties and it is possible to convert
from one set of properties to another (see Table 3-2).
Tip

Specification of Elastic Properties for Orthotropic Materials

When Orthotropic is selected from the Solid Model list, the material properties vary in
orthogonal directions only. The Material data ordering can be specified in either
Standard or Voigt notation. When User defined is selected in 3D, enter three values in
the fields for Youngs modulus E, Poissons ratio , and the Shear modulus G. This
defines the relationship between engineering shear strain and shear stress. It is
applicable only to an orthotropic material and follows the equation

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 117

 ij
ij = --------
G ij

ij is defined differently depending on the application field. It is easy to

transform among definitions, but check which one the material uses.
Note

Specification of Elastic Properties for Anisotropic Materials

When Anisotropic is selected from the Solid Model list, the material properties vary in all
directions, and the stiffness comes from the symmetric Elasticity matrix, D
(SI unit: Pa). The Material data ordering can be specified in either Standard or Voigt
notation. When User defined is selected, a 6-by-6 symmetric matrix is displayed.

Density
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. If User defined is
selected, enter another value or expression.

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
In this section there is always one check box. Either Force linear strains or Include
geometric nonlinearity is shown.

If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step. The default value is that the check box
is cleared, except when opening a model created in a version prior to 4.2a. In this case
the state is chosen so that the properties of the model are conserved.

The Include geometric nonlinearity check box is displayed only if the model was created
in a version prior to 4.2a, and geometric nonlinearity was originally used for the
selected domains. It is then selected and forces the Include geometric nonlinearity check
box in the study step to be selected. If the check box is cleared, the check box is

118 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

permanently removed and the study step assumes control over the selection of
geometric nonlinearity.

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface and

Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity
Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide
See Also
Adding Study Steps in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

ENERGY DISSIPATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select the Calculate dissipated creep energy check box as required.

This section is available when you also have the Geomechanics Module or
the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module. The Creep node and links to
the theory about this section is described in the Geomechanics Module
Note Users Guide and the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Users
Guide, respectively.

Change Thickness

The Change Thickness feature is available in 2D for the Solid Mechanics and
Plate interfaces. It is available in 3D for the Membrane interface on
2D boundaries instead of domains.

Use the Change Thickness feature to model domains with a thickness other than the
overall thickness defined in the physics interfaces Thickness section.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains use a different thickness.

CHANGE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). This value replaces the overall thickness
for the domains selected above.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 119

 Damping
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Damping node, which is used in
time-dependent, eigenfrequency, and frequency domain studies to model undamped
or damped problems. The Damping node adds Rayleigh damping by default

The time-stepping algorithms also add numerical damping, which is

independent of any explicit damping added.

For the generalized alpha time-stepping algorithm it is possible to control

Note
the amount of numerical damping added.

Heat Generation in a Vibrating Structure: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Thermal-Structure_Interaction/
Model vibrating_beam

When you have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, you can also
add Damping to the Hyperelastic Material feature, which adds loss-factor
Note damping.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to add damping.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping (the default), Isotropic loss factor or
Anisotropic loss factor.

If Orthotropic is selected as the Linear Elastic Material Solid model,

Orthotropic loss factor is also available.
Note

120 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Rayleigh Damping
Enter the Mass damping parameter dM (SI unit: 1/s) and the Stiffness damping
parameter dK (SI unit: s). The default values are 0 (no damping).

In the Rayleigh damping model, the damping parameter is expressed in terms of the
mass m and the stiffness k as

= dM m + dK k

That is, Rayleigh damping is proportional to a linear combination of the stiffness and
mass, There is no direct physical interpretation of the mass damping parameter dM
(SI unit: 1/s) and the stiffness damping parameter dM (SI unit: s).

Loss Factor Damping (Isotropic, Orthotropic, and Anisotropic)

The loss factor is a measure of the inherent damping in a material when it is
dynamically loaded. It is typically defined as the ratio of energy dissipated in unit
volume per radian of oscillation to the maximum strain energy per unit volume. Loss
factor damping is sometimes referred to as material or structural damping.

The use of loss factor damping traditionally refers to an scalar-valued loss factor s. But
there is no reasonthat s must be a scalar. Because the loss factor is a value deduced
from true complex-valued material data, it can be represented by a matrix of the same
dimensions as the dimensions of the anisotropic stiffness matrix. Especially for
orthotropic material, there should set of loss factors of all normal and shear elasticity
modulus components. the following loss-elasticity combinations are available:

An isotropic material is described by the different isotropic materials. Is likely to

only have isotropic loss, described by the isotropic loss factor s.
An orthotropic material is described by three normal Youngs modulus
components (Ex, Ey, and Ez) and three shear modulus components (Gxy, Gyz, and
Gxz. The loss can be isotropic, described by the isotropic loss factor s, or
orthotropic, described by three plus three orthotropic loss factors corresponding to
the elastic moduli components for an orthotropic material.
A symmetric anisotropic material is described by a symmetric 6-by-6 elasticity
matrix D, and the loss can be isotropic or symmetric anisotropic. The loss is
described by the isotropic loss factor s or by a symmetric anisotropic 6-by-6 loss
factor matrix D.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 121

 The loss factors are dimensionless.

Loss factor damping applies to lossy time-harmonic studies (that is,

frequency response and damped eigenfrequency studies).
Note

Isotropic Loss Factor From the Isotropic structural loss factor list, the default uses
values From material. If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression. The
default value is 0.

Orthotropic Loss Factor From the Loss factor for orthotropic Youngs modulus list,
select From material (the default) to use the material value or select User defined and
enter values for E.

From the Loss factor for orthotropic shear modulus list, select From material (the
default) to use the material value or select User defined and enter values for G or
GVo.The values for the shear modulus loss factors are ordered in two different ways,
consistent with the selection of either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt (XX,
YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) notation in the corresponding Linear Elastic Model. The default
values are 0. If the values are taken from the material, these loss factors are found in
the Orthotropic or Orthotropic, Voigt notation property group for the material.

If Orthotropic is selected as the Linear Elastic Material Solid model,

Orthotropic loss factor is available.
Note

Anisotropic Loss Factor From the Loss factor for elasticity matrix D list, the default uses
values From material. If User defined is selected, enter other values or expressions for D
or DVo. Select Symmetric to enter the components of D in the upper-triangular part
of a symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor. The values
for the loss factors are ordered in two different ways, consistent with the selection of
either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) notation
is used in the corresponding Linear Elastic Model. The default values are 0. If the
values are taken from the material, these loss factors are found in the Anisotropic or
Anisotropic, Voigt notation property group for the material.

122 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the displacement field and velocity field
that can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for
a nonlinear analysis. Right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define an initial value.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Displacement field u (SI unit: m)
(the displacement components u, v, and w in 3D) and Velocity field ut (SI unit: m/
s). The defaults are 0.

About the Body, Boundary, Edge, and Point Loads

Add force loads acting on all levels of the geometry to The Solid Mechanics Interface.
Add a:

Body Load to domains (to model gravity effects, for example).

Boundary Load to boundaries (a pressure acting on a boundary, for example).
Edge Load to edges in 3D (a force distributed along an edge, for example).
Point Load to points (concentrated forces at points).

For all of these loads, right-click and choose Phase to add a phase for
harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.
Tip

The Shell and Plate Interfaces

See Also

Body Load
Add a Body Load to domains for gravity effects, for example. Right-click to add a Phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 123

 DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define a body load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

FORCE

Select a Load type for 2D models and then enter values or expressions for
the components in the matrix:

Load defined as force per unit area FA (SI unit: N/m2). The body load
as force per unit volume is then the value of F divided by the thickness.
2D Load defined as force per unit volume FV (the default) (SI unit: N/m3)
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL then divides the total force by
the volume of the domains where the body load is active.

Select a Load type for 3D models and then enter values or expressions for
the components in the matrix:

Load defined as force per unit volume FV (the default) (SI unit: N/m3)
3D Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL then divides the total force by
the volume of the domains where the load is active.

Boundary Load
Add a Boundary Load to boundaries for a pressure acting on a boundary, for example.
Right-click to add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define a load.

PAIR SELECTION
If Boundary Load is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

124 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate systems

FORCE

After selecting a Load type, the Load list normally only contains User
defined. When combining the Solid Mechanics interface with, for example,
Note film damping, it is also possible to choose a predefined load from this list.

Select a Load type for 2D models and then enter a value or expression in
the matrix:

Load defined as force per unit length FL (SI unit: N/m)

Load defined as force per unit area FA (SI unit: N/m2)
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL then divides the total force by
2D the area of the surfaces where the load is active.
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), which can represent a pressure or another
external pressure. The pressure is positive when directed toward the
solid.

Select a Load type for 3D models and then enter a value or expression in
the matrix:

Load defined as force per unit area FA (SI unit: N/m2)

Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL then divides the total force by
3D
the area of the surfaces where the load is active.
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), which can represent a pressure or another
external pressure. The pressure is positive when directed toward the
solid.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 125

 Edge Load
Add an Edge Load to 3D models for a force distributed along an edge, for example.
Right-click to add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define an edge load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

FORCE

Select a Load type for 3D models and then enter values or expressions for
the components in the matrix:

Load defined as force per unit length FL (SI unit: N/m). When
combining the Solid Mechanics interface with, for example, film
3D damping, it is also possible to choose a predefined load from this list.
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL then divides the total force by
the volume where the load is active.

Point Load
Add a Point Load to points for concentrated forces at points. Right-click to add a Phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define a point load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point load Fp (SI unit: N).

126 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Free
The Free feature is the default boundary condition. It means that there are no
constraints and no loads acting on the boundary.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the Shell and Membrane interfaces, the Free feature is applied to edges.
For the Beam and Truss interfaces, it is applied to points.
Note

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries that are free.

PAIR SELECTION
If Free is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair has
to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

Fixed Constraint
The Fixed Constraint node adds a condition that makes the geometric entity fixed (fully
constrained); that is, the displacements are zero in all directions. For domains, this
condition is found under More on the context menu.

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose, the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) that are fixed.

PAIR SELECTION
If Fixed Constraint is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An
identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 127

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Prescribed Displacement
The Prescribed Displacement feature adds a condition where the displacements are
prescribed in one or more directions to the geometric entity (domain, boundary, edge,
or point).

If a displacement is prescribed in one direction, this leaves the solid free to deform in
the other directions. Also define more general displacements as a linear combination
of the displacements in each direction.

If a prescribed displacement is not activated in any direction, this is the

same as a Free constraint.
If a zero displacement is applied in all directions, this is the same as a
Note
Fixed Constraint.

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to prescribe a displacement.

PAIR SELECTION
If Prescribed Displacement is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define.
An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. If you choose another, local
coordinate system, the displacement components change accordingly.

128 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT
Define the prescribed displacements using a Standard notation or a General notation.

Standard Notation
To define the displacements individually, click the Standard notation button (the
default).

For 2D models, select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and

Prescribed in y direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for
2D the prescribed displacements u0 or v0 (SI unit: m).

For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or both of the Prescribed in r

direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
2D Axi expression for the prescribed displacements u0 or w0 (SI unit: m).

For 3D models, select one or more of the Prescribed in x direction,

Prescribed in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, or w0
3D
(SI unit: m).

General Notation
To specify the displacements using a General notation that includes any linear
combination of displacement components, click the General notation Hu=R button. For
example, for 2D models, use the relationship

H u = R
v

Enter values in the H matrix and R vector fields. For the H matrix, also select an
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic matrix and enter values as required. For
example, to achieve the condition u = v, use the settings

H = 1 1 R = 0
0 0 0

which force the domain to move only diagonally in the xy-plane.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 129

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Symmetry
The Symmetry feature adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry in the
geometry and in the loads. A symmetry condition is free in the plane and fixed in the
out-of-plane direction.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries that are symmetry boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Symmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

130 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Antisymmetry
The Antisymmetry feature adds a boundary condition for an antisymmetry boundary,
which must exist in both the geometry and in the loads. An antisymmetry condition is
fixed in the plane and free in the out-of-plane direction.

In a geometrically nonlinear analysis, large rotations must not occur at the

antisymmetry plane because this causes artificial straining.
Caution

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries that are antisymmetry boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If Antisymmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Roller
The Roller node adds a roller constraint as the boundary condition; that is, the
displacement is zero in the direction perpendicular (normal) to the boundary, but the
boundary is free to move in the tangential direction.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries that have roller constraints.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 131

 PAIR SELECTION
If Roller is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair has
to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition feature adds a periodic boundary condition. This periodicity
makes uix0uix1 for a displacement ui. Control the direction that the periodic
condition applies to. Right-click the Periodic Condition node to add a Destination
Selection boundary condition. If the source and destination boundaries are rotated
with respect to each other, this transformation is automatically performed, so that
corresponding displacement components are connected.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define a periodic boundary condition.
The software automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries.

This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In other cases
use a Destination Selection subnode to control the destination. By default
it contains the selection that COMSOL Multiphysics has identified.

In cases where the periodic boundary is split into several boundaries

Note
within the geometry, it may be necessary to apply separate periodic
conditions to each pair of geometry boundaries.

132 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicityContinuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, Floquet periodicity,
Cyclic symmetry, or User defined. If User defined is selected, select the Periodic in u,
Periodic in v (for 3D and 2D models), and Periodic in w (for 3D and 2D axisymmetric
models) check boxes as required. Then for each selection, choose the Type of
periodicityContinuity (the default) or Antiperiodicity.

If Floquet Periodicity is selected, enter a k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit:
rad/m) for the X, Y, and Z coordinates (3D models), or the R and Z coordinates
(2D axisymmetric models), or X and Y coordinates (2D models).
If Cyclic symmetry is selected, select a Sector angleAutomatic (the default), or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value for S (SI unit: rad). For any
selection, also enter a Mode number m (unitless).

Vibrations of an Impeller: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Tutorial_Models/impeller
Model

Cyclic Symmetry and Floquet Periodic Conditions

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Periodic Condition and Destination Selection

See Also
Using Periodic Boundary Conditions
Periodic Boundary Condition Example

Perfectly Matched Layers

For information about this feature, see About Infinite Element Domains
and Perfectly Matched Layers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Note Guide.

Linear Viscoelastic Material

The Linear Viscoelastic Material feature adds the equations for a viscoelastic solid.
Viscoelastic materials exhibit both elastic and viscous behavior when it deforms. This

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 133

 material contains a generalized Maxwell model for the viscoelasticity. Right-click to
add Initial Stress and Strain and Thermal Effects subnodes.

Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also

Viscoelastic Structural Damper: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Dynamics_and_Vibration/
Model viscoelastic_damper_frequency

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define a viscoelastic solid and compute
the displacements, stresses, and strains.

MODEL INPUT
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field if the material model uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.

L O N G - TE R M E L A S T I C P R O P E R T I E S
Define the long-term elastic properties of the viscoelastic material.

To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra

dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box.

From the Specify list, select the applicable long-term elastic property pair for an
isotropic materialYoungs modulus and Poissons ratio, Bulk modulus and shear
modulus, Lam constants, or Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds. For each set of
properties, select From material or enter a User defined value or expression in each of
the following fields as required:

Youngs modulus (elastic modulus) E (SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio
(dimensionless).
Bulk modulus K (SI unit: Pa) and Shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa).

134 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 The Lam constants (SI unit: Pa) and (SI unit: Pa).
The Pressure-wave speed (longitudinal wave speed) cp (SI unit: m/s) and the
Shear-wave speed (transverse wave speed) cs (SI unit: m/s).

Density
By default, the material Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. Select
User defined to enter a different value or expression.

GENERALIZED MAXWELL MODEL

In the table enter the values for the parameters in the generalized Maxwell model that
describes the viscoelastic behavior as a series of spring-dashpot pairs. On each Branch
row enter Gi (the stiffness of the spring) in the Shear modulus (Pa) column and i (the
relaxation time constant) in the Relaxation time (s) column for the spring-dashpot pair
in branch i. Use the Add button ( ) to add a row to the table and the Delete button
( ) to delete a row in the table. Using the Load to File button ( ) and the Save to
File button ( ) load and store data for the branches in a text file with three
space-separated columns (from left to right): the branch number, the shear modulus
for that branch, and the relaxation time for that branch.

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Geometric Nonlinearity under The Solid Mechanics Interface for
See Also details about this section.

Thermal Effects
Right-click the Linear Viscoelastic Material node to add a Thermal Effects feature. This
feature defines these thermal effects:

Temperature.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 135

 Thermal expansion. An internal thermal strain caused by changes in temperature.
WLF shift functions. Viscoelastic properties have a strong dependence on the
temperature. To model this for thermorheologically simple materials, a WLF shift
function transforms the relaxation time into a reduced time.

Temperature Effects
See Also

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define the thermal effects.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

MODEL INPUTS
From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K).

THERMAL EFFECTS
Specify the thermal properties that define the thermal effects.

Thermal Expansion
Select the Thermal expansion check box to include thermal expansion for the selected
domains and to define the Coefficient of thermal expansion and the Strain reference
temperature Tref to determine the thermal expansion together with the actual
temperature.

Coefficient of thermal expansion: From the Thermal expansion coefficient

(SI unit: 1/K) list, select From material to use the thermal expansion coefficient
from the material. Select User defined to enter a value or expression for , then select

136 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter one or more components for
a general thermal expansion coefficient vector vec.
Strain reference temperature: Enter a value or expression for the Strain reference
temperature Tref (SI unit: K). This is the reference temperature that defines the
change in temperature together with the actual temperature.

WLF Shift Function

Select the WLF shift function check box to include the thermal effects described with
help of a WLF shift function.

Enter values or expressions for these properties:

WLF reference temperature (or glass transition temperature) Twlf (SI unit: K)
WLF constant 1, and WLF constant 2 (material-dependent constants) C1wlf and C2wlf.

If the Thermal Stress interface is used, the thermal effects are included in
the Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material node.
Tip

Rigid Connector
The Rigid Connector is a boundary condition for modeling rigid regions and kinematic
constraints such as prescribed rigid rotations. If the study step is geometrically
nonlinear, the rigid connector takes finite rotations into account. By coupling selective
degrees of freedom of two rigid connectors it is also possible to create various types of
mechanisms such as hinges, joints, and other mechanical systems.

Right-click to add Harmonic Perturbation, Applied Force, Applied Moment, Mass and
Moment of Inertia, or Rigid Domain nodes to the rigid connector.

Assembly with a Hinge: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Connectors_and_Mechanisms/
hinge_assembly
Model Modeling Rigid Bodies: Model Library path
Structural_Mechanics_Module/Connectors_and_Mechanisms/rigid_domain

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 137

 Theory for the Rigid Connector
See Also

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to connect this rigid connector.

PAIR SELECTION
If Rigid Connector is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CENTER OF ROTATION
Select a Center of rotationAutomatic (the default) or User defined. If Automatic is
selected, the center of rotation is at the geometrical center of the selected boundaries.
The constraints are applied at the center of rotation. Any mass is also considered to be
located there.

If User defined is selected, enter x, y, and (in 3D) z coordinates (SI unit: m) for the
center of rotation XC in the Global coordinates of center of rotation table.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Prescribed displacements
and rotations are specified along the axes of this coordinate system.

PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT AT CENTER OF ROTATION

To define a prescribed displacement at the center of rotation for each space direction
x, y, and (in 3D) z select one or all of the Prescribed in X direction, Prescribed in Y
direction, and (in 3D) Prescribed in Z direction check boxes. Then enter values or
expressions for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, and (in 3D) w0 (SI unit: m) that
is activated. The default is 0; that is, no displacement. The direction coordinate names
can vary depending on the selected coordinate system.

PRESCRIBED ROTATION AT CENTER OF ROTATION

Select an option from the By list to specify the rotation at the center of rotationFree
(the default), Constrained rotation, or Prescribed rotation at center of rotation.

If Constrained rotation is selected, select one or more of the Constrain rotation about X,
Constrain rotation about Y, and (in 3D) Constrain rotation about Z axis check boxes in

138 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

order to enforce zero rotation about the corresponding axis in the selected coordinate
system (which determines the names of the coordinates). In 2D, the rotation is always
about the z-axis.

If Prescribed rotation at center of rotation is selected, enter an Axis of rotation (in 3D)
and an Angle of rotation (SI unit: rad). In 3D, the axis of rotation is given in the
selected coordinate system. In 2D, the axis of rotation is always the z-axis.

Harmonic Perturbation

Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal Analysis

in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

Applied Force
Right-click the Rigid Connector node to add the Applied Force feature, which adds a
force to the rigid connector. The force can act at an arbitrary position in space.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Select a Coordinate system
for specifying the directions of the force.

LOCATION
The Center of rotation is selected by default. Select User defined to explicitly specify the
point Xp where the force is applied. The coordinates are always given in the global
coordinate system.

APPLIED FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Applied force F (SI unit: N).

Applied Moment
Right-click the Rigid Connector node to add the Applied Moment subnode, which adds
a moment at the center of rotation.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 139

 COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
This section is only available in 3D. The Global coordinate system is selected by default.
The Coordinate system list contains any additional coordinate systems that the model
includes. Select a Coordinate system for specifying the directions of the moment.

APPLIED MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Applied moment M in 3D or the
applied moment in the z direction Mz in 2D (SI unit: Nm).

Mass and Moment of Inertia

Right-click the Rigid Connector node to add the Mass and Moment of Inertia subnode,
which adds inertia properties to the rigid connector for dynamic analysis.

CENTER OF MASS
The Center of rotation is selected by default. Select User defined to explicitly specify the
point Xm (SI unit: m) where the mass is located. The coordinates are always given in
the global coordinate system.

MASS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

Enter values or expressions for the Mass m (SI unit: kg). Enter values or expressions for
the mass Moment of inertia (SI unit: m2kg) as a tensor I in 3D or the mass moment of
inertia around the z axis, Iz, in 2D.

Rigid Domain
Right-click the Rigid Connector node to add the Rigid Domain subnode, which calculates
the mass and moment of inertia properties of one or more domains. The purpose is to
be able to use such domains as rigid bodies.

To display the displacements of these domains, the boundaries have to be

included in the selection of the rigid connector.
Note

RIGID DOMAIN
From material is selected as the default Density (SI unit: kg/m3). In this case the
material assignment for the domain supplies the mass density. Select User defined to
enter another value or expression.

140 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 Select the Ignore rotational inertia check box to make the rigid domain behave as a
point mass. The default is that the mass moments of inertia are included.

Pairs for the Solid Mechanics Interface

There are a several possible selections under Pairs. In the following, only Contact is
described. All other loads, boundary conditions, and continuity conditions follow the
general behavior of pairs. The loads and boundary conditions have the same data as
described above.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Identity and Contact Pairs

See Also
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Contact
The Contact node defines boundaries where the parts can come into contact but
cannot penetrate each other under deformation. Use it for modeling structural contact
and multiphysics contact.

In order to specify contact conditions, one or more Contact Pair nodes

must be available in the Definitions branch.

If you have several interfaces with displacement degrees of freedom in

Important
your model, only the last interface in the model tree may contain contact
features.

When a contact feature is present in your model, all studies are

geometrically nonlinear. The Include geometric nonlinearity check box in
Note the study step is selected and cannot be cleared.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Identity and Contact Pairs

See Also
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 141

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section is not editable, but use it to highlight the surfaces that are part of the pairs
selected at Pair Selection.

PAIR SELECTION
When Contact is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

NORMAL CONTACT
Edit or use the default Contact normal penalty factor pn (SI unit: N/m3). The default
value is min(1e-3*5^segiter, 1)*solid.Eequiv/solid.hmin_dst. The penalty
factor controls how hard the interface surface is. A very low penalty factor would
allow the boundaries to penetrate each other somewhat, while a very large value may
give convergence difficulties. The default value causes the penalty factor to be
increased during the iterations and takes material stiffness and element size at the
contact surface into account. Eequiv is an equivalent Youngs modulus for the material
on the destination, and hmin_dst is the minimum element size on the destination.

Enter a value or expression for Contact surface offset from geometric destination surface
offset (SI unit: m). The default is 0. The offset is added to the in the normal direction
of the destination surface.

Enter a value or expression for Contact surface offset from geometric source surface
offset (SI unit: m). The default is 0. The offset is added to the in the normal direction
of the source surface.

Use this offset property to adjust initial clearances (negative values) or interference fits
(positive values) without having to change the geometry. The property is also useful
for studying the effects of geometrical tolerance when the structure is still modeled
using its nominal size.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter an initial value for the Contact pressure Tn (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0.

If not all the contacting parts are fully constrained, it is important to

supply a value here in order to avoid singular problems.
Important

142 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 Speed up the convergence by supplying a guess of the correct order of
magnitude of the contact pressure.
Tip

Friction
The Friction feature is a subnode to the Contact node, which is added to model contact
with friction, for example to model the friction as static Coulomb friction or
exponential dynamic Coulomb friction.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section can not be edited, but can be used to highlight the surfaces that are part
of the pairs selected.

FRICTION
Select a Friction model. This can be either Static Coulomb friction or Exponential dynamic
Coulomb friction.

Edit or use the default Contact tangent penalty factor pt (SI unit: N/m3). The default
value is min(1e-3*5^segiter, 1)*solid.Eequ/3/solid.hmin_dst. The penalty
factor controls how hard the surfaces are bonded when sticking to each other. A very
low penalty factor allows the surfaces to slide somewhat relative to each other, while a
very large value might give convergence difficulties. The default value causes the
penalty factor to be increased during the iterations and takes material stiffness and
element size at the contact surface into account. Eequ is an equivalent Youngs
modulus for the material on the destination, and hmin_dst is the minimum element
size on the destination.

Edit the Static frictional coefficient stat (dimensionless) to give the coefficient of
friction.

Edit or use the default Cohesion sliding resistance Tcohe (SI unit: N/m2). Supply a
traction which must be overcome before sliding can occur.

Edit or use the default Maximum tangential traction Tt,max (SI unit: N/m2). The
default value is Inf, indicating that no limit on the tangential traction is active.

In the case of Exponential dynamic Coulomb friction, two more parameters must be
given. Enter the Dynamic friction coefficient dyn (dimensionless) and the Friction decay
coefficient dcf (SI unit: s/m).

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 143

 INITIAL VALUES

To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options. Initial data is not often required for the friction
Note variables.

Enter values or expressions for the components of the initial force acting on the
destination surface as Friction force Tt (SI unit: N/m2).

For the Previous contact state, select either Not in contact or In contact. This determines
whether friction effects are active already when starting the solution or not. When
using In contact, also give values for Previous mapped source coordinates (SI unit: m).
The Previous mapped source coordinates serve as initial values for computing the
tangential slip. The default value is (X, Y, Z) and indicates that the contacting
boundaries are perfectly coincident in the initial state. The mapped source coordinates
are defined as the location on the source boundary where it is hit by a certain point on
the destination boundary.

ADVANCED
For the Contact tolerance, select either Automatic or Manual. The contact tolerance is
the gap distance between the surfaces at which friction starts to act. The default value
is 106 times smaller than the overall size of the model. If Manual is selected, enter an
absolute value for the Contact tolerance contact (SI unit: m).

Thermal Expansion
Thermal Expansion is an internal thermal strain caused by changes in temperature
according to the following equation for the thermal strain:

th = T T ref

where is the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), T is the temperature, and Tref
is the strain-free reference temperature.

Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Thermal Expansion

node to a model.
Note

144 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 The Shell interfaces Elastic Material Model has slightly different thermal
expansion settings and this feature is discussed in that section.

When you have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, you can also
Note
right-click Hyperelastic Material to add the Thermal Expansion node.

Thermal Stresses in a Layered Plate: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Thermal-Structure_Interaction/layered_plate
Model

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define the coefficient of thermal
expansion and the different temperatures that cause thermal stress.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

MODEL INPUTS
From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K).

THERMAL EXPANSION

If the Thermal Stress multiphysics interface is used, the thermal expansion

is included in the Thermal Linear Elastic Material and Thermal Hyperelastic
Tip Material features.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The default Coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K) uses values From material.
Select User defined to enter a different value or expression.

For the Linear Elastic Material, select Isotropic, Diagonal or Symmetric to enter one or
more components for a general coefficient of thermal expansion vector vec.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 145

 Strain Reference Temperature
Enter a value or expression of the Strain reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), which
is the reference temperature that defines the change in temperature together with the
actual temperature.

Initial Stress and Strain

A solid mechanics model can include the Initial Stress and Strain feature, which is the
stress-strain state in the structure before applying any constraint or load. Initial strain
can, for example, describe moisture-induced swelling, and initial stress can describe
stresses from heating. Think of initial stress and strain as different ways to express the
same thing.

Right-click to add this node to a Linear Elastic Material and Linear

Viscoelastic Material.

The Shell interface Elastic Material Model has slightly different Initial Stress
Note
and Strain settings and this feature is discussed in that section.

When you have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, this model is
a good example.

Model Thermally Induced Creep: Model Library path

Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Creep/thermally_induced_creep

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define the initial stress or strain.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. The given initial stresses
and strains are interpreted in this system.

146 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

INITIAL STRESS AND STRAIN
Enter values or expressions for the Initial stress S0 (SI unit: N/m2) and Initial strain 0
(dimensionless). The default values are zero, which is no initial stress or strain. For
both, enter the diagonal and off-diagonal components (based on space dimension):

For a 3D Initial stress model, diagonal components 0x, 0y, and 0z and
off-diagonal components 0xy, 0yz, and 0xz, for example.
For a 3D Initial strain model, diagonal components 0x, 0y, and 0z and off-diagonal
components 0xy, 0yz, and 0xz, for example.

Perfectly Matched Layers

About Infinite Element Domains and Perfectly Matched Layers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also Using Perfectly Matched Layers

Phase
Add a Phase feature to a Body, Boundary, Edge, or Point Load. For modeling the
frequency response the physics interface splits the harmonic load into two parameters:

The amplitude, F, which is specified in the feature node for the load.
The phase (FPh)

Together these define a harmonic load, for which the amplitude and phase shift can
vary with the excitation frequency, f

F freq = F f cos 2f + F Ph f

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to define the phase.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 147

 PHASE
Enter the components of Load phase in radians (for a pressure the load phase is a
scalar value). Add [deg] to a phase value to specify it using degrees.

Typically the load magnitude is a real scalar value. If the load specified in
the parent feature contains a phase (using a complex-valued expression),
the software adds the phase from the Phase node to the phase already
Note
included in the load.

Prescribed Velocity
The Prescribed Velocity feature adds a boundary or domain condition where the
velocity is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed velocity condition is
applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this boundary or
domain condition it is possible to prescribe a velocity in one direction, leaving the solid
free in the other directions.

DOMAIN OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains or boundaries) to
prescribe a velocity.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Coordinate systems with
directions that change with time should not be used. If you choose another, local
coordinate system, the velocity components change accordingly.

P R E S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y

For 2D models, select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and

Prescribed in y direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for
2D the prescribed velocity components vx and vy (SI unit: m/s).

For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or both of the Prescribed in r

direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
2D Axi expression for the prescribed velocity vr and vz (SI unit: m/s).

148 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 For 3D models, select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed
in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value
or expression for the prescribed velocity components vx, vy, and vz
3D
(SI unit: m/s).

Prescribed Acceleration
The Prescribed Acceleration feature adds a boundary or domain condition, where the
acceleration is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed acceleration
condition is applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this
boundary condition, it is possible to prescribe a acceleration in one direction, leaving
the solid free in the other directions.

DOMAIN OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains or boundaries) to
prescribe an acceleration.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Coordinate systems with
directions that change with time should not be used. If you choose another, local
coordinate system, the acceleration components change accordingly.

PRESCRIBED ACCELERATION

For 2D models, select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and

Prescribed in y direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for
2D the prescribed acceleration ax and ay (SI unit: m/s2).

For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or both of the Prescribed in r

direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
2D Axi expression for the prescribed acceleration ar and az (SI unit: m/s2).

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 149

 For 3D models, select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed
in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value
or expression for the prescribed acceleration ax, ay, and az (SI unit: m/
3D
s2).

Spring Foundation
The Spring Foundation feature has elastic and damping boundary conditions for
domains, boundaries, edges, and points. To select this feature for the domains, it is
selected from the More submenu. Also right-click to add a Pre-Deformation subnode.

Springs and Dampers

See Also About Spring Foundations and Thin Elastic Layers

The Spring Foundation and Thin Elastic Layer features are similar, with the difference
that a Spring Foundation connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed
ground, while a Thin Elastic Layer acts between two parts, either on an interior
boundary or on a pair boundary.

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) for the spring foundation.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. The spring and damping
constants are given with respect to the selected coordinate system.

SPRING
Select the spring type and its associated spring constant of force. The first option is the
default spring type for the type of geometric entity and space dimension.

150 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Domains

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit volume kV (SI unit: N/(mm3)

Spring constant per unit area kA (SI unit: N/(mm2))
Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
Force per volume as function of extension FV (SI unit: N/m3)
2D
Force per area as function of extension FA (SI unit: N/m2), or
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)

then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate.

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit volume kV (SI unit: N/(mm3))

Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)

2D Axi
Force per volume as function of extension FV (SI unit: N/m3), or
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate.

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit volume kV (SI unit: N/(mm3))

Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
Force per volume as function of extension FV (SI unit: N/m3), or
3D
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 151

 Boundaries

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit area kA (SI unit: N/(mm2))

2D
Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
Force per area as function of extension FA (SI unit: N/m2), or
2D Axi
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
3D on the space dimension.

Edges

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit length kL (SI unit: N/(mm))

Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
Force per length as function of extension FL (SI unit: N/m), or
3D
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
then enter values or expressions into the table.

Points

Select a Spring type:

2D
Spring constant kP (SI unit: N/m) or
Force as function of extension F (SI unit: N)
2D Axi
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on the space dimension.
3D

152 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

LOSS FACTOR DAMPING

2D
Enter values or expressions in the table for each coordinate based on space
dimension for the Loss factor for spring k. The loss factors act on the
2D Axi corresponding components of the spring stiffness.

3D

VISCOUS DAMPING

Domains

Select a Damping type:

2D Viscous force per unit volume dV (SI unit: Ns/(mm3))

Viscous force per unit area dA (SI unit: Ns/(mm2)), or

2D Axi Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/m)

then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on space dimension.
3D

Boundaries

Select a Damping type:

2D
Viscous force per unit area dA (SI unit: Ns/(mm2)) or
Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/m)
2D Axi
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on space dimension.
3D

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 153

 Edges

Select a Damping type:

Viscous force per unit length dL (SI unit: Ns/(mm)) or

Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/m)
3D
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on space dimension.

Points

2D
Enter a value or expression for the Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/
m).
2D Axi

3D

Pre-Deformation
Right-click the Spring Foundation or Thin Elastic Layer nodes to add a
Pre-Deformation feature as a subnode and define the coordinates for the Spring
Pre-Deformation. By including a pre-deformation, you can model cases where the
unstressed state of the spring is in another configuration than the one modeled.

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) for the spring foundation.

SPRING PRE-DEFORMATION
Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates for the Spring Pre-Deformation u0
(SI unit: m)

154 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Thin Elastic Layer
The Thin Elastic Layer feature has elastic and damping boundary conditions for
boundaries and acts between two parts, either on an interior boundary or on a pair
boundary. Also right-click to add a Pre-Deformation subnode.

The Thin Elastic Layer and Spring Foundation features are similar, with the difference
that a Spring Foundation connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed
ground.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries for the thin elastic layer.

PAIR SELECTION
If Thin Elastic Layer is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An
identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

A default Free node is added when a Thin Elastic Layer pair node is added.
Note

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. The spring and damping
constants are given with respect to the selected coordinate system.

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 155

 SPRING
Select the spring type and its associated spring constant of force. The first option is the
default spring type for the space dimension.

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit area kA (SI unit: N/(mm2))

Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
2D Axi
Force per area as function of extension FA (SI unit: N/m2)
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
3D
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on the space dimension.

Select a Spring type:

Spring constant per unit length kL (SI unit: N/(mm))

Spring constant per unit area kA (SI unit: N/(mm2))
Total spring constant ktot (SI unit: N/m)
Force per length as function of extension FL (SI unit: N/m)
2D
Force per area as function of extension FA (SI unit: N/m2)
Total force as function of extension Ftot (SI unit: N)
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on the space dimension.

LOSS FACTOR DAMPING

2D
Enter values or expressions in the table for each coordinate based on space
dimension for the Loss factor for spring k. The loss factors act on the
2D Axi corresponding components of the spring stiffness.

3D

156 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

VISCOUS DAMPING

Select a Damping type:

Viscous force per unit area dA (SI unit: Ns/(mm2))

2D Axi
Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/m)
then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
3D on space dimension.

Select a Damping type:

Viscous force per unit length dL (SI unit: Ns/(mm))

Viscous force per unit area dA (SI unit: Ns/(mm2))

2D Total viscous force dtot (SI unit: Ns/m)

then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based
on space dimension.

Springs and Dampers

See Also About Spring Foundations and Thin Elastic Layers

Added Mass
The Added Mass feature is available on domains, boundaries, and edges and can be used
for supplying inertia which is not part of the material itself. Such inertia does not need
to be isotropic, in the sense that the inertial effects are not the same in all directions.
To select this feature for the domains, it is selected from the More submenu for the Solid
Mechanics interface.

About Added Mass

See Also

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 157

 If you want to include the added mass as a static self weight, you need to
add separate load features for the domains, boundaries or edges. The
Note added mass feature only contributes to the inertia in the dynamic sense,

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, O R E D G E S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, or edges)
for the added mass.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. The added mass values are
given with respect to the selected coordinate directions.

M A S S TY P E

Domains
Select a Mass typeMass per unit volume V (SI unit: kg/m3), Mass typeMass per unit
area A (SI unit: kg/m2), or Total mass m (SI unit: kg). Then enter values or
expressions into the table for each coordinate based on space dimension.

Boundaries
Select a Mass typeMass per unit area A (SI unit: kg/m2) or Total mass m (SI unit:
kg). Then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based on space
dimension.

Edges
Select a Mass typeMass per unit length L (SI unit: kg/m) or Total mass m (SI unit:
kg). Then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate based on space
dimension.

Low-Reflecting Boundary
Use the Low-Reflecting Boundary feature to let waves pass out from the model without
reflection in time-dependent analysis. As a default, it takes material data from the
domain in an attempt to create a perfect impedance match for both pressure waves and
shear waves. It may be sensitive to the direction of the incoming wave.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries for the low-reflecting boundary.

158 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Boundary System is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains any
additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

DAMPING
Select a Damping typeP and S waves (the default) or User defined.

If User defined is selected, enter values or expressions for the Mechanical impedance di
(SI unit: Pas/m).

About the Low-Reflecting Boundary Condition

See Also

THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 159

 Theory for the Solid Mechanics
Interface
The Solid Mechanics Interface theory is described in this section:

Material and Spatial Coordinates

Coordinate Systems
Lagrangian Formulation
About Linear Elastic Materials
Strain-Displacement Relationship
Stress-Strain Relationship
Plane Strain and Plane Stress Cases
Axial Symmetry
Loads
Pressure Loads
Equation Implementation
Setting up Equations for Different Studies
Damping Models
Modeling Large Deformations
About Linear Viscoelastic Materials
About Contact Modeling
Theory for the Rigid Connector
Initial Stresses and Strains
About Spring Foundations and Thin Elastic Layers
About Added Mass
Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface
About the Low-Reflecting Boundary Condition
Cyclic Symmetry and Floquet Periodic Conditions

160 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Material and Spatial Coordinates
The Solid Mechanics interface, through its equations, describes the motion and
deformation of solid objects in a 2- or 3-dimensional space. In COMSOLs
terminology, this physical space is known as the spatial frame and positions in the
physical space are identified by lowercase spatial coordinate variables x, y, and z (or r,
, and z in axisymmetric models).

Continuum mechanics theory also makes use of a second set of coordinates, known as
material (or reference) coordinates. These are normally denoted by uppercase
variables X, Y, and Z (or R, , and Z) and are used to label material particles. Any
material particle is uniquely identified by its position in some given initial or reference
configuration. As long as the solid stays in this configuration, material and spatial
coordinates of every particle coincide and displacements are zero by definition.

When the solid objects deform due to external or internal forces and constraints, each
material particle keeps its material coordinates X (bold font is used to denote
coordinate vectors), while its spatial coordinates change with time and applied forces
such that it follows a path

x = x X t = X + u X t (3-1)

in space. Because the material coordinates are constant, the current spatial position is
uniquely determined by the displacement vector u, pointing from the reference
position to the current position. The global Cartesian components of this displacement
vector in the spatial frame, by default called u, v, and w, are the primary dependent
variables in the Solid Mechanics interface.

By default, the Solid Mechanics interface uses the calculated displacement and
Equation 3-1 to define the difference between spatial coordinates x and material
coordinates X. This means the material coordinates relate to the original geometry,
while the spatial coordinates are solution dependent.

Material coordinate variables X, Y, and Z must be used in coordinate-dependent

expressions that refer to positions in the original geometry, for example, for material
properties that are supposed to follow the material during deformation. On the other
hand, quantities that have a coordinate dependence in physical space, for example, a
spatially varying electromagnetic field acting as a force on the solid, must be described
using spatial coordinate variables x, y, and z. Any use of the spatial variables will be a
source of nonlinearity if a geometrically nonlinear study is performed.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 161

 Coordinate Systems
Force vectors, stress and strain tensors, as well as various material tensors are
represented by their components in a specified coordinate system. By default, material
properties use the canonical system in the material frame. This is the system whose
basis vectors coincide with the X, Y, and Z axes. When the solid deforms, these vectors
rotate with the material.

Loads and constraints, on the other hand, are applied in spatial directions, by default
in the canonical spatial coordinate system. This system has basis vectors in the x, y, and
z directions, which are forever fixed in space. Both the material and spatial default
coordinate system are referred to as the Global coordinate system in the user interface
and are denoted by (G) in the following theory section.

Vector and tensor quantities defined in the global coordinate system on either frame
use the frames coordinate variable names as indices in the tensor component variable
names. For example, SXY is the material frame XY-plane shear stress, also known as a
second Piola-Kirchhoff stress, while sxy is the corresponding spatial frame stress, or
Cauchy stress. There are also a few mixed tensors, most notably the deformation
gradient FdxY, which has one spatial and one material index because it is used in
converting quantities between the material and spatial frames.

It is possible to define any number of user coordinate systems on the material and
spatial frames. Most types of coordinate systems are specified only as a rotation of the
basis with respect to the canonical basis in an underlying frame. This means that they
can be used both in contexts requiring a material system and in contexts requiring a
spatial one.

The coordinate system can be selected separately for each added material model, load,
and constraint. This is convenient if, for example, an anisotropic material with different
orientation in different domains is required. The currently selected coordinate system
is known as the local coordinate system and is denoted by (L) throughout this text.

Lagrangian Formulation
The formulation used for structural analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics for both small
and finite deformations is total Lagrangian. This means that the computed stress and
deformation state is always referred to the material configuration, rather than to
current position in space.

162 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Likewise, material properties are always given for material particles and with tensor
components referring to a coordinate system based on the material frame. This has the
obvious advantage that spatially varying material properties can be evaluated just once
for the initial material configuration and do not change as the solid deforms and
rotates.

The gradient of the displacement, which occurs frequently in the following theory, is
always computed with respect to material coordinates. In 3D:

u u u
X Y Z
u = v v v
X Y Z
w w w
X Y Z

About Linear Elastic Materials

The total strain tensor is written in terms of the displacement gradient

1 T
= --- u + u
2

or in components as

1 u m u n
mn = --- + (3-2)
2 x n x m

The Duhamel-Hookes law relates the stress tensor to the strain tensor and
temperature:

s = s 0 + C 0

where C is the 4th order elasticity tensor, : stands for the double-dot tensor product
(or double contraction), s0 and 0 are initial stresses and strains, TTref, and is
the thermal expansion tensor.

The elastic energy is

1
W s = --- 0 C 0 (3-3)
2

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 163

 or using the tensor components:

1 ijmn

0 0
Ws = --- C ij ij ij mn mn mn
2
i j m n

TE N S O R V S . M A T R I X F O R M U L A T I O N S
Because of the symmetry, the strain tensor can be written as the following matrix:

x xy xz
xy y yz
xz yz z

Similar representation applies to the stress and the thermal expansion tensors:

s x s xy s xz x xy xz
s xy s y s yz xy y yz
s xz s yz s z xz yz z

Due to the symmetry, the elasticity tensor can be completely represented by a

symmetric 6-by-6 matrix as:

1111 1122 1133 1112 1123 1113

D 11 D 12 D 13 D 14 D 15 D 16 C C C C C C
D 12 D 22 D 23 D 24 D 25 D 26 1122 2222 2233 2212 2223 2213
C C C C C C
D 13 D 23 D 33 D 34 D 35 D 36 1133 2233 3333 3312 3323 3313
D = = C C C C C C
D 14 D 24 D 34 D 44 D 45 D 46 C
1112
C
2212
C
3312
C
1212
C
1223
C
1213

D 15 D 25 D 35 D 45 D 55 D 56 C
1123
C
2223
C
3323
C
1223
C
2323
C
2313

D 16 D 26 D 36 D 46 D 56 D 66 1113 2213 3313 1213 2313 1313

C C C C C C

which is the elasticity matrix.

ISOTROPIC MATERIAL AND ELASTIC MODULI

In this case, the elasticity matrix becomes

164 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
E 1 2
D = --------------------------------------- 0 0 0 ---------------- 0 0
1 + 1 2 2
1 2-
0 0 0 0 --------------- 0
2
1 2-
0 0 0 0 0 ---------------
2

and the thermal expansion matrix is:

0 0
0 0
0 0

Different pairs of elastic moduli can be used, and as long as two moduli are defined,
the others can be computed according to Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-2: EXPRESSIONS FOR THE ELASTIC MODULI.

DESCRIPTION VARIABLE DE DKG D

Youngs modulus E 9KG - 3 + 2
------------------ --------------------
3K + G +
Poissons ratio -
--- 1 ------------------
3G -
1 --------------------
2 3K + G 2 +

Bulk modulus K E - 2
----------------------- + -------
3 1 2 3
Shear modulus G E -
--------------------
21 +
Lam constant E 2G
--------------------------------------
- K --------
1 + 1 2 3
Lam constant E - G
--------------------
21 +
Pressure-wave cp K + 4G 3-
speed -------------------------

Shear-wave cs G
speed

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 165

 According to Table 3-2, the elasticity matrix D for isotropic materials is written in
terms of Lam parameters and ,

+ 2 0 0 0
+ 2 0 0 0
D = + 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

or in terms of the bulk modulus K and shear modulus G:

4G 2G 2G
K + -------- K -------- K -------- 0 0 0
3 3 3
2G 4G 2G
K -------- K + -------- K -------- 0 0 0
3 3 3
D = 2G 2G 4G
K -------- K -------- K + -------- 0 0 0
3 3 3
0 0 0 G 0 0
0 0 0 0 G 0
0 0 0 0 0 G

ORTHOTROPIC AND ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS

There are two different ways to represent orthotropic or anisotropic data. The
Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) material data ordering converts the indices as:

11 1 x
22 2 y
33 3 z
12 21 4 xy
23 32 5 yz
13 31 6 xz

thus, the Hookes law is presented in the form involving the elasticity matrix D and the
following vectors:

166 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 sx sx x x x

sy sy y y y

sz sz z z z
= + D
s xy s xy 2 xy 2 xy 2 xy

s yz s yz 2 yz 2 yz 2 yz

s xz s xz
0
2 xz 2 xz 0 2 xz

COMSOL Multiphysics uses the complete tensor representation internally to perform

the coordinate system transformations correctly.

Beside the Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) Material data ordering, the elasticity
coefficients are entered following the Voigt notation. In the Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ,
XY) Material data ordering, the sorting of indices is:

11 1 x
22 2 y
33 3 z
23 32 4 yz
13 31 5 xz
12 21 6 xy

thus the last three rows and columns in the elasticity matrix D are swapped.

ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL
The elasticity matrix for orthotropic material in the Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ)
Material data ordering has the following structure:

D 11 D 12 D 13 0 0 0
D 12 D 22 D 23 0 0 0
D 13 D 23 D 33 0 0 0
D =
0 0 0 D 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 D 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 D 66

where the components are as follows:

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 167

 2 2
E x E z yz E y E x E y E z yz xz + E y xy
D 11 = ---------------------------------------- , D 12 = -----------------------------------------------------------------
D denom D denom

2 2
E x E y E y xy yz + xz E y E z xz E x
D 13 = ---------------------------------------------------------- , D 22 = ----------------------------------------
D denom D denom

2
E y E z E y xy xz + E x yz E y E z E y xy E x
D 23 = ----------------------------------------------------------------- , D 33 = -----------------------------------------------
D denom D denom

D 44 = G xy , D 55 = G yz , and D 66 = G xz

where

2 2 2 2
D denom = E y E z xz E x E y + 2 xy yz xz E y E z + E x E z yz + E y xy

The values of Ex, Ey, Ez, xy, yz, xz, Gxy, Gyz, and Gxz are supplied in designated
fields in the user interface. COMSOL deduces the remaining componentsyx, zx,
and zyusing the fact that the matrices D and D1 are symmetric. The compliance
matrix has the following form:

1 yx zx
------ -------- -------- 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
xy 1 zy
-------- ------ -------- 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
xz yz 1
1
-------- -------- ------ 0 0 0
D = Ex Ey Ez
1
0 0 0 --------- 0 0
G xy
1
0 0 0 0 --------- 0
G yz
1
0 0 0 0 0 ---------
G xz

The thermal expansion matrix is diagonal:

168 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 x 0 0
0 y 0
0 0 z

The elasticity matrix in the Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) Material data ordering changes
the sorting of the last three elements in the elasticity matrix:

D 44 = G yz , D 55 = G xz , and D 66 = G xy

ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL
In the general case of fully anisotropic material, provide explicitly 21 components of
the symmetric elasticity matrix D, in either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt
(XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) Material data ordering, and 6 components of the symmetric
thermal expansion matrix.

ENTROPY AND THERMOELASTICITY

The free energy for the linear thermoelastic material can be written as

F = f 0 T + W s T

where WsT is given by Equation 3-3. Hence, the stress can be found as

F W
s = = = C 0
T T

and the entropy per unit volume can be calculated as

F
= C p log T T 0 + S elast
T

where T0 is a reference temperature, the volumetric heat capacity CP can be assumed

independent of the temperature (Dulong-Petit law), and

S elast = s

For an isotropic material, it simplifies into

S elast = s x + s y + s z

The heat balance equation can be written as

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 169

 T
C p + T S elast = k T + Q h
t t

where k are the thermal conductivity matrix, and

Q h =

where is the strain-rate tensor and the tensor represents all possible inelastic stresses
(for example, a viscous stress).

Using the tensor components, the heat balance can be rewritten as:

T
C p
t
+ Tmn t smn = k T + Q h (3-4)
m n

In many cases, the second term can be neglected in the left-hand side of Equation 3-4
because all Tmn are small. The resulting approximation is often called uncoupled
thermoelasticity.

Strain-Displacement Relationship
The strain conditions at a point are completely defined by the deformation
componentsu, v, and w in 3Dand their derivatives. The precise relation between
strain and deformation depends on the relative magnitude of the displacement.

SMALL DISPLACEMENTS
Under the assumption of small displacements, the normal strain components and the
shear strain components are related to the deformation as follows:

u xy 1 u v
x = xy = ------- = --- +
x 2 2 y x
v yz 1 v w
y = yz = ------- = --- + (3-5)
y 2 2 z y
w xz 1 u w
z = xz = ------- = --- + .
z 2 2 z x

To express the shear strain, use either the tensor form, xy, yz, xz, or the engineering
form, xy, yz, xz.

The symmetric strain tensor consists of both normal and shear strain components:

170 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 x xy xz
= xy y yz
xz yz z

The strain-displacement relationships for the axial symmetry case for small
displacements are

u u w u w
r = , = --- , z = , and rz = +
r r z z r

LARGE DEFORMATIONS
As a start, consider a certain physical particle, initially located at the coordinate X.
During deformation, this particle follows a path

x = x X t

For simplicity, assume that undeformed and deformed positions are measured in the
same coordinate system. Using the displacement u, it is then possible to write

x = X+u

When studying how an infinitesimal line element dX is mapped to the corresponding

deformed line element dx, the deformation gradient, F, defined by

x
dx = ------- dX = F dX
X

is used.

The deformation gradient contains the complete information about the local straining
and rotation of the material. It is a positive definite matrix, as long as material cannot
be annihilated. The ratio between current and original volume (or mass density) is

dV- 0
---------- = ------ = det F = J
dV 0

A deformation state where J = 1 is often called incompressible. From the deformation

gradient, it is possible to define the right Cauchy-Green tensor as

T
C = F F

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 171

 As can be shown by simple insertion, a finite rigid body rotation causes nonzero values
of the engineering strain defined by Equation 3-5. This is not in correspondence with
the intuitive concept of strain, and it is certainly not useful in a constitutive law. There
are several alternative strain definitions in use that do have the desired properties. The
Green-Lagrange strains, , is defined as

1 1 T
= --- C I = --- F F I
2 2

Using the displacements, they be also written as

1 u i u j u k u k
ij = --- -------- + -------- + --------- --------- (3-6)
2 X j X i X i X j

The Green-Lagrange strains are defined with reference to an undeformed geometry.

Hence, they represent a Lagrangian description.

The deformation state characterized by finite (or large displacements) but small to
moderate strains is sometimes referred to as geometric nonlinearity or nonlinear
geometry. This typically occurs when the main part of the deformations presents a finite
rigid body rotation

STRAIN RATE AND SPIN

The spatial velocity gradient is defined in components as

v
L kl = r t
xl k

where v k r t is the spatial velocity field. It can be shown that L can be computed in
terms of the deformation gradient as

dF 1
L = F
dt

where the material time derivative is used.

The velocity gradient can be decomposed into symmetric and skew-symmetric parts

L = Ld + Lw

where

1 T
L d = --- L + L
2

172 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

is called the rate of strain tensor, and

and

1 T
L w = --- L L
2

is called the spin tensor. Both tensors are defined on the spatial frame.

It can be shown that the material time derivative of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor
can be related to the rate of strain tensor as

d T
= F Ld F
dt

The spin tensor Lw(x,t) accounts for an instantaneous local rigid-body rotation about
an axis passing through the point x.

Components of both Ld and Lw are available as results and analysis variables under the
Solid Mechanics interface.

Stress-Strain Relationship
The symmetric stress tensor describes stress in a material:

x xy xz
= yx y yz xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy
zx zy z

This tensor consists of three normal stresses (x, y, z) and six (or, if symmetry is used,
three) shear stresses (xy, yz, xz).

For large deformations and hyperelastic material models there are more than one stress
measure:

Cauchy stress (the components are denoted sx, in COMSOL Multiphysics)

defined as force/deformed area in fixed directions not following the body.
Symmetric tensor.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 173

 First Piola-Kirchhoff stress P (the components are denoted Px, in COMSOL
Multiphysics). This is an unsymmetric two-point tensor.
Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress S (the components are denoted Sx, in COMSOL
Multiphysics). This is a symmetric tensor, for small strains same as Cauchy stress
tensor but in directions following the body.

The stresses relate to each other as

1
S = F P
1 T 1 T
= J PF = J FSF

Plane Strain and Plane Stress Cases

For a general anisotropic linear elastic material in case of plane stress, COMSOL solves
three equations si30 for i3 with i = 1, 2, 3, and uses the solution instead of
Equation 3-2 for these three strain components. Thus, three components i3 are
treated as extra degrees of freedom. For isotropy and orthotropy, only with an extra
degree of freedom, 33,is used since all out of plane shear components of both stress
and strain are zero. The remaining three strain components are computed as in 3D case
according to Equation 3-2.

For an isotropic material, only the normal out-of-plane component 33

needs to be solved for.
Note

In case of plane strain, set i3 for i1, 2, 3. The out-of-plane stress components
si3 are results and analysis variables.

In the case of geometrical nonlinearity, the second Piola-Kirchhoff and the

Green-Lagrange strain is used instead of the Cauchy stress and engineering strain.

Axial Symmetry
The axially symmetric geometry uses a cylindrical coordinate system. Such a coordinate
system is orthogonal but curvilinear, and one can choose between a covariant basis
e1, e2, e3 and a contravariant basis e1, e2, e3.

The metric tensor is

174 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 1 0 0
g ij = 0 r 2 0
0 0 1

in the coordinate system given by e1, e2, e3, and

1 0 0
g
ij = 0 r2 0
0 0 1

in e1, e2, e3.

The metric tensor plays the role of a unit tensor for a curvilinear coordinate system.

For any vector or tensor A, the metric tensor can be used for conversion between
covariant, contravariant, and mixed components:

Aim g
j mj
Ai =
m

ni mj
Anm g
ij
A = g
m n

In both covariant and contravariant basis, the base vector in the azimuthal direction
has a nonunit length. To cope with this issue, the so called physical basis vectors of unit
length are introduced. These are

1 1 3
e r = e 1 = e e = --- e = re 2 e z = e 3 = e
r 2

The corresponding components for any vector or tensor are called physical.

For any tensor, the physical components are defined as

phys ij
A ij = g ii g jj A

where no summation is done over repeated indices.

MIXED COMPONENTS AND PRINCIPAL INVARIANTS

The mixed strain components are given by

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 175

 g
i im
Aj = A mj
m

The principal invariants are

1
Ai
i i
I 1 A = trace A i = = A 11 + A 22 ----2- + A 33
i
r

1 j
Aj Ai
2 i
I 2 A = --- I 1 A
2
i j

i
I 3 A = det A i

DISPLACEMENTS AND AXIAL SYMMETRY ASSUMPTIONS

The axial symmetry implementation in COMSOL Multiphysics assumes independence
of the angle, and also that the torsional component of the displacement is identically
zero. The physical components of the radial and axial displacement, u and w, are used
as dependent variables for the axially symmetric geometry.

STRAINS
The right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor is defined as

T T
C = u + u + u u + g

and the Green-Lagrange strain tensor is

1
= --- C g
2

Under the axial symmetry assumptions, the covariant components of C are

u u 2 w 2
C 11 = 2 + + + 1
r r r

C 12 = C 23 = 0

u w u -----
u- ------
w w
C 13 = + + + - -------
z r r z r z

2 2
C 22 = 2ru + u + r

176 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 v u v
C 23 = r ------ + v ------ + u ------
z z z

w u 2 w 2
C 33 = 2 ------- + ------ + ------- + 1
z z z

For the Linear Elastic Material, drop the nonlinear terms inside square brackets in the
above expressions.

The physical components of are

1
r = 11 = --- C 11 1
2

r = z = 0

1
rz = 13 = --- C 13
2

22 1- 2
= -------
2
- = --------
2
C 22 r
r 2r

1
z = 33 = --- C 33 1
2

The volumetric strain is

vol = I 1 = r + + z

STRESSES
The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is computed as

W s
S = 2
C

which is computed as the contravariant components of the stress in the local

coordinate system:

ij W s
S = 2
C ij

The corresponding physical components are defined on the global coordinate system:

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 177

 11
Sr = S

12
S r = rS

13
S rz = S

2 22
S = r S

23
S z = rS

33
Sz = S

Note that

S
ij
I1 S = g ij = S r + S + S z
i j

The energy variation is computed as

S
ij
Stest = test ij
i j

which can be also written as

S r test r + S test + S z test z + 2S rz test rz

For the linear elastic material, the stress components in coordinate system are

ij ij ijkl
s = s0 + C kl kl 0kl

where TTref.

For anisotropic and orthotropic materials, the 4th-order elasticity tensor is defined
from D matrix according to:

178 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 sr sr r r r

s s

s z s z z z z
= + D
s r s r 2 r 2 r 2 r

s z s z 2 z 2 z 2 z

s rz s rz
0
2 rz 2 rz
0
2 rz

The user input D matrix always contains the physical components of the elasticity
tensor

phys
C ijkl

and the corresponding tensor components are computed internally according to:

phys
ijkl C ijkl
C = -----------------------------------------------
g ii g jj g kk g ll

For an isotropic material:

ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C = g g + g g + g g

where and are the first and second Lam elastic constants.

Loads
Specify loads as

Distributed loads. The load is a distributed force in a volume, on a face, or along an

edge.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 179

 Total force. The specification of the load is as the total force. The software then
divides this value with the area or the volume where the force acts.
Pressure (boundaries only).

For 2D models choose how to specify the distributed boundary load as a

load defined as force per unit area or a load defined as force per unit length
acting on boundaries.

In the same way, choose between defining the load as force per unit
volume or force per unit area for body loads acting in a domain. Also
2D
define a total force (SI unit: N) as required.

For 2D and axisymmetric models, the boundary loads apply on edges

(boundaries).

For 2D and axisymmetric models, the boundary loads apply on edges

(boundaries).
2D Axi

For 3D solids, the boundary loads apply on faces (boundaries).

3D

Table 3-3 shows how to define distributed loads on different geometric entity levels;
the entries show the SI unit in parentheses.
TABLE 3-3: DISTRIBUTED LOADS

GEOMETRIC POINT EDGE FACE DOMAIN

ENTITY

2D force (N) force/area (N/m2) Not available force/volume (N/

or force/length m3) or force/area
(N/m) (N/m2)
Axial total force along force/area (N/m2) Not available force/volume (N/
symmetry the m3)
circumferential
(N)
3D force (N) force/length (N/ force/area (N/ force/volume (N/
m) m2) m3)

180 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Pressure Loads
A pressure load is directed inward along the normal of boundary on which it is acting.
This load type acts as a source of nonlinearity, since its direction depends on the current
direction of the boundary normal. In a linearized context, for example in the frequency
domain, the pressure is equivalent to a specified normal stress.

For general cases, if the problem is linear in all other respects, the solution
can be made more efficient by forcing the solver to treat the problem as
linear. See Stationary Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Note
Guide.

If the Include geometric nonlinearity check box is selected, or a Hyperelastic Material

feature is specified, the solution uses a geometrically nonlinear formulation. A pressure
load is then a true follower load. It always acts in the current normal direction and is
applied to the current deformed area. This is a nonlinear boundary condition because
both the direction and area of application of the force are functions of the deformation.

The Hyperelastic Material feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module.
Tip

THEORY
The direction of an explicitly applied distributed load must be given with reference to
a local or global coordinate system in the spatial frame, but its magnitude must be with
reference to the undeformed reference or material area. That is, the relation between
the true force f acting on the current area da and the specified distributed load F
acting on the material area dA is f = FdA. When the solid is subjected to an external
pressure, p, the true force on a surface element acts with magnitude p in the current
area da in the normal direction n:

f = pnda

Therefore, the pressure load type specifies the distributed load as

da
F = pn --------
dA

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 181

 where both the normal n and area element da are functions of the current
displacement field.

Plane Stress
In a plane stress condition the out-of-plane deformation causes the thickness to
change, and this area effect is included explicitly. The equation transforms to

w
F = pn -------- 1 +
da
dA z

Axial Symmetry
To account for the radial deformation changing the circumference and therefore the
area element, the distributed load is applied as

da R + u
F = pn -------- -------------------
dA R

Equation Implementation
The COMSOL Multiphysics implementation of the equations in the Solid Mechanics
interface is based on the principle of virtual work.

The principle of virtual work states that the sum of virtual work from internal strains
is equal to work from external loads.

The total stored energy, W, for a linear material from external and internal strains and
loads equals:

W = s + u FV dv
V

U
t
+ u F S ds + u F L dl + Fp
S L p

The principle of virtual work states that W0 which leads to

182 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 test s + utest FV utest utt dv
V

Utest Fp
t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl +
S L p

Setting up Equations for Different Studies

The Solid Mechanics interface supports stationary (static), eigenfrequency,
time-dependent (transient), frequency domain, and modal solver study types as well as
viscoelastic transient initialization and linear buckling.

STATIONARY STUDIES
COMSOL Multiphysics uses an implementation based on the stress and strain
variables. The normal and shear strain variables depend on the displacement
derivatives.

Using the tensor strain, stress, and displacement variables, the principle of virtual work
is expressed as:

W = test s + utest FV dv
V

Utest Fp
t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl +
S L p

V I S C O E L A S T I C TR A N S I E N T I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N
The equations using the linear viscoelastic material model corresponds to a stationary
study, with added viscoelasticity.

The stationary solution obtained corresponds to a fast, adiabatic

deformation. This is different from the stationary state after a long-time
Note evolution.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 183

 TIME-DEPENDENT STUDIES

test s + dM st + utest FV utest utt dM utest ut dv

V
(3-7)

t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl + U test Fp
S L p

where the terms proportional to dM and dK appear if the Rayleigh damping is used.

For more information about the equation form in case of geometric nonlinearity see

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN STUDIES
In the frequency domain the frequency response is studied when applying harmonic
loads. Harmonic loads are specified using two components:

The amplitude value, Fx

The phase, FxPh

To derive the equations for the linear response from harmonic excitation loads

F xfreq = F x f cos t + F xPh f ----------
180

F xfreq
F freq = F yfreq
F zfreq

assume a harmonic response with the same angular frequency as the excitation load

u = u amp cos t + u

u
u= v
w

184 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Also describe this relationship using complex notation

j u jt jt j
u = Re u amp e e = Re u e where u = u amp e u

e jt
u = Re u

jF xPh f ----------
180 jt jt
F xfreq = Re F x e e = Re Fx e

where

jF xPh f ----------
180
Fx = F x f e

Fx

F = F
y

Fz

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDIES
The eigenfrequency equations are derived by assuming a harmonic displacement field,
similar as for the frequency response formulation. The difference is that this study type
uses a new variable j explicitly expressed in the eigenvalue jThe
eigenfrequency f is then derived from j as

f = Im j -
------------------
2

Damped eigenfrequencies can be studied by adding viscous damping terms to the

equation. In addition to the eigenfrequency the quality factor, Q, and decay factor,
for the model can be examined:

Im
Q = -------------------
2Re

= Re

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 185

 Damping Models
The Solid Mechanics interface offers two predefined damping models: Rayleigh
damping and loss factor damping.

RAYLEIGH DAMPING
To model damping effects within the material, COMSOL Multiphysics uses Rayleigh
damping, where two damping coefficients are specified.

The weak contribution due to the alpha-damping is always accounted for as shown in
Equation 3-7. The contribution from the beta-damping that shown in Equation 3-7
corresponds to the case of small strains. In case of geometric nonlinearity, it becomes

dM utest Pt dv
V

where P is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, for more information see

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also

To further clarify the use of the Rayleigh damping, consider a system with a single
degree of freedom. The equation of motion for such a system with viscous damping is

2
d u du
m ---------2- + c ------- + ku = f t
dt dt

In the Rayleigh damping model the damping coefficient c can be expressed in terms
of the mass m and the stiffness k as

c = dM m + dK k

The Rayleigh damping proportional to mass and stiffness is added to the static weak
term.

A complication with the Rayleigh damping model is to obtain good values for the
damping parameters. A more physical damping measure is the relative damping, the
ratio between actual and critical damping, often expressed as a percentage of the critical
damping. Commonly used values of relative damping can be found in the literature.

186 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

It is possible to transform relative damping to Rayleigh damping parameters. The
relative damping, , for a specified pair of Rayleigh parameters, dM and dK, at a
frequency, f, is

1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 2f
2 2f

Using this relationship at two frequencies, f1 and f2, with different relative damping,
1 and 2, results in an equation system that can be solved for dM and dK:

1 -
----------- f
4f 1 1 dM 1
=
1 - dK 2
----------- f
4f 2 2

Using the same relative damping, 1 = 2, does not result in a constant damping factor
inside the interval f1 f f2. It can be shown that the damping factor is lower inside
the interval, as Figure 3-7 shows.
Relative damping

Rayleigh damping

Specified damping

f1 f2
f

Figure 3-7: An example of Rayleigh damping.

LOSS FACTOR DAMPING

Loss factor damping (sometimes referred to as material or structural damping) can be
applied in the frequency domain.

In COMSOL Multiphysics, the loss information appears as a multiplier of the elastic

stress in the stress-strain relationship:

s = s 0 + 1 + j s C 0

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 187

 where s is the loss factor, and j is the imaginary unit. For Hyperelastic Materials, the
corresponding definition is

W s
S = 1 + j s ----------
E

The Hyperelastic Material feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module.
Tip

Choose between these loss damping types:

Isotropic loss damping s

Orthotropic loss damping with components of E, the loss factor for an orthotropic
Youngs modulus, and G, the loss factor for an orthotropic shear modulus.
Anisotropic loss damping with an isotropic or symmetric loss damping D for the
elasticity matrix.

If modeling the damping in the structural analysis via the loss factor, use the following
definition for the elastic part of the entropy:

S elast = s j s C

This is because the entropy is a function of state and thus independent of the strain
rate, while the damping represents the rate-dependent effects in the material (for
example, viscous or viscoelastic effects). The internal work of such inelastic forces
averaged over the time period 2 can be computed as:

1
Q h = --- s Real Conj C (3-8)
2

Equation 3-8 can be used as a heat source for modeling of the heat generation in
vibrating structures, when coupled with the frequency-domain analysis for the stresses
and strains.

The Linear Viscoelastic Material feature typically does not require any
additional damping, as all the damping effects are contained in the
Note material data (such as the relaxation times).

188 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Modeling Large Deformations
Consider a certain physical particle, initially located at the coordinate X. During
deformation, this particle follows a path

x = x X t

For simplicity, assume that undeformed and deformed positions are measured in the
same coordinate system.Using the displacement u, it is then possible to write

x = X + u X t

When studying how an infinitesimal line element dX is mapped to the corresponding

deformed line element dx, use the deformation gradient tensor F, defined by

x
dx = ------- dX = F dX
X

The deformation gradient F contains the complete information about the local
straining and rotation of the material. It is a two-point tensor (or a double vector),
which transforms as a vector with respect to each of its indexes. It involves both the
reference and present configurations. In terms of displacement gradient, it can be
written as F u I. The ratio between current and initial volume (or mass density) is

dV- 0
---------- = ------ = det F = J
dV 0

As a consequence, a deformation state where J1 is said to be incompressible.

Define the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor:

T T T
C = F F = u + u + u u + I (3-9)

In components, in coordinate system (G):

u i u j u k u k
C ij = -------- + -------- +
X j X i --------
- --------- + ij
X i X j
(3-10)
k

and the Green-Lagrange strain tensor:

1
= --- C I (3-11)
2

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 189

 There are two possibilities to model large deformations in COMSOL:

The first one is to include the geometric nonlinearity within the Linear Elastic
Material.
The second option is to use the Hyperelastic Material feature. This approach is
suitable for the case of large strains, but the choice of a particular hyperelastic
material is usually relevant only for a particular type of materials (such as rubbers,
for example).

The Hyperelastic Material feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module.
Tip

About Linear Viscoelastic Materials

Linear viscoelastic materials have a time-dependent response, even if the loading is
constant. Many polymers and biological tissues exhibit such a behavior. Linear
viscoelasticity is a commonly used approximation, for which the stress depends linearly
on the strain and its time derivatives (strain rate). It is usually assumed that the viscous
part of the deformation is incompressible, so that the volume change is purely elastic.

LINEAR VISCOELASTIC SOLID

The total stress tensor is presented as:

s = pI + s d

where the pressure (volumetric stress) is computed as

p = K vol 3 T T ref

where K is the bulk modulus, is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and the strain
is decomposed as

1
= --- vol I + d
3

with the volumetric stress given by

vol = trace ij

190 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

The general linear dependence of the stress deviator on the strain history can be
expressed by the hereditary integral:

t
d

s d = 2 t t' -------- dt'
t'
0

where the function (t) is called the relaxation shear modulus function that can be
found by measuring the stress evolution in time when the material is held at a constant
strain.

The relaxation function is often approximated in a Prony series:

G m exp -------
t
t = G + m
m=1

Physical interpretation of this approach, which is often called the generalized Maxwell
model, is shown in Figure 3-8
s

G1 G2 Gi
G ..... .....
1 2 i

1 2 i

s

Figure 3-8: Generalized Maxwell model.

Hence, m are the relaxation time constants of the spring-dashpot pairs in the same
branch, and Gm represent the stiffness of the spring in branch m.

Following the analogy, the abstract variables qm are introduced to represent the
extension of the corresponding springs. Thus,

s d = 2G d + 2G m q m (3-12)
m=1

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 191

 1
q m + ------- q m = d (3-13)
m

Each of the variables qm is a symmetric tensor (which has as many components as the
number of strain components of the problem class).

Equation 3-13 gives

trace q m = trace q 0m exp t t 0 m

for each branch. This assumes that traceq0m0. This is equivalent to the
assumption that any possible elastic prestrain of the material (also called viscoelastic
transient initialization) is always fast enough to equally affect all the branches. Hence,

trace q m 0

which implies that both viscoelastic strain and stress tensors are deviatoric, and it allows
to express:

q zm = q xm q ym

The instantaneous shear modulus is defined as

G0 = G + Gm
m=1

A commonly used parameter, the elastoviscosity, can be expressed for each branch in
terms of the relaxation time and shear modus as

m = Gm m

TE M P E R A T U RE E F F E C T S
For many materials, the viscoelastic properties have a strong dependence on the
temperature. A common assumption is that the material is thermorheologically simple
(TRS). In a material of this class, a change in the temperature can be transformed
directly into a change in the time scale. The reduced time is defined as

t
dt'
tr = -----------------------
a T T t'
-
0

192 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

where aT(T) is a shift function. The implication is that the problem can be solved using
the original material data, provided that the time is transformed into the reduced time.
One commonly used shift function is defined by the WLF (Williams-Landel-Ferry)
equation:

C1 T T0
log a T = -----------------------------------
C 2 + T T0

where a base-10 logarithm is assumed.

Note that aT(T0) = 1, so that T0 is the temperature at which the original material data
is given. Usually T0 is taken as the glass transition temperature of the material. If the
temperature drops below T0C2, the WLF equation is no longer valid. The constants
C1 and C2 are material dependent, but with T0 as the glass temperature the values
C1 = 17.4 and C2 = 51.6 K are reasonable approximations for many polymers.

Think of the shift function as a multiplier to the viscosity in the dashpot in the Maxwell
model. Equation 3-13 for a TRS material is modified to

1
q m + ----------------------- q m = d
a T T m

The viscoelastic strain variables qm are treated as additional degrees of freedom. The
shape functions must be of one order less than those used for the displacements
because these variables add to the strains and stresses computed from displacement
derivatives. The viscoelastic strain variables do not require continuity, so it is possible
to use discontinuous shape functions.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS AND DAMPING

Frequency decomposition is performed as

s d = real s d exp jt

d = real d exp jt

Equation 3-12 and Equation 3-13 give then:

s d = 2 G' + jG'' d

where

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 193

 N 2
m
G' = G + Gm ----------------------------2
1 + m
m=1

N
m
G'' = G m ----------------------------2
1 + m
m=1

are often referred to as the storage modulus and the loss modulus, respectively.

The internal work of viscous forces averaged over the time period 2 can be
computed as:

Q h = G''d conj d

AXIAL SYMMETRY
The volumetric strain is

g
ij
vol = I 1 = ij
i j

and the deviatoric part of the strain tensor is

1
d = --- vol g
3

where g is the metric tensor, or in components on coordinate system (G)

1
dij = ij --- vol g ij
3

Because the viscoelastic strain tensor qm is deviatoric,

g
ij
q mij = 0
i j

from which this expression is computed

q 22 m
q 33 m = q 11 m + --------------
2
-
r

and all the other components of qm are treated as extra degrees of freedom.

194 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

The viscoelastic stress tensor variable is defined via the contravariant components on
(L):

N
2G m q ij m g g
ni kj
ij
sq =

k n m = 1

The physical components of the viscoelastic stress are

11
s qr = s q

12
s q r = rsq

13
s q rz = s q

2 22
sq = r sq

23
s q z = rsq

33
sqz = sq

The total stress is computed via components on (L) as

ij ij ijkl ij
s = s0 + C kl kl T T ref 0kl + s q

where the elasticity tensor components are

ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C = g g + g g + g g

About Contact Modeling

COMSOL Multiphysics is able to model contact between a group of boundaries in 2D
or 3D. The contact pair is asymmetric (source/destination pair). The destination
contact domain is constrained not to penetrate the source domain, but not vice versa.
To get the best results, the destination should have finer mesh than the source, and the
source should be stiffer than the destination. Also, the source should be concave and
the destination be convex rather than the opposite.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 195

 COMSOL Multiphysics solves contact problems using an augmented Lagrangian
method. This means that the software solves the system in a segregated way.
Augmentation components are introduced for the contact pressure Tn and the
components Tti of the friction traction vector Tt. An additional iteration level is added
where the usual displacement variables are solved separately from the contact pressure
and traction variables. The algorithm repeats this procedure until it fulfills a
convergence criterion.

In the following equations F is the deformation gradient matrix. When looking at

expressions evaluated on the destination boundaries, the expression map (E) denotes
the value of the expression E evaluated at a corresponding source point, and g is the
gap distance between the destination and source boundary.

Both the contact map operator map (E) and the gap distance variable are defined by
the contact element elcontact. For each destination point where the operator or gap
is evaluated, a corresponding source point is sought by searching in the direction
normal to the destination boundary.

Source
m(x)

g
x
Destination

Before the boundaries come in contact, the source point found is not necessarily the
point on the source boundary closest to the destination point. However, as the
boundaries approach one another, the source point converges to the closest point as
the gap distance goes to zero.

It is possible to add an offset value to either the source, the destination or both. If an
offset is used, the geometry is treated as larger (or smaller) than what is actually
modeled when the gap is computed.

Using the special gap distance variable (solid.gap), the penalized contact pressure
Tnp is defined on the destination boundary as

196 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 Tn pn dg if d g 0

T np = pn dg (3-14)
-----------
Tn
n
T e otherwise

where dg is the gap distance between the destination and source boundary, and pn is
the user-defined normal penalty factor.

The penalized friction traction Ttp is defined on the destination boundary as:

T tcrit
T tp = min -------------------- 1 T ttrial (3-15)
T ttrial

where Tttrial is defined as

T ttrial = T t p t map F x m x m old (3-16)

and

x m = map x

where x are the space coordinates.

In Equation 3-16, pt is the user-defined friction traction penalty factor, and xm,old is
the value of xm in the last time step, and

map F x m x m old

is the vector of slip since the last time step (approximated using a backward Euler step).

Ttcrit is defined as

T tcrit = min T np + T cohe T tmax (3-17)

In Equation 3-17, is the friction coefficient, Tcohe is the user-defined cohesion

sliding resistance, and Ttmax is the user-defined maximum friction traction.

In the following equation is the variation (represented by the test operator in

COMSOL Multiphysics). The contact interaction gives the following contribution to
the weak equation on the destination boundary:

T np g + T tp m F x m dA + w cn T n + w ct T t dA
destination destination

where wcn and wct are contact help variables defined as:

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 197

 w cn = T np i T n i + 1

w ct = fric T tp n T tp n i T t i + 1

where i is the augmented solver iteration number and fric is a Boolean variable stating
if the parts are in contact.

Since the contact model always makes use of the geometric nonlinearity assumption,
the contact pressure and the friction force represent, respectively, the normal and
tangential components of the nominal traction that is the force with components in
the actual configuration (that is, on the spatial frame) but related to the undeformed
area of the corresponding surface element.

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity

FRICTION
The friction model is either no friction or Coulomb friction.

The frictional coefficient is defined as

+ s d exp dcf v s if dynamic friction
= d
s otherwise

where s is the static frictional coefficient, d is the dynamic frictional coefficient,

vs is the slip velocity, and dcf is a decay coefficient.

Theory for the Rigid Connector

The rigid connector is a special kinematic constraint, which can be attached to one or
several boundaries. The effect is that all connected boundaries behave as if they were
connected by a common rigid body.

The only degrees of freedom needed to represent this assembly are the ones needed to
represent the movement of a rigid body. In 2D this is simply two in-plane translations,
and the rotation around the z-axis.

198 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

In 3D the situation is more complex. Six degrees of freedom, usually selected as three
translations and three parameters for the rotation, are necessary. For finite rotations,
however, any choice of three rotation parameters is singular at some specific set of
angles. For this reason, a four-parameter quaternion representation is used for the
rotations in COMSOL. Thus, each rigid connector in 3D actually has seven degrees of
freedom, three for the translation and four for the rotation. The quaternion parameters
are called a, b, c, and d, respectively. These four parameters are not independent, so
an extra equation stating that

2 2 2 2
a +b +c +d = 1

is added.

The connection between the quaternion parameters and a rotation matrix R is

2 2 2 2
a +b c d 2bc 2 ad 2ac + 2bd
R = 2ad + 2bc
2 2
a b +c d
2 2
2cd 2ab
2 2 2 2
2bd 2 ac 2ab + 2cd a b c +d

Under pure rotation, a vector from the center of rotation (Xc) of the rigid connector
to a point X on the undeformed solid will be rotated into

x Xc = R X Xc

where x is the new position of the point originally at X. The displacement is by

definition

u = x X = R I X Xc

where I is the unit matrix.

When the center of rotation of the rigid connector also has a translation uc, then the
complete expression for the displacements on the solid is

u = R I X Xc + uc

The total rotation of the rigid connector can be also presented as a rotation vector. Its
definition is

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 199

 b
2 acos a
= ----------------------------------- c
2 2 2
b +c +d d

The parameter a can be considered as measuring the rotation, while b, c, and d can be
interpreted as the orientation of the rotation vector. For small rotations, this relation
simplifies to

b
= 2 c
d

The rotation vector is available as the variables thx_tag, thy_tag, and thz_tag.

It is possible to apply forces and moments directly to a rigid connector. A force

implicitly contributes also to the moment if it is not applied at the center of rotation
of the rigid connector.

Initial Stresses and Strains

Initial stress refers to the stress before the system applies any loads, displacements, or
initial strains. The initial strain is the one before the system has applied any loads,
displacements, or initial stresses.

Both the initial stress and strains are tensor variables defined via components on the
local coordinate system for each domain. Input these as the following matrices:

0x 0xy 0xz s 0x s 0xy s 0xz

0xy 0y 0yz s 0xy s 0y s 0yz
0xz 0yz 0z s 0xz s 0yz s 0z

In case of nearly incompressible material (mixed formulation), the components of the

total initial stress (that is, without volumetric-deviatoric split) are still input. The initial
pressure in the equation for the pressure help variable pw is computed as

1
p 0 = --- I 1 s 0
3

200 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

The initial stresses and strains can be used with the following material models:

Linear Elastic Material with or without plasticity. In the case of geometric

nonlinearity, the initial stress represents the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress, rather
than Cauchy stress.
Linear Viscoelastic Material

With the Geomechanics Module, these are also available:

Brittle Material Model

Elastoplastic Soil Model
Note
Cam-Clay Material Model

AXIAL SYMMETRY
User inputs the physical components of 0 and s0:

0r 0r 0rz s 0r s 0r s 0rz
0r 0 0z s 0r s 0 s 0z
0rz 0z 0z s 0rz s 0z s 0z

OTHER POSSIBLE USES OF INITIAL STRAINS AND STRESSES

Many inelastic effects in solids and structure (creep, plasticity, damping, viscoelasticity,
poroelasticity, and so on) are additive contributions to either the total strain or total
stress. Then the initial value input fields can be used for coupling the elastic equations
(solid physics) to the constitutive equations (usually General Form PDEs) modeling
such extra effects.

About Spring Foundations and Thin Elastic Layers

In this section, the equations for the spring type features are developed using
boundaries, but the generalizations to geometrical objects of other dimensions are
obvious.

SPRING FOUNDATION
A spring gives a force that depends on the displacement and acts in the opposite
direction (in the case of a force that is proportional to the displacement, this is called
Hookes law). In a suitable coordinate system, a spring condition can be represented as

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 201

 fs = K u u0

where fs is a force/unit area, u is the displacement, and K is a diagonal stiffness matrix.

u0 is an optional pre-deformation. If the spring properties are not constant, it is, in
general, easier to directly describe the force as a function of the displacement, so that

fs = f u u0

In the same way, a viscous damping can be described as a force proportional to the
velocity

f v = Du

Structural (loss factor) damping is only relevant for frequency domain analysis and
is defined as

f l = iK u u 0

where is the loss factor and i is the imaginary unit (in this case, a constant or a
diagonal matrix). If the elastic part of the spring definition is given as a force versus
displacement relation, the stiffness K is taken as the stiffness at the linearization point
at which the frequency response analysis is performed. Since the loss factor force is
proportional to the elastic force, the equation can be written as

f sl = f s + f l = 1 + i f s

The contribution to the virtual work is

T
W = u f sl + f v dA
A

T H I N E L A S T I C L A Y E R B E T W E E N TW O P A R T S
A spring or damper can also act between two boundaries of an identity pair. The spring
force then depends on the difference in displacement between the surfaces.

f sD = f sS = K u D u S u 0

The uppercase indices refer to source and destination. When a force versus
displacement description is used,

f sD = f sS = f u u 0
u = uD uS

202 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

The viscous and structural damping forces have analogous properties,

f vD = f vS = D u D u S

f lD = f lS = iK u D u S u 0

so that

f slD = f sD + f lD = 1 + i f sD

The virtual work expression is formulated on the destination side of the pair as

uD uS
T
W = f slD + f vD dA D
AD

Here the displacements from the source side are obtained using the src2dst operator
of the identity pair.

THIN ELASTIC LAYER ON INTERIOR BOUNDARIES

On an interior boundary, the Thin Elastic Layer decouples the displacements between
two sides if the boundary. The two boundaries are then connected by elastic and
viscous forces with equal size but opposite directions, proportional to the relative
displacements and velocities. The spring force can be written as

f sd = f su = K u d u u u 0

or

f sd = f su = f u u 0
u = ud uu

The viscous force is

f vd = f vu = D u d u u

and the structural damping force is

f ld = f lu = iK u d u u u 0

f sld = f sd + f ld = 1 + i f sd

The subscripts u and d denote the up and down sides of the interior boundary.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 203

 The virtual work expression is formulated as

ud us
T
W = f sld + f vd dA D
AD

About Added Mass

The Added Mass feature can be used for supplying inertia that is not part of the
material itself. Such inertia does not need to be isotropic, in the sense that the inertial
effects are not the same in all directions. This is, for example, the case when a structure
immersed in a fluid vibrates. The fluid is added to the inertia for acceleration in the
direction normal to the boundary, but not tangential to it.

Other uses for added mass are when sheets or strips of a material that is heavy, but
having a comparatively low stiffness, are added to a structure. The data for the base
material can then be kept unaltered, while the added material is represented purely as
added mass.

The value of an added mass can also be negative. You can use such a negative value for
adjusting the mass when a part imported from a CAD system does not get exactly the
correct total mass due so simplifications of the geometry.

Added mass is an extra mass distribution that can be anisotropic. It can exist on
domains, boundaries, and edges. The inertial forces from added mass can be written as

2
u
fm = M 2
t

where M is a diagonal mass distribution matrix. The contribution to the virtual work is

T
W = u f m dA
A

for added mass on a boundary, and similarly for objects of other dimensions.

204 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface
Geometric nonlinearity formulation is suitable for any material, and it is always used
for hyperelastic materials and for large strain plasticity.

The Hyperelastic Material feature is available with the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module.
Tip

For other materials, it can be activated via the solver setting. Note however that even
together with the geometric nonlinearity, the validity of any linear material model is
usually limited to the situation of possibly large displacements but small to moderate
strains. A typical example of use is to model large rigid body rotations. The
implementation is similar to that for the geometrically linear elastic material, but with
the strain tensor replaced with the Green-Lagrange strain tensor, and the stress tensor
replaced with the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, defined as:

0 0 i
S = S + C I

where TTref, and i represents all possible inelastic strains (such as plastic or
creep strains). In components, it is written as:

0 0 i
S ij = S ij + C ijkl kl kl kl kl

where the elasticity tensor C ijkl is defined from the D matrix (user input). The 2nd
Piola-Kirchhoff stress is a symmetric tensor.

The strain energy function is computed as

1 0 i
W s = --- S I
2

which is a variable defined in the physics interface. Other stress variables are defined as
follows.

The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P is calculated from the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress
as P FS. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress relates forces in the present configuration
with areas in the reference configuration, and it is sometimes called the nominal stress.

Using the 1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, the equation of motion can be written in
the following form:

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 205

 2
u
0 2
= FV X P (3-18)
t

where the density corresponds to the material density in the initial undeformed state,
the volume force vector FV has components in the actual configuration but given with
respect to the undeformed volume, and the tensor divergence operator is computed
with respect to the coordinates on the material frame. Equation 3-18 is the strong
form that corresponds to the weak form equations solved in case of geometric
nonlinearity within the Solid Mechanics interface (and many related multiphysics
interfaces) in COMSOL. Using vector and tensor components, the equation can be
written as

2
ux P xX P xY P xZ
0 = F Vx + +
2 X Y Z
t
2
uy P yX P yY P yZ
0 = F Vy + +
t
2 X Y Z
2
uz P zX P zY P zZ
0 = F Vz + +
t
2 X Y Z

The components of 1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor are non symmetric in the general
case, thus

P iJ P Ij

because the component indexes correspond to different frames Such tensors are called
two-point tensors.

The boundary load vector FA in case of geometric nonlinearity can be related to the
1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor via the following formula:

FA = P n0

where the normal n0 corresponds to the undeformed surface element. Such force
vector is often referred to as the nominal traction. In components, it can be written as

206 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

 F Ax = P xX n X + P xY n Y + P xZ n Z
F Ay = P yX n X + P yY n Y + P yZ n Z
F Az = P zX n X + P zY n Y + P zZ n Z

The Cauchy stress, s,can be calculated as

1 T 1 T
s = J PF = J FSF

The Cauchy stress is a true stress that relates forces in the present configuration (spatial
frame) to areas in the present configuration, and it is a symmetric tensor.
Equation 3-18 can be rewritten in terms of the Cauchy stress as

2
u
2
= fV x s
t

where the density corresponds to the density in the actual deformed state, the volume
force vector fV has components in the actual configuration (spatial frame) given with
respect to the deformed volume, and the divergence operator is computed with respect
to the spatial coordinates.

The pressure is computed as

1
p = --- I 1 s
3

which corresponds to the volumetric part of the Cauchy stress. The deviatoric part is
defined as

s d = s + pI

The second invariant of the deviatoric stress

1
J 2 s = --- s d :s d
2

is used for the computation of von Mises (effective) stress

s mises = 3J 2 s

NEARLY INCOMPRESSIBLE MATERIALS

Nearly incompressible materials can cause numerical problems if only displacements
are used in the interpolating functions. Small errors in the evaluation of volumetric

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 207

 strain, due to the finite resolution of the discrete model, are exaggerated by the high
bulk modulus. This leads to an unstable representation of stresses, and in general to
underestimation of the deformation because spurious volumetric stresses might
balance also applied shear and bending loads.

In such cases a mixed formulation can be used that represents the pressure as a
dependent variable in addition to the displacement components. This formulation
removes the effect of volumetric strain from the original stress tensor and replaces it
with an interpolated pressure, pw. A separate equation constrains the interpolated
pressure to make it equal (in a finite-element sense) to the original pressure calculated
from the strains.

For an isotropic linear elastic material, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor S,
computed directly from the strains, is replaced by a modified version:

s = s + pI p w I

where I is the unit tensor and the pressure p is calculated from the strains and material
data as

1
p = --- trace s
3

The auxiliary dependent variable pw is set equal to p using the equation

pw p
------- --- = 0 (3-19)

where is the bulk modulus.

The modified stress tensor s is used then in calculations of the energy variation.

For orthotropic and anisotropic materials, the auxiliary pressure equation is scaled to
make the stiffness matrix symmetric. Note, however, that the stiffness matrix in this
formulation is not positive definite and even contains a zero block on the diagonal in

208 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

the incompressible limit. This limits the possible choices of direct and iterative linear
solver.

In case of linear elastic materials without geometric nonlinearity (and also

for hyperelastic materials), the stress tensor s in the above equations must
be replaced by the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor S, and the pressure p
with:
Note
1
p p = --- trace S
3

About the Low-Reflecting Boundary Condition

The low-reflecting boundary condition is mainly intended for letting waves pass out
from the model domain without reflection in time-dependent analysis. It is also
available in the frequency domain, but then adding a perfectly matched layer (PML) is
usually a better option.

Using Perfectly Matched Layers

About Infinite Element Domains and Perfectly Matched Layers in the
See Also COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

As a default, the low-reflecting boundary condition takes the material data from the
adjacent domain in an attempt to create a perfect impedance match for both pressure
waves and shear waves, so that

u u
n = c p n n c s t t
t t

where n and t are the unit normal and tangential vectors at the boundary, respectively,
and cp and cs are the speeds of the pressure and shear waves in the material. This
approach works best when the wave direction in close to the normal at the wall.

In the general case, you can use

u
n = d i c p c s
t

where the mechanical impedance di is a diagonal matrix available as the user input, and

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 209

 by default it is set to

cp + cs
d i = ---------------- I
2

More information about modeling using low-reflecting boundary

conditions can be found in M. Cohen and P.C. Jennings, Silent
Boundary Methods for Transient Analysis, Computational Methods for
Note Transient Analysis, vol 1 (editors T. Belytschko and T.J.R. Hughes),
Nort-Holland, 1983.

Cyclic Symmetry and Floquet Periodic Conditions

These boundary conditions are based on the Floquet theory which can be applied to
the problem of small-amplitude vibrations of spatially periodic structures.

If the problem is to determine the frequency response to a small-amplitude

time-periodic excitation that also possesses spatial periodicity, the theory states that the
solution can be sought in the form of a product of two functions. One follows the
periodicity of the structure, while the other one follows the periodicity of the
excitation. The problem can be solved on a unit cell of periodicity by applying the
corresponding periodicity conditions to each of the two components in the product.

The problem can be modeled using the full solution without applying the above
described multiplicative decomposition. For such a solution, the Floquet periodicity
conditions at the corresponding boundaries of the periodicity cell are expressed as

u destination = exp ik F r destination r source u source

where u is a vector of dependent variables, and vector kF represents the spatial

periodicity of the excitation.

The cyclic symmetry boundary condition presents a special but important case of
Floquet periodicity, for which the unit periodicity cell is a sector of a structure that
possesses rotational symmetry. The frequency response problem can be solved then in
one sector of periodicity by applying the periodicity condition. The situation is often
referred to as dynamic cyclic symmetry.

For an eigenfrequency study, all the eigenmodes of the full problem can be found by
performing the analysis on one sector of symmetry only and imposing the cyclic
symmetry of the eigenmodes with an angle of periodicity = m , where the cyclic

210 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS

symmetry mode number m can vary from 0 to N, with N being the total number of
sectors so that 2N.

The Floquet periodicity conditions at the sides of the sector of symmetry can be
expressed as

i T
u destination = e R u source

where the u represents the displacement vectors with the components given in the
default cartesian coordinates. Multiplication by the rotation matrix given by

cos sin 0
R = sin cos 0
0 0 1

makes the corresponding displacement components in the cylindrical coordinate

system differ by the factor exp i only. For scalar dependent variables, a similar
condition applies, for which the rotation matrix is replaced by a unit matrix.

The angle represents either the periodicity of the eigenmode for an eigenfrequency
analysis or the periodicity of the excitation signal in case of a frequency-response
analysis. In the latter case, the excitation is typically given as a load vector

F = F 0 exp im atan Y X

when modeled using the cartesian coordinates; parameter m is often referred to as the
azimuthal wave-number.

More information about cyclic symmetry conditions can be found in B.

Lalanne and M. Touratier, Aeroelastic Vibrations and Stability in Cyclic
Symmetric Domains, The International Journal of Rotating
Note
Machinery, vol. 6, no. 6, pp 445452, 2000.

THEORY FOR THE SOLID MECHANICS INTERFACE | 211

212 | CHAPTER 3: SOLID MECHANICS
 4

Shells and Plates

This chapter describes the Shell and Plate interfaces, which are found under the
Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Shell and Plate Interfaces

Theory for the Shell and Plate Interfaces

213
 T he S he ll a nd Pl at e In t erfaces

The Shell interface is for 3D models.

3D

The Plate interface is for 2D modelsdomains are selected instead of

boundaries, and boundaries instead of edges. Otherwise the settings
2D windows are similar to those for the Shell interface.

The Shell ( ) and Plate ( ) interfaces, found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, have the equations, elements, and functionality (in
the form of material properties, constraints, loads, thermal expansion, and initial
stresses and strains) for stress analysis and general structural mechanics in shells and
plates. Both interfaces use shell elements of the MITC type.

Vibrations of a Disk Backed by an Air-Filled Cylinder: Model Library

path Structural_Mechanics_Module/Acoustic-Structure_Interaction/
coupled_vibrations

Model
Pinched Hemispherical Shell: Model Library path
Structural_Mechanics_Module/Verification_Models/
pinched_hemispherical_shell

The Linear Elastic Material is the only available material model. It adds a linear elastic
equation for the displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic material
properties.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Linear Elastic Material, Free (a boundary condition where edges are free, with no loads
or constraints), and Initial Values. Right-click the Shell or Plate node to add other
nodes.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this

214 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is shell or plate.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

The default setting is to include All boundaries (Shell interface) or All domains (Plate
interface) in the model to define the degrees of freedom and the equations that
describe the shell or plate. To choose specific boundaries or domains, select Manual
from the Selection list.

THICKNESS
Define the Thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in the field. The
default is 0.01 m. Use the Change Thickness feature to define a different thickness in
parts of the shell or plate. The thickness can be variable if an expression is used.

Offset Definition

This section is available for the Shell interface only.

Note

If the actual shell midsurface is not the boundary on which the mesh exists, it is
possible to prescribe an offset in the direction of the surface normal by using an offset
definition. The offset is defined as positive if the shell midsurface is displaced from the
meshed boundary in the direction of the positive shell normal.

Select an option from the Offset definition listNo offset (the default), Physical offset,
or Relative offset. The default No offset means that the modeled boundary coincides
with the shell midsurface.

If Physical offset is selected, enter a value or expression in the zoffset field (SI unit:
m) for the actual distance from the meshed boundary to the shell midsurface. The
default is 0.
If Relative offset is selected, enter a value or expression in the zrel_offset field (
unitless) for the offset as the ratio between the offset distance and half the shell
thickness. The default is 0. A value of +1 means that the actual shell bottom surface

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 215

 is located on the meshed boundary, and a value of 1 means that the shell top
surface is located on the meshed boundary.

Use the Change Thickness feature to define a different offset in parts of

the shell.
Tip

For theory, see Offset.

See Also

FOLD-LINE LIMIT ANGLE

This section is available for the Shell interface only. Also see The MITC
Shell Formulation.
Note

The fold-line limit angle (SI unit: radians) is the smallest angle for a fold line; that is,
if the angle where two or more shell elements meet is larger than this value, it becomes
a fold line. The normal to the shell is discontinuous along a fold-line. Enter a value or
expression in the field. The default value is 0.05 radians (approximately 3 degrees).

REFERENCE PO INT F OR MO MENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation refpnt
(SI unit: m). All summed moments (applied or as reactions) are then computed
relative to this reference point.

HEIGHT OF EVALUATION IN SHELL

Enter a number between -1 and 1 for the Height of evaluation in shell Z. The value can
be changed from 1 (downside) to 1 (upside). The default is +1. A value of 0 means
the midsurface of the shell. This is the default position for stress and strain evaluation
during the results analysis.

216 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES
Both interfaces define two dependent variables (fields)the displacement field u and
the normal field displacement ar. The names can be changed but the names of fields
and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.

The Use MITC interpolation check box is selected by default, and this interpolation,
which is part of the MITC shell formulation, should normally always be active.

For the Plate interface, the Use 3D formulation check box is used to select whether six
or three variables are used in the formulation. For geometrically nonlinear analyses, or
when in-plane (membrane) forces are active, six variables must be used. This check box
is selected by default.

DISCRETIZATION
Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select Quadratic (the default) or Linear for
the Displacement field. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variables
Real or Complex (the default).

Show More Physics Options

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Shell and
Plate Interfaces
About the Body Load, Face Load, Edge Load, and Point Load
See Also Features
Theory for the Shell and Plate Interfaces
Results Evaluation

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 217

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Shell
and Plate Interfaces
The Shell and Plate Interfaces have the following domain, boundary, edge, point, and
pair conditions available as indicated.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

These are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):

Antisymmetry
Body Load
Change Thickness
Damping
Edge Load
Face Load
Initial Values
Initial Stress and Strain
Linear Elastic Material
No Rotation
Phase
Pinned
Point Load
Prescribed Acceleration (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Prescribed Displacement/Rotation
Prescribed Velocity (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Rigid Connector

218 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 Symmetry
Thermal Expansion

If there are subsequent boundary conditions specified on the same

geometrical entity, the last one takes precedence. The exception is that
Pinned and No Rotation boundary conditions do not override each
Tip
other.

These are described for the Solid Mechanics interface:

Added Mass
Applied Force
Applied Moment
Free
Mass and Moment of Inertia
Fixed Constraint
Pre-Deformation
Spring Foundation

For the Harmonic Perturbation features, see Harmonic Perturbation,

Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal Analysis in the COMSOL
See Also Multiphysics Users Guide

Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Material node adds the equations for a linear elastic shell and an
interface for defining the elastic material properties. Right-click to add Thermal
Expansion, Initial Stress and Strain, and Damping nodes.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (Shell interface) or domains (Plate
interface) to define a linear elastic shell or plate and compute the displacements,
rotations, stresses, and strains.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 219

 MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate system that the model includes. The coordinate system is
used for interpreting directions of orthotropic and anisotropic material data and when
stresses or strains are presented in a local system. The coordinate system given is
projected onto the shell surface as described in Local Coordinate Systems.

LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL

Select a linear elastic Solid modelIsotropic, Orthotropic, or Anisotropic and enter the
settings as described for the Linear Elastic Material for The Solid Mechanics Interface.
Also note the following.

If Orthotropic is selected, due to the shell assumptions, no values for Ez, yz, or xz
need to be entered.
If a User defined Anisotropic model is selected, a 6-by-6 symmetric matrix is
displayed. Due to the shell assumptions, only enter values for D11, D12, D22, D14,
D24, D55, D66, and D56.

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
In this section there is always one check box. Either Force linear strains or Include
geometric nonlinearity is shown.

If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step. The default value is that the check box
is cleared, except when opening a model created in a version prior to 4.3. In this case
the state is chosen so that the properties of the model are conserved.

The Include geometric nonlinearity check box is displayed only if the model was created
in a version prior to 4.3, and geometric nonlinearity was originally used for the selected
domains. It is then selected and forces the Include geometric nonlinearity check box in
the study step to be selected. If the check box is cleared, the check box is permanently

220 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

removed and the study step assumes control over the selection of geometric
nonlinearity.

Thermal Expansion
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Thermal Expansion node, which is
an internal thermal strain caused by changes in temperature. The temperature is
assumed to vary linearly through the thickness of the shell.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (Shell interface) or domains (Plate
interface) to define the coefficient of thermal expansion and the different temperatures
that cause thermal stress.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

THERMAL EXPANSION
Specify the thermal properties that define the thermal stress.

From the Coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K) list, select From material to
use the coefficient of thermal expansion from the material, or User defined to enter a
value or expression for . Select Isotropic, Diagonal or Symmetric to enter one or more
components for a general coefficient of thermal expansion vector vec.

Enter a value or expression of the Strain reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), which
is the reference temperature where the thermal strain is zero.

From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K). This is the mid-surface temperature of the shell.

THERMAL BENDING
Enter the Temperature difference in thickness direction T, (SI unit: K), which affects
the thermal bending. This is the difference between the temperatures at the top and
bottoms surfaces.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 221

 Initial Stress and Strain
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add an Initial Stress and Strain node,
which is the stress-strain state in the structure before applying any constraint or load.
Initial strain can, for instance, describe moisture-induced swelling, and initial stress can
describe stresses from heating.

For more information see Stress and Strain Calculations and Initial Values
and Prescribed Values in the theory section.
See Also

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (Shell interface) or domains (Plate
interface) to define the initial stress or strain.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate system that the model includes. The given initial stresses and
strains are interpreted in this system. The coordinate system given will be projected
onto the shell surface as described in Local Coordinate Systems.

INITIAL STRESS
Specify the initial stress as the Initial in-plane force, the Initial moment, and the Initial
out-of-plane force. The default values are zero, which mean no initial stress. Enter
values or expressions in the applicable fields for the:

Initial in-plane force Ni (SI unit: N/m) in the field

Initial moment Mi (SI unit: Nm/m)
Initial out-of-plane shear force Qi (SI unit: N/m)

222 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

INITIAL STRAIN
Specify the initial strain as the Initial membrane strain, the Initial bending strain, and the
Initial transverse shear strain. The default values are zero, which mean no initial strain.
Enter values or expressions in the applicable fields for the:

Initial membrane strain i (unitless)

Initial bending strain i (SI unit: 1/m)
Initial transverse shear strain i (unitless)

For definitions of the generalized strains, see Theory for the Shell and
Plate Interfaces.
See Also

Damping
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add the Damping node, which adds
Rayleigh damping or an isotropic loss-factor damping. In time-dependent,
eigenfrequency, and frequency domain response studies, model undamped or damped
problems.

Loss factor damping is valid only for damped eigenfrequency and

frequency response analysis. If time-dependent analysis and loss factor
Note damping is chosen, the model is solved with no damping.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (Shell interface) or domains (Plate
interface) to add damping.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping (the default), Isotropic loss factor, Orthotropic
loss factor, or Anisotropic loss factor.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 223

 For Rayleigh damping, enter the Mass damping parameter dM and the Stiffness damping
parameter dK in the corresponding fields. The default values are 0, which is no
damping.

Isotropic Loss Factor

From the Isotropic structural loss factor list, select From material (the default) to use the
material value or select User defined to enter a value or expression. The default is 0.

Orthotropic Loss Factor

From the Loss factor for orthotropic Youngs modulus list, select From material (the
default) to use the material value or select User defined and enter values for E.

From the Loss factor for orthotropic shear modulus list, select From material (the
default) to use the material value or select User defined and enter values for G or GVo
If Voigt notation is selected, the loss factors for the shear moduli are given in that order
too.

The default values are 0. If the values are taken from the material, these loss factors are
found in the orthotropic material model for the material.

Anisotropic Loss Factor

From the Loss factor for elasticity matrix D list, select From material (the default) to use
the material value or User defined to enter values or expressions for D or DVo. If Voigt
notation is selected, the anisotropic loss factors are given in that order too.

Select Symmetric to enter the components of D or DVo in the upper-triangular part

of a symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor.

The defaults are 0. If the values are taken from the material, these loss factors are found
in the anisotropic material model for the material.

Change Thickness
Use the Change Thickness feature to model boundaries with a thickness or offset other
than the overall values defined in the interface Thickness section.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (Shell interface) or domains (Plate
interface) to use a different thickness.

224 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

CHANGE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). This value replaces the overall thickness
for the boundaries selected above. The thickness can be variable if an expression is
used.

Offset Definition
If the actual shell midsurface is not the boundary on which the mesh exists, it is
possible to prescribe an offset in the direction of the surface normal by using an offset
definition. The offset is defined as positive if the shell midsurface is displaced from the
meshed boundary in the direction of the positive shell normal.

Select an option from the Offset definition listFrom parent (the default), No offset,
Physical offset, or Relative offset. The default From parent means that the offset is as
defined in the Thickness section of the shell interface.

If No offset is selected, it means that the modeled boundary coincides with the shell
midsurface.
If Physical offset is selected, enter a value or expression in the zoffset (SI unit: m) field
for the actual distance from the meshed boundary to the shell midsurface. The
default is 0.
If Relative offset is selected, enter a value or expression in the zrel_offset (unitless)
field for the offset as the ratio between the offset distance and half the shell
thickness. The default is 0. A value of +1 means that the actual shell bottom surface
is located on the meshed boundary, and a value of -1 means that the shell top surface
is located on the meshed boundary.

For theory, see Offset.

See Also

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds the initial values for the translational displacement and
velocity field as well as the for the normal displacement and velocity field. It can serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
analysis. Right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 225

 BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (the Shell interface) or domains (the
Plate interface) to define initial values.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values. The default value is 0 for all
displacements and velocities:

Displacement field u (SI unit: m) (the displacement components u, v, and w)

u
Velocity field ------ (SI unit m/s)
t
Displacement of shell normals ar (unitless).
ar
Displacement of shell normals, first time derivative --------- (SI unit: 1/s)
t

About the Body Load, Face Load, Edge Load, and Point Load Features
Add force loads acting on all levels of the geometry. Add a:

Body Load (such as self-weight loads) for the shells on the boundary (plate:
domain) level.
Face Load to boundaries (plate: domains), for example describing a pressure acting
on a surface.
Edge Load as a force or moment distributed along an edge (plate: boundary).
Point Load as concentrated forces or moments at points.

For all of these loads, right-click and choose Phase to add a phase for harmonic loads
in frequency-domain computations. In this way a harmonic load can be defined where
the amplitude and phase shift can vary with the excitation frequency f:

F freq = F F Amp f cos 2f + F Ph f

Body Load
Add a Body Load to boundaries (for the Plate interface add it to domains) and use it for
self-weight loads, for example. Right-click and add a Phase for harmonic loads in
frequency-domain computations.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (the Shell interface) or domains (the
Plate interface) to define a body load.

226 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Body load FV (SI unit: N/m3).

MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Moment body load ML (SI unit:
Nm/m3).

Face Load
Add a Face Load to boundaries (for the Plate interface add it to domains), to use it as a
pressure or tangential force acting on a surface. Right-click and add a Phase for
harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

BOUNDARY OR DOMAIN SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the boundaries (the Shell interface) or domains (the
Plate interface) to define a face load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
Select a Load typeFace load defined as force per unit area or Pressure.

If Face load defined as force per unit area is selected, enter values or expressions for
the components of the Face load FA (SI unit: N/m2).

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 227

 If Pressure is selected, enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). A
positive pressure is directed in the negative shell normal direction.

The pressure load is a follower load. The direction changes with

deformation in a geometrically nonlinear analysis.
Note

MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Moment face load MA (SI unit:
Nm/m2).

Edge Load
Add an Edge Load as a force or moment distributed along an edge (for the Plate
interface add it to boundaries). Right-click and add a Phase for harmonic loads in
frequency-domain computations.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges (the Shell interface) or boundaries (the Plate
interface) to define an edge load.

FACE DEFINING THE EDGE SYSTEM

This section is available only in the Shell interface and is used if a Local edge system is
selected as the coordinate system and the load is applied to an edge which is shared
between boundaries. In that case, the edge system may be ambiguous. Select the
boundary which should define the edge system. The default is to Use face with lowest
number.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

228 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

FORCE
From the Load type list, select the definition of the force load. Select Load defined as
force per unit length FL (the default) (SI unit: N/m) or Load defined as force per unit
area FA (SI unit: N/m2). Enter values or expressions for the components of the Edge
load in the table.

MOMENT
From the Load type list, select the definition of the moment load. Select Edge load
defined as moment per unit length ML (the default) (SI unit: N) or Edge load defined as
moment per unit area MA (SI unit: Nm/m2). Enter values or expressions for the
components of the Moment edge load in the table.

Point Load
Add a Point Load to points for concentrated forces or moments at points. Right-click
and add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to define a point load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point load FP (SI unit: N).

MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point moment MP (SI unit:
Nm).

Phase
Right-click any load node (see About the Body Load, Face Load, Edge Load, and
Point Load Features) to add a Phase node, which adds a phase for harmonic loads in
frequency-domain computations.

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 229

 B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , PO I N T , O R D O M A I N S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, domains, edges, or
points) to add phase.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

PHASE
Add the phase angle Fph (SI unit: rad) for harmonic loads. Enter the phase for each
component of the load in the corresponding fields.

MOMENT LOAD PHASE

Add the phase for the moment load Mph (SI unit: rad) for harmonic loads. Enter the
phase for each component of the moment load in the corresponding fields.

Pinned
The Pinned node adds an edge, boundary, domain, or point condition that fixes the
translations in all directions, that is, all displacements are zero.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, D O M A I N , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries, domains or
points) to prescribe a pinned condition.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

230 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

No Rotation
The No Rotation node adds an edge, boundary, domain, or point condition that fixes
the rotations around all axes.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, D O M A I N , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries, domains or
points) to prescribe no rotations.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Prescribed Displacement/Rotation
The Prescribed Displacement/Rotation node adds an edge, boundary, domain, or point
condition to a model where the displacements and rotations are prescribed in one or
more directions.

With this condition it is possible to prescribe a displacement in one direction or one of

the rotations, leaving the shell free to deform or rotate in the other directions.

If a prescribed displacement or rotation is not activated in any direction, this is the

same as a Free constraint.
If zero displacements and rotations are prescribed in all directions, this is the same
as a Fixed Constraint.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, D O M A I N , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries, domains or
points) where the displacement or rotation is to be prescribed.

FACE DEFINING THE NORMAL DIRECTION (EDGES ONLY)

This section is available only in the Shell interface and is used if a Local edge system is
selected as the coordinate system and the load is applied to an edge which is shared

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 231

 between boundaries. In that case, the edge system may be ambiguous. Select the
boundary which should define the edge system. The default is to Use face with lowest
number.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed displacement/
rotation. The coordinate system selection is based on the geometric entity level.

Boundaries (Plate interface: Domains)

From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Edges (Plate interface: Boundaries)

From the Coordinate system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Points
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Depending on the selected coordinate system, the displacement and rotation

components change accordingly.

PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT
To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction (x, y, and z), select one or
all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed displacements u0, v0,
or w0 (SI unit: m).

PRESCRIBED ROTATIONS
Select a prescribed rotation from the By listFree, Rotation, or Normal vector. Select:

Free (the default) to use no constraints for the rotation.

232 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 Rotation to activate a prescribed rotation in a direction. Enter a value or expression
for the prescribed rotation in each row for t1 and t2 (SI unit: rad). Under For small
strains, select one or both of the Free rotation around t1 direction and Free rotation
around t2 direction check boxes to remove the constraint for the corresponding
rotation component. If unchecked, the rotations will be constrained to either the
input value or to the default zero rotation. The status of the check boxes has no
effect when the geometric nonlinearity is activated under the study settings. This is
because the constraints put on different rotation components are not completely
independent of each other in case of finite rotations.
Normal vector to describe the degrees of freedom as a prescribed normal vector.
Enter the components of the Prescribed normal vector N0 (unitless).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Prescribed Velocity
The Prescribed Velocity node adds an edge, boundary, domain, or point condition
where the translational or rotational velocity is prescribed in one or more directions.
The prescribed velocity condition is applicable for time-dependent and
frequency-domain studies. With this condition it is possible to prescribe a velocity in
one direction, leaving the shell free in the other directions.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, D O M A I N , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries, domains or
points) to prescribe a translational or rotational velocity.

FACE DEFINING THE NORMAL DIRECTION (EDGES ONLY)

This section is available only in the Shell interface and is used if a Local edge system is
selected as the coordinate system and the load is applied to an edge which is shared
between boundaries. In that case, the edge system may be ambiguous. Select the

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 233

 boundary which should define the edge system. The default is to Use face with lowest
number.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed acceleration. The
coordinate system selection is based on the geometric entity level. Coordinate systems
with directions that change with time should not be used.

Boundaries
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Edges
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Points
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Depending on the selected coordinate system, the velocity components change

accordingly.

P R E S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y
To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x, y, and z), select one or more
of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed velocity components
vx, vy, and vz (SI unit: m/s).

P R E S C R I B E D A N G U L A R VE L O C I T Y
To define a prescribed angular velocity for each space direction (x, y, and z), select one
or all of the Prescribed around x direction, Prescribed around y direction, and Prescribed

234 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

around z direction check boxes and enter a value or expression for in each x t ,
y t , or z t (SI unit: rad/s) field.

Prescribed Acceleration
The Prescribed Acceleration node adds an edge, boundary, domain, or point condition
where the translational or rotational acceleration is prescribed in one or more
directions. The prescribed acceleration condition is applicable for time-dependent and
frequency-domain studies. With this condition it is possible to prescribe an
acceleration in one direction, leaving the shell free in the other directions.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, D O M A I N , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries, domains or
points) to prescribe a translational or rotational velocity.

FACE DEFINING THE NORMAL DIRECTION (EDGES ONLY)

This section is available only in the Shell interface and is used if a Local edge system is
selected as the coordinate system and the load is applied to an edge which is shared
between boundaries. In that case, the edge system may be ambiguous. Select the
boundary which should define the edge system. The default is to Use face with lowest
number.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed acceleration. The
coordinate system selection is based on the geometric entity level. Coordinate systems
with directions which change with time should not be used.

Boundaries
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Edges
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 235

 Points
From the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Any additional user-defined coordinate system

Depending on the selected coordinate system, the acceleration components change

accordingly.

PRESCRIBED ACCELERATION
To define a prescribed acceleration for each space direction (x, y, and z), select one or
more of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and Prescribed in
z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed
acceleration components ax, ay, and az (SI unit: m/s2).

PRESCRIBED ANGULAR ACCELERATION

To define a prescribed angular acceleration for each space direction (x, y, and z), select
one or all of the Prescribed around x, y, and z direction check boxes and enter a value
2 2 2 2 2 2
or expression for in each x t , y t , or z t (SI unit: rad/s2) field.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds an edge or boundary condition that defines a symmetry edge
(Plate: boundary) or boundary (Plate: domain).

Symmetry and Antisymmetry Boundary Conditions

See Also

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R D O M A I N S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries or domains) to
prescribe symmetry.

FACE DEFINING THE NORMAL DIRECTION (EDGES ONLY)

The selection in this section is only used if the coordinate system below is Local edge
system and the boundary condition is applied to an edge which is shared between
boundaries. In that case, a face must be selected in order to make the symmetry
direction unambiguous. Select the face which should define the normal direction. The
default is to Use face with lowest number.

236 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION (EDGES ONLY)
Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying a symmetry edge. From the
Coordinate system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

SYMMETRY (EDGES ONLY)

If another coordinate system than the Local edge system is used, select an Axis to use as
symmetry plane normal.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Antisymmetry
The Antisymmetry node adds an edge or boundary condition that defines an
antisymmetry edge (Plate: boundary) or boundary (Plate: domain).

Symmetry and Antisymmetry Boundary Conditions

See Also

D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, O R E D G E S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges, boundaries or domains) to
prescribe antisymmetry.

FACE DEFINING THE NORMAL DIRECTION (EDGES ONLY)

This section is available only in the Shell interface and is used if a Local edge system is
selected as the coordinate system and the load is applied to an edge which is shared

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 237

 between boundaries. In that case, the edge system may be ambiguous. Select the
boundary which should define the edge system. The default is to Use face with lowest
number.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION (EDGES ONLY)

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying a symmetry edge. From the
Coordinate system list select from:

Local edge system (the default)

Global coordinate system (the standard global coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

ANTISYMMETRY (EDGES ONLY)

If another coordinate system than the Local edge system is used, select an Axis to use as
symmetry plane normal.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Rigid Connector
The Rigid Connector is a boundary condition for modeling between shell edges. The
feature is similar to the rigid connectors in the Solid Mechanics interface, except that no
rigid domain feature is available. Rigid connectors from Shell and Solid Mechanics
interfaces can be attached to each other.

238 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

Right-click to add Harmonic Perturbation, Applied Force, Applied Moment, or Mass
and Moment of Inertia nodes to the rigid connector.:

Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal Analysis

in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to connect this rigid connector.

CENTER OF ROTATION
Select a Center of rotationAutomatic (the default) or User defined. The center of
rotation is at the geometrical centre of the selected edges. The constraints are applied
at the center of rotation. Any mass is also considered to be located there.

If User defined is selected, enter x, y, and z coordinates (SI unit: m) for the Global
coordinates of center of rotation Xc (SI unit: m) in the table.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Prescribed displacements
or rotations are specified along the axes of this coordinate system.

PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT AT CENTER OF ROTATION

To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction x, y, and z select one or
all of the Prescribed in X, Prescribed in Y, and Prescribed in Z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, or w0 (SI unit: m).

PRESCRIBED ROTATION AT CENTER OF ROTATION

Select an option from the By listFree (the default), Constrained rotation, or Prescribed
rotation at center of rotation.

If Constrained rotation is selected, select one or more of the Constrain rotation about
X, Constrain rotation about Y, and Constrain rotation about Z axis check boxes in order

THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 239

 to enforce zero rotation about the corresponding axis in the selected coordinate
system.
If Prescribed rotation at center of rotation is selected, enter an Axis of rotation and
an Angle of rotation (SI unit: rad). The axis of rotation is given in the selected
coordinate system.

Theory for the Rigid Connector

See Also

Results Evaluation
For visualization and results evaluation, predefined variables include all nonzero stress
and strain tensor components, principal stresses and strains, in-plane and out-of-plane
forces, moments, and von Mises and Tresca effective stresses. It is possible to evaluate
the stress and strain tensor components and effective stresses at an arbitrary distance
from the midsurface. The parameter zshell (shell.z) is found in, for example, the
Parameters table of the surface plots settings window. Its value can be changed
between 1 (downside) to 1 (upside). A value of 0 means the midsurface of the shell.
The default value is given in the Height of Evaluation in Shell, [-1,1] section of the Shell
interface.

Stresses and strains are available both in the global coordinate system, and in the shell
local system as described in Local Coordinate Systems.

240 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

Theory for the Shell and Plate
Interfaces
In this section:

About Shells and Plates

Theory Background for the Shell and Plate Interfaces
Reference for the Shell Interface

About Shells and Plates

A shell is a thin-walled structure in 3D where a simple form is assumed for the variation
of the displacement through the thickness. Using this approximation, it is possible to
develop a model for the deformation that is locally closer to the 2D plane stress
condition than to the 3D solid.

For a shell to give accurate results it is important that the structure can
really be described as being thin-walled. When modeling using shells it is
Important also important to define the faces as the midplane of the real geometry.

Plates are similar to shells but act in a single plane and usually with only out-of-plane
loads. The plate and shell elements in COMSOL are based on the same formulation.
The Plate interface for 2D models is a specialization of the Shell interface. In the
following, the text fully describes the Shell interface, and the Plate interface is
mentioned only where there are nontrivial differences.

A Shell interface can be active either on free surfaces embedded in 3D or on the

boundary of a solid 3D object. In the latter case, it can be used to model a
reinforcement on the surface of a 3D solid. A Plate interface can only be active on
domains in 2D.

To describe a shell, you provide its thickness and the elastic material properties.

The element used for the shell interface is of Mindlin-Reissner type, which means that
transverse shear deformation is accounted for. It can thus also be used for rather thick
shells. It has an MITC formulation where MITC means mixed interpolation of
tensorial components. A general description of this element family is in Ref. 1.

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 241

 The dependent variables are the displacements u, v, and w in the global x, y, and z
directions, and the displacements of the shell normals ax, ay, and az in the global x, y,
and z directions. The Shell interface to a large extent replaces the latter variables by the
more customary rotations x, y, and z about the global axes. For a geometrically
linear analysis, the relation between normal displacement and rotation vector is simple:
a = x n, where n is the unit normal of the shell.

For a standard plate analysis only three degrees of freedom are needed: the
out-of-plane displacement w and the displacements of the shell normals ax and ay, but
it is also possible to activate all six degrees of freedom, so that any type of analysis of a
shell initially positioned in the xy-plane can be performed using the Plate interface.
Using six degrees of freedom is the default, but three degrees of freedom can be
selected instead for efficiency.

When six degrees of freedoms are used in the Plate interface, there must
be enough constraints to suppress any in-plane rigid body modes.
Note

Also here, the rotations x, y (and possibly z) are used to a large extent.

Theory Background for the Shell and Plate Interfaces

GEOMETRY AND DEFORMATION

Let r be the undeformed shell midsurface position, i be element local
(nonorthogonal) coordinates with origin in the shell midsurface, and n be the normal
to the undeformed midsurface. The thickness of the shell is h, which can vary over the
element. The local coordinates 1 and 2 follow the midsurface, and 3 is the
coordinate in the normal direction. The normal coordinate has a value of h2 on the
bottom side of the element, and h2 on the top side.

The position of the deformed midsurface is ru, and the normal after deformation is
na. To keep the normal a unit vector requires that

n+a = 1 (4-1)

In a geometrically linear analysis Equation 4-1 is replaced by the simpler

na = 0

because the entire formulation in that case assumes that

242 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 a 1

The vectors r, u, n, and a are interpolated by the nth-order Lagrange basis functions.
The basic assumption is that the position of a point within the shell after deformation
has a linear dependence of the thickness coordinate, and thus is

1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2
x = r ( , ) + u ( , ) + n ( , ) + a ( , )

The superscripts indicate contravariant indices, while subscripts indicate covariant

indices.

STRAINS
The in-plane Green-Lagrange strain in the local covariant components can then be
written as

1 3 r u 3
= --- r + u + n + a + + n + a
2

r 3 r 3 3 3 2
+ n + n = + +

The indices and range from 1 to 2. The transverse shear strains in local covariant
components are

3 = 3 =

--- r + u + 3 n + a n + a r + 3 n n = + 3
1
2

The constitutive relation for the shell elements is a plane stress assumption, as is
customary in shell theory. The strain component in the normal direction 33 is thus
irrelevant. The different parts of the strain tensors above can be written out as

1 u r r u u u
= --- --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- --------
2

1 r a a r u n n u u a a u
= --- --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- --------
2

1 a n n a a a
= --- --------- -------- + --------- -------- + --------- --------
2

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 243

 1 r u u
= --- --------- a + --------- n + --------- a
2

1 n a a
= --- --------- a + --------- n + --------- a
2

In a geometrically linear analysis, the nonlinear terms (products between u, a, and

their derivatives) disappear. In all study types, the contributions from the parts and
are ignored. They are small unless the element has an extremely high ratio between
thickness and radius of curvature, in which case the errors from using shell theory are
large anyway.

OFFSET
It is possible to model a shell with a midsurface that is not located at the meshed
surface but at a certain offset from it. The offset is assumed to occur along the normal
of the shell surface. In this case,

1 2 1 2 1 2
r ( , ) = r R ( , ) + o n ( , )

where rR is the position of the meshed reference surface and o is the offset distance.
Since all geometric derivatives are computed on the mesh on the reference surface, the
following type of expressions are used when evaluating the strains:

r- r R n
--------

= --------- + o ---------

The degrees of freedom are referred to the midsurface even when there is an offset.

All loads and boundary conditions are assumed to be applied at the midsurface, so a
force acting in the plane of the shell will not cause any bending action if there is an
offset.

The numerical integration of the element is performed over the reference surface. If
the shell is curved, the area of the actual midsurface and the reference surface will
differ. This is compensated for by multiplying the weak expressions with an area scale
factor, defined as

244 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 r r
1
2

ASF = ----------------------------
r R r R
1
2

Any expressions depending on the coordinates are evaluated on the shell reference
surface.

An offset applied to a flat shell does not have any effect, since the area
scale factor is 1, and the normal direction is constant.
Note

ROTATION REPRESENTATION
In a geometrically linear analysis, a rotation vector is defined as

= na

In a geometrically nonlinear analysis, the rotation vector axis is defined by

na
e = -----------------
na

while the amplitude of the rotation vector is computed as

= acos 1 + n a

This representation is unique only for rotations up to 180 degrees, but because the
rotation vector representation is only an output convenience, is has no impact on the
analysis.

THE MITC SHELL FORMULATION

The MITC formulation (Ref. 1) does not take the strain components directly from the
basis functions of the element. Instead, meticulously selected interpolation functions
are selected for the individual strain components. The values of the interpolated strains
are then at selected points in the element tied to the value that would be computed
from the basis functions. The interpolation functions and tying points are specific to
each element shape and order.

Each contribution to the virtual work of the element is numerically integrated over the
midsurface while the integration in the thickness direction is performed analytically.

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 245

 The computation of the strain energy from transverse shear deformations uses a
correction factor of 56 to compensate for the difference between the assumed
constant average shear strain and the true parabolic distribution.

In regions where the discretized surface is smooth (which is always the case for plates),
the normal of the shell surface is uniquely defined. When two or more shell element
meet at an angle, each element must, however, keep its own normal direction. It is thus
not possible to have the same set of degrees of freedom for the normal deformations
in such a point. This is automatically handled by the program.The automatic search for
these fold lines compares the normals of all surfaces sharing an edge. If the angle
between them differs more than a certain angle (with a default of 3 degrees) it is
considered as a fold line. In this case the assumption is that the angle between the shell
normals is to remain constant. This gives

nj nk = nj + aj nk + ak

or

nj ak + aj nk + aj ak = 0 (4-2)

where the values or j and k range over the number of shells elements with different
normals. The third term in Equation 4-2 is relevant only in a large deformation analysis
because it is nonlinear. A special case occurs when two adjacent surfaces are parallel but
their normal vectors have opposite directions. In this case the shell element applies the
special constraint

ak = aj

along their common edge.

I N I T I A L VA L U E S A N D P RE S C R I B E D VA L U E S
Because the normal vector displacements are quantities that are less intuitive than the
more customary nodal rotations, it is possible to specify the initial conditions and
prescribed values in terms of nodal rotations as well as in terms of the normal vector
displacement. The representation by normal vector direction is insensitive to whether
the analysis is geometrically nonlinear or not. The direction of the shell normal is
prescribed in the deformed state, n0. The prescribed values for the actual degrees of
freedom, a0, are internally computed as

n0
a 0 = --------- n
n0

246 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

If the rotation vector input is used, and the analysis is geometrically linear, then

a 0 = 0 n

where 0 is the vector of prescribed nodal rotations. This relation is fully defined only
when all three components of 0 are given. It is also possible to prescribe only one or
two of the components of 0, while leaving the remaining components free. Because
it has no relevance to prescribe the rotation about the normal direction of the shell, it
is only possible prescribe individual rotations in a shell local system. In this case, the
result becomes one or two constraint relations between the components of a0. The
directions are the edge local coordinate system where t1 is the tangent to the edge and
t2 is perpendicular and inward from the edge, in the plane of the shell. These
constraints are formulated as

t 2 a 0 = 01

t 1 a 0 = 02

Here 0i is the prescribed rotation around the axis ti.

In a geometrically nonlinear analysis, it is not possible to prescribe individual elements

of the rotation vector. If only one or two components have been specified, the
remaining components are set to zero. The actual degrees of freedom are then
computed as

a 0 = R 0 I n

where R is a standard rotation matrix, representing the finite rotation about the given
rotation vector.

Initial velocities are always given using an angular velocity vector as

a = n + a0

SYMMETRY AND ANTISYMMETRY BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

It is possible to prescribe symmetry and antisymmetry boundary conditions. As a
default, they are expressed in a shell local coordinate system. If applied to a boundary,
the normal to the shell is assumed to be the normal to the symmetry or antisymmetry
plane. The conditions are

un = 0

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 247

 a t1 = 0

a t2 = 0

for the symmetry case and

u t1 = 0

u t2 = 0

for the antisymmetry case. Here t1 and t2 are two perpendicular directions in the plane
of the shell.

When applied to an edge, there is a local coordinate system where t1 is the tangent to
the edge, and t2 is perpendicular and in the plane of the shell. The assumption is then
that t2 is the normal to the symmetry or antisymmetry plane. The constraints are

u t2 = 0

a t2 = 0

for the symmetry case and

un = 0

u t1 = 0

a t1 = 0

for the antisymmetry case.

When symmetry or antisymmetry conditions are specified in a general coordinate

system with axis directions ei, i1, 2, 3 with e1 as the normal to the symmetry/
antisymmetry plane the constraints are

u e1 = 0

a e2 n = 0

a e3 n = 0

or the symmetry case and

248 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 u e2 = 0

u e3 = 0

a e1 n = 0

for the antisymmetry case. Using a general coordinate system sometimes leads to
higher accuracy, since there is no element interpolation of the constraint directions
involved.

EXTERNAL LOADS
Contributions to the virtual work from the external load is of the form

u test F + a test M n + a

where the forces (F) and moments (M) can be distributed over a boundary or an edge
or concentrated in a point. The contribution from a is only included in a geometrically
nonlinear analysis. Loads are always referred to the midsurface of the element. In the
special case of a follower load, defined by its pressure p, the force intensity is

F = p n + a

For a follower load, the change in midsurface area is not taken into account, in order
to be consistent with the assumption that thickness changes are ignored.

STRESS AND STRAIN CALCULATIONS

The strains calculated in the element are, as described above, the covariant tensor
components. They have little significance for the user, and are internally transformed
to a Cartesian coordinate system. This system can be global or element local. The
stresses are computed by applying the constitutive law to the thus computed strain
tensor.

Each part of the covariant strain (, , ) is transformed separately. They

correspond to membrane, bending, and shear action, respectively, and it is thus
possible to separate the stresses from each of these actions. The membrane stress is
defined as

Ni
m = D i T m T ref + ------
h

where D is the plane stress constitutive matrix, Ni are the initial membrane forces, and
i the initial membrane strains. The influence of thermal strains is included through

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 249

 the midsurface temperature Tm. The membrane stress can be considered as the stress
at the mid-surface, or as the average through the thickness.

The bending stress is defined as

Dh T 6M i
b = -------- i -------- + ----------
-
2 h h
2

where i is the initial value of the bending part of the strain tensor, and Mi are the
initial bending and twisting moments. T is the temperature difference between the
top and bottom surface of the shell. The bending stress is the stress at the top surface
of the shell if no membrane stress is present.

The average transverse shear stress is defined as

5 Qi
s = --- 2G i + ------
6 h

where G represent the transverse shear moduli, i is the initial average shear strain, and
Qi are the initial transverse shear forces. The correction factor 56 ensures that the
stresses are averaged so that they correspond to the ratio between shear force and
thickness. The corresponding strains and i are averaged in an energy sense.

The actual in-plane stress at a certain level in the element is then

= m + z b

where z is a parameter ranging from 1 (bottom surface) to 1 (top surface). The

computation of the shear stress at a certain level in the element uses the following
analytical parabolic stress distribution:

2
3 s 1 z
-----------------------------
2

The shell section forces (membrane forces, bending moments, and shear forces) are
computed from the stresses as

N = h m

2
h
M = ------
6 b

Q = h s

250 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

LOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Many quantities for a shell can best be interpreted in a local coordinate system aligned
to the shell surface. Material data and initial stresses and stress results are always
represented in this local coordinate system.

The local system for stress output coincides with the orientations defined for the
material input. Stresses are also available transformed to the global coordinate system.

The definition of the local shell surface coordinate system is as follows:

1. The local z direction ezl is the positive normal of the shell surface.

2. The local x direction exl is the projection of the first direction in the material
coordinate system (ex1) on the shell surface

e x1 e x1 e zl e zl
e xl = ----------------------------------------------------
e x1 e x1 e zl e zl

This projection cannot be performed if ex1 is normal to the shell. In that case the
second axis ex2 of the material system will instead define exl using the same procedure.
Thus, if

e x1 e zl 0.99

then

e x2 e x2 e zl e zl
e xl = ----------------------------------------------------
e x2 e x2 e zl e zl

3. At last, the second in-plane direction is generated as

e yl = e zl e xl

This procedure is followed irrespective of whether a global or a local coordinate system

defines the directions.

Note the following:

When using an isotropic material, the only effect of selecting a local coordinate
system is that the definition directions of local stresses change.
When defining orthotropic and anisotropic materials, local coordinate systems do
not need to be created that exactly follow the shell surface. It is sufficient that the
local system when projected as described above gives the intended in-plane
directions.

THEORY FOR THE SHELL AND PLATE INTERFACES | 251

 For shells in the X-Y plane, and for plates, the global and local directions will as a
default coincide.
On curved shells, local stress components may look discontinuous if there is a
location where ex1 becomes perpendicular to the shell surface.
In this section, every reference to stresses is equally valid for strains.

Reference for the Shell Interface

1. D. Chapelle and K.J. Bathe, The Finite Element Analysis of Shells
Fundamentals, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2003.

252 | CHAPTER 4: SHELLS AND PLATES

 5

Beams

This chapter describes the Beam interface, which you find under the Structural
Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Beam Interface

Theory for the Beam Interface

253
 The Beam Interface

The Beam interface is available on edges in 3D models and boundaries in

2D
2D models.

3D

The Beam interface ( ), found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard, has the equations, elements, and features for stress analysis and general
linear structural mechanics in beams and uses beam elements of the Euler (or
Euler-Bernoulli) type.

The Linear Elastic Material node is the default material model, which adds a linear elastic
equation for the displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic material
properties.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder:
Linear Elastic Material, Cross Section Data, Free (a condition where points are free, with
no loads or constraints), and Initial Values.

Right-click the Beam node to add other features that implement, for example, loads
and constraints. The following sections provide information about all features available
in this interface.

Channel Beam: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Verification_Models/channel_beam
In-Plane Framework with Discrete Mass and Mass Moment of Inertia:
Model Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/Verification_Models/
inplane_framework_freq

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

254 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is beam.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges (3D models) or All boundaries (2D models)
in the model to define the degrees of freedom, cross section, and equations that
describe the beam. To choose specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the
Selection list.

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation refpnt
(SI unit: m). All summed moments (applied or as reactions) are then computed
relative to this reference point.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The Beam interface has these dependent variables (fields):

The displacement field u, which has two components (u, v) in 2D and three
components (u, v, and w) in 3D.
The plane rotation angle , which has one component in 2D (th) and three
components in 3D (thx, thy, and thz).

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
The beam elements are of a first-order type, so only first-order shape functions are
available in the Beam interface. Actually, the axial displacement and twist are
represented by linear shape functions, while the bending is represented by a cubic
shape function (Hermitian element).

Show More Physics Options

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Beam Interface

See Also About the Edge Load and Point Load Features
Theory for the Beam Interface

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 255

 Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Beam Interface
The Beam Interface has the following boundary, edge, point, and pair conditions
available as indicated.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

These are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order). The list also includes
subfeatures:

Antisymmetry
Cross Section Data
Damping
Edge Load
Initial Stress and Strain
Initial Values
Linear Elastic Material
No Rotation
Prescribed Acceleration (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Prescribed Displacement/Rotation
Prescribed Velocity (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Pinned
Point Load
Point Mass
Point Mass Damping
Section Orientation
Symmetry
Thermal Expansion

These are described for the Solid Mechanics interface:

Added Mass
Fixed Constraint

256 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

 Free
Pre-Deformation
Spring Foundation

If there are subsequent boundary conditions specified on the same

geometrical entity, the last one takes precedence. The exception is that the
Pinned and No Rotation boundary conditions do not override each
Tip
other.

The Continuity pair condition is described in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Users Guide:

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Material feature adds the equations for a linear elastic beam and an
interface for defining the elastic material properties.

Thermally Loaded Beam: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Verification_Models/thermally_loaded_beam
Model

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define a
linear elastic beam and compute the displacements, rotations, stresses, and strains.

MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 257

 LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL
Define the linear elastic material properties.

Specification of Elastic Properties for Isotropic Materials

From the Specify list, select a pair of elastic properties for an isotropic material. Select:

Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus) E
(SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio (unitless).
Bulk modulus and shear modulus to specify the bulk modulus K (SI unit: Pa) and the
shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa).
Lam constants to specify the Lam constants (SI unit: Pa) and (SI unit: Pa).
Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds to specify the pressure-wave speed
(longitudinal wave speed) cp (SI unit: m/s) and the shear-wave speed (transverse
wave speed) cs (SI unit: m/s).

This is the wave speed for a solid continuum. In a truss or beam element,
the actual speed with which a longitudinal wave travels is lower than the
Note value given. When using this type of input, the density must also be given.

For each pair of properties, select from the applicable list to use the value From material
or enter a User defined value or expression.

Each of these pairs define the elastic properties, and it is possible to convert from one
set of properties to another.

Density
Define the Density (SI unit: kg/m3) of the material. Select From material to take the
value from the material or select User defined to enter a value for the density.

Thermal Expansion
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add the Thermal Expansion node. Thermal
expansion is an internal thermal strain caused by changes in temperature. The
temperature is assumed to vary linearly across the beams cross section.

258 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
coefficient of thermal expansion and the different temperatures that cause thermal
expansion.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

THERMAL EXPANSION
Specify the thermal properties that define the thermal stress.

From the Coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K) list, select From material to
use the coefficient of thermal expansion from the material, or User defined to enter a
value or expression for .

Enter a value or expression of the Strain reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), which
is the reference temperature where the thermal strain is zero.

From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K). This is the centerline temperature of the beam.

THERMAL BENDING
Enter the Temperature gradient in local y-direction Tgy (in 2D and 3D) and in the
Temperature gradient in local z-direction Tgz (in 3D) (SI unit: K/m), which affects the
thermal bending. If beam cross section dimensions have been defined at Bending stress
evaluation pointsFrom section heights, these could be used in an expression
containing the temperature difference.

Initial Stress and Strain

Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add an Initial Stress and Strain node,
which is the stress-strain state in the structure before applying any constraint or load.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 259

 Initial strain can, for instance, describe moisture-induced swelling, and initial stress can
describe stresses from heating.

For more information about the stress and strain quantities, see Stress and
Strain Calculations and Initial Values and Prescribed Values as described
See Also for the Shell and Plate interfaces.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
initial stress or strain.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

INITIAL STRESS
Specify the initial stress as the Initial axial force, the Initial bending moment, and for 3D,
the Initial torsional moment. The default values are zero, which means no initial stress.

For 2D models, enter values or expressions for the Initial axial force N (SI
unit: N) and Initial bending moment Miz (SI unit: Nm).
2D

For 3D models, enter values or expressions for:

Initial axial force N (SI unit: N)

Initial bending moment Miz and Miy (SI unit: Nm)
3D
Initial torsional moment Mix (SI unit: Nm)

260 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

INITIAL STRAIN
Specify the initial strain as the Initial axial strain, the Initial curvature, and for 3D, the
Initial torsional angle derivative. The default values are zero, which means no initial
strain.

For 2D models, enter values or expressions for Initial axial strain eni
(unitless) and Initial curvature siz (SI unit: rad/m).
2D

For 3D models, enter values or expressions in the applicable fields for:

Initial axial strain eni (unitless)

Initial curvature siz and siy (SI unit: rad/m)
3D
Initial torsional angle derivative six (SI unit: rad/m)

Damping
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add the Damping node, which adds
Rayleigh damping or an isotropic loss-factor damping. In time-dependent,
eigenfrequency, and frequency domain response studies, undamped or damped
problems can be modeled.

Loss factor damping is valid only for damped eigenfrequency and

frequency response analysis. If a time-dependent analysis and loss factor
Note damping is chosen, the model is solved with no damping.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to add
damping.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 261

 DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping (the default) or Isotropic loss factor.

For Rayleigh damping, enter the Mass damping parameter dM and the Stiffness damping
parameter dK in the corresponding fields. The default values are 0, which is no
damping.

For Isotropic loss factor damping, from the Isotropic structural loss factor list, select
From material (the default) to use the material value or select User defined to enter a
value or expression. The default value is 0.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the displacement field u (the
displacement components u, v, and, in 3D, w), the velocity field, the rotations, and
the angular velocity. It can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as
an initial guess for a nonlinear analysis. Right-click to add additional Initial Values
features.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define
initial values.

INITIAL VALUES

For 2D models, enter values or expressions for the following. The default
value is 0 for all initial values:

Displacement field u (SI unit: m), for the x and y directions

du
Velocity field (SI unit: m/s), for the x and y directions
2D dt
Rotation field (SI unit: rad)
d
Angular velocity (SI unit: rad/s)
dt

262 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

 For 3D models, enter values or expressions for the following. The default
value is 0 for all initial values:

Displacement field u (SI unit: m), for the x, y, and z coordinates.

du
Velocity field (SI unit: m/s), for the x, y, and z coordinates.
dt
3D Rotation field (SI unit: rad). Enter values for each for each x-, y-, and
z-component. in separate fields.
d
Angular velocity (SI unit: rad/s). Enter values for each x-, y-, and
dt
z-component. in separate fields.

Cross Section Data

In the Cross Section Data node you specify the geometric properties of the beams cross
section. In addition, some stress evaluation properties can be defined. For 3D models,
a default Section Orientation node is added, or right-click to add additional ones.

Common Cross Sections

See Also

Rigid Connector: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Tutorial_Models/bracket_rigid_connector
Model

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
cross section.

CROSS SECTION DEFINITION

The default is User defined, or select Common sections to choose from predefined
sections.

If User defined is selected, go to Basic Section Properties and Stress Evaluation

Properties to continue defining the cross section.

If Common sections is selected, choose a Section typeRectangle, Box, Circular, Pipe,

H-profile, U-profile, or T-profile. Then go to the relevant section below to continue

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 263

 defining the section. Each Section type also has a figure showing the section and its
defining dimensions.

For equations and a figure see:

Rectangular Section
Box Section
Circular Section

See Also Pipe Section

H-Profile section
U-Profile section
T-Profile section

Rectangle
Enter values or expressions for the following.

Width in local y-direction hy (SI unit: m)

Width in local z-direction hz (SI unit: m)

Box
Enter values or expressions for the following.

Width in local y-direction hy (SI unit: m)

Width in local z-direction hz (SI unit: m)
Wall thickness in local y-direction ty (SI unit: m)
Wall thickness in local z-direction tz (SI unit: m)

Circular
Enter a value or expression for the Diameter do (SI unit: m).

Pipe
Enter values or expressions for the following.

Outer diameter do (SI unit: m)

Inner diameter di (SI unit: m)

H-profile, U-profile, or T-profile

Enter values or expressions for the following.

Section height hy (SI unit: m)

264 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

 Flange width hz (SI unit: m)
Flange thickness ty (SI unit: m)
Web thickness tz (SI unit: m)

BASIC SECTION PROPERTIES

This section is only available if User defined is selected as the Cross Section
Definition.
Note

The following table lists the basic section properties (some apply in 3D only). Enter
values for these properties in the associated fields. The default values correspond to a
circular cross section with a diameter of 0.1 m:

COMMENT DESCRIPTION PARAMETER SI UNIT

2D and 3D Area of cross section A m2

2D and 3D Moment of inertia about local z-axis Izz m4
3D only Distance to shear center in local z-direction ez m
3D only Moment of inertia about local y-axis Iyy m4
3D only Distance to shear center in local y-direction ey m
3D only Torsional constant J m4

The orientation of the cross section is given in Section Orientation If the

beams cross section is a square or circle (solid or tube), the area moments
of inertia are the same independent of direction, so the beam is totally
symmetric and the orientation of the principal axes of the cross section is
3D not a problem unless you are interested in looking at results defined using
the local coordinate system. Such results are bending moments, shear
forces, local displacements and rotations.

STRESS EVALUATION PROPERTIES

This section is only available if User defined is selected as the Cross Section
Definition.
Note

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 265

 Select the Bending stress evaluation pointsFrom section heights (the default) or From
specified points.

Stress evaluation using only section heights is meaningful only when the cross section
is symmetric.

The max shear stress factor determines the ratio between the peak and the average
shear stress over the cross section as described by Equation 5-1 and Equation 5-2.

From Section Heights

If From section heights is selected, enter values in each field for the following parameters
as required for the space dimension:

COMMENT DESCRIPTION PARAMETER SI UNIT

2D and 3D Section height in local y direction hy m

2D and 3D Max shear stress factor in local y direction y
3D only Section height in local z direction hz m
3D only Torsional section modulus Wt m3
3D only Max shear stress factor in local z direction z

From Specified Points

If From specified points is selected, enter values in the Evaluation points in local system
table as required for the space dimension. Then enter the following parameters in the
applicable fields.

COMMENT DESCRIPTION PARAMETER SI UNIT

2D and 3D Max shear stress factor in local y direction y

3D only Torsional section modulus Wt m3
3D only Max shear stress factor in local z direction z

Section Orientation

This feature is available for 3D models.

3D

266 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Use the Section Orientation subnode to define the orientation of a beam cross section
using a reference point or an orientation vector. There is always one Section Orientation
node for each cross section, and as many nodes as required can be added.

ORIENTATION METHOD
Select the Reference point (the default) or Orientation vector. If Reference point is
selected, enter a Reference point defining local y direction P (SI unit: m).

The coordinate system is defined as follows:

The local x direction is in the edge direction. The positive edge direction can be
checked by vector plotting the local edge tangent direction. The coordinates of the
reference point define the local xy-plane with the positive y direction defined such that
the point lies in the positive quadrant (see Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1: An example of a Beam interface Section Orientation feature.

For the creation of a local coordinate system to be possible, the point cannot coincide
with the edge or the edge extension. If this is attempted, an error message is generated.

The default settings for the global coordinates of the point are
[1000,1000,1000]. This is useful only for symmetric cross sections.
Note

Often a number of edges in a plane have the same orientation. It is then easy to select
all edges and specify a point anywhere in the same plane, not coinciding with an edge
or an edge extension.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 267

 If Orientation vector is selected, enter a Orientation vector defining local y direction V
and optionally the Rotation of vector around beam axis . The beam orientation is
defined similarly to what is described above, with the difference that in this case the
direction vector is explicitly defined whereas when an orientation point is used, the
direction vector is obtained as the vector from the beam axis to the specified point.

The Rotation of vector around beam axis has the effect of rotating the given vector
around the beam axis before it is used to define the local xy-plane. This simplifies the
input for some cross sections, such as L-shaped profiles, where the principal axes have
a direction that is skewed relative to a more natural modeling position.

About the Edge Load and Point Load Features

Add force loads acting on all levels of the beam geometry:

Edge Load as a force or moment distributed along an edge.

Point Load as concentrated forces or moments at points.

For these loads, right-click and choose Phase to add a phase for harmonic loads in
frequency-domain computations. In this way a harmonic load can be defined where
the amplitude and phase shift can vary with the excitation frequency f:

F freq = F F Amp f cos 2f + F Ph f

Also add a moment load phase.

Edge Load
Add an Edge Load as a force distributed along an edge. Right-click and add a Phase
node for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define an
edge load.

268 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from the following based on space dimension:

For 2D models (boundaries):

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
2D
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

For 3D models (edges):

Global coordinate system (the default; the standard global coordinate

system)

3D
Local edge system. This is the system defined by the beam cross section
orientation.
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
From the Load type list, select the definition of the force load. Select Load defined as
force per unit length FL (the default) (SI unit: N/m) or Edge load defined as force per
unit volume F (SI unit: N/m3). In the latter case the given load is multiplied by the
cross section area.

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Edge load in the table.

MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Moment edge load ML (3D) or
Mlz (2D) (SI unit: Nm/m).

Point Load
Add a Point Load to points for concentrated forces or moments at points. Right-click
to add a Phase node for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to define a point load.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 269

 PAIR SELECTION
If Point Load is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point load FP (SI unit: N).

MOMENT
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point moment MP (3D) or Mlz
(2D) (SI unit: Nm).

Phase
Right-click an Edge Load or Point Load node to add a Phase node, which adds a phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

EDGE OR POINT SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges or points) to add phase.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

PHASE
Add the phase load Fph (unit: rad) for harmonic loads. Enter the phase for each
component of the load in the corresponding fields.

MOMENT LOAD PHASE

Add the phase for the moment load Mph (unit: rad) for harmonic loads. Enter the
phase for each component of the moment load in the corresponding fields.

270 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Prescribed Displacement/Rotation
The Prescribed Displacement/Rotation node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or
point (2D and 3D) condition where the displacements and rotations are prescribed in
one or more directions.

If a prescribed displacement or rotation is not activated in any direction, this is the

same as a Free constraint.
If zero displacements and rotations are prescribed, this is the same as a Fixed
Constraint.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a displacement or rotation.

PAIR SELECTION
If Prescribed Displacement/Rotation is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to
define. An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed displacement/
rotation. The coordinate system selection is based on the geometric entity level. Select
from the following based on space dimension:

For 2D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (boundaries and points)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
2D (boundaries)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (boundaries and points)

For 3D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (edges and points)

Local edge system. This is the system defined by the beam cross section
3D orientation.
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (edges and points)

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 271

 Depending on the selected coordinate system, the displacement and rotation
components change accordingly.

PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT

To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction (x and y),

select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y
direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed
2D
displacements u0 and v0, (SI unit: m).

To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction (x, y, and z),
select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction,
and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression
3D
for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, or w0 (SI unit: m).

PRESCRIBED ROTATION

To define a prescribed rotation select the Prescribed in out of plane

direction check box and enter a value or expression for R0 (SI unit: rad).
2D

To define a prescribed rotation for each space direction (x, y, and z), select
one or all of the Prescribed around x direction, Prescribed around
y direction, and Prescribed around z direction check boxes and enter a value
3D
or expression for in each thx0, thy0, or thz0 (SI unit: rad) field.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

272 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Prescribed Velocity
The Prescribed Velocity node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or point (2D and
3D) that prescribes the translational or rotational velocity in one or more directions.
The prescribed velocity condition is applicable for time-dependent and
frequency-domain studies. With this condition it is possible to prescribe a velocity in
one direction, leaving the beam free in the other directions.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a velocity.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Coordinate systems with directions that change with time should not be
used.
Note

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed translational/
rotational velocity. The coordinate system selection is based on the geometric entity
level. Select from the following based on space dimension:

For 2D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (boundaries and points)

2D
Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (boundaries and points)

For 3D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (edges and points)

Local edge system. This is the system defined by the beam cross section
3D orientation.
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (edges and points)

Depending on the selected coordinate system, the velocity components change

accordingly.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 273

 P R E S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y

To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x and y), select
one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed velocity
2D
components vx and vy (SI unit: m/s).

To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x, y, and z), select
one or more of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and
Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for
3D
the prescribed velocity components vx, vy, and vz (SI unit: m/s).

P R E S C R I B E D A N G U L A R VE L O C I T Y

To define a prescribed angular velocity select the Prescribed in out of plane

direction check box and enter a value or expression for t (SI unit:
2D rad/s).

To define a prescribed angular velocity for each space direction (x, y, and
z), select one or all of the Prescribed around x direction, Prescribed around
y direction, and Prescribed around z direction check boxes and enter a value
3D
or expression for in each vthx0, vthy0, or vthz0 (SI unit: rad/s) field.

Prescribed Acceleration
The Prescribed Acceleration node adds a boundary or domain condition where the
acceleration is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed acceleration
condition is applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this
boundary condition it is possible to prescribe a acceleration in one direction, leaving
the beam free in the other directions.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe an acceleration.

274 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Coordinate systems with directions which change with time should not
be used.
Note

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the prescribed translational/
rotational acceleration. The coordinate system selection is based on the geometric
entity level. Select from the following based on space dimension:

For 2D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (boundaries and points)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
2D
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (boundaries and points)

For 3D models:

Global coordinate system (the default) (edges and points)

Local edge system. This is the system defined by the beam cross section
3D orientation.
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (edges and points)

Depending on the selected coordinate system, the acceleration components change

accordingly.

PRESCRIBED ACCELERATION

To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x and y), select
one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed
2D
acceleration components ax and ay (SI unit: m/s2).

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 275

 To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x, y, and z), select
one or more of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and
Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for
3D
the prescribed acceleration components ax, ay, and az (SI unit: m/s2).

PRESCRIBED ANGULAR ACCELERATION

To define a prescribed angular acceleration select the Prescribed in out of

2 2
plane direction check box and enter a value or expression for t
2
2D (SI unit: rad/s ).

To define a prescribed angular acceleration for each space direction (x, y,

and z), select one or all of the Prescribed around x direction, Prescribed
around y direction, and Prescribed around z direction check boxes and enter
3D a value or expression for in each athx0, athy0, or athz0 (SI unit: rad/s2)
field.

Pinned
The Pinned feature adds an edge condition that makes the edge fixed; that is, all
displacements are zero. This node is also available on boundaries and at points.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a pinned condition.

PAIR SELECTION
If Pinned is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

276 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

No Rotation
The No Rotation node adds an edge condition that prevents all rotation at the edge.
This node is also available on boundaries and at points.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe no rotations.

PAIR SELECTION
If No Rotation is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds an edge condition that defines a symmetry edge. This node
is also available on boundaries and at points.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 277

 E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe symmetry.

PAIR SELECTION
If Symmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the symmetry. The coordinate
system selection is based on the geometric entity level. Select from the following based
on space dimension:

For 2D models:

Global coordinate system (the default)

2D Any additional user-defined coordinate system

For 3D models:

Local edge system (the default). This is the system defined by the beam
cross section orientation.
3D Global coordinate system (edges and points)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (edges and points)

SYMMETRY
Select an Axis to use as normal direction. This specifies the direction of the normal to
the symmetry plane in the selected coordinate system.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

278 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Antisymmetry
The Antisymmetry node adds an edge condition that defines an antisymmetry edge.
This node is also available on boundaries and at points.

E D G E , B O U N D A R Y, O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe antisymmetry. Select from the following based on space dimension:

For 2D models:

Local edge system (the default). This is the system defined by the beam
cross section orientation.
2D Global coordinate system (boundaries and points)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (boundaries and points)

For 3D models:

Local edge system (the default). This is the system defined by the beam
cross section orientation.
3D Global coordinate system (edges and points)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system (edges and points)

PAIR SELECTION
If Antisymmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

ANTISYMMETRY
Select an Axis to use as normal direction. This specifies the direction of the normal to
the symmetry plane in the selected coordinate system.

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 279

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Point Mass
Add a Point Mass node to model a discrete mass or mass moment of inertia that is
concentrated at a point in contrast to distributed mass modeled through the density
and area of the beam. Right-click to add a Point Mass Damping node.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the point mass.

PAIR SELECTION
If Point Mass is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

With the Coordinate system list, control the coordinate system the principal mass
moment of inertias are defined:

For 3D models only, from the Coordinate system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

3D Any additional user-defined coordinate system

280 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

PO IN T MA SS
Enter a Point mass m (SI unit: kg).

For 2D models, enter one value for J.

2D

For 3D models, enter a Mass moment of inertia J (m2kg) in the table for
each axis x, y, and z.
3D

Point Mass Damping

Right-click the Point Mass node to add a Point Mass Damping feature to specify a mass
damping parameter.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the point mass damping.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

PO IN T MASS DAMPIN G
Enter a Mass damping parameter dM (SI unit: 1/s).

THE BEAM INTERFACE | 281

 Theory for the Beam Interface
The Beam Interface theory is described in this section:

About Beams
In-Plane Euler Beams
3D Euler Beam
Strain-Displacement/Rotation Relation
Stress-Strain Relation
Thermal Strain
Initial Load and Strain
Implementation
Stress Evaluation
Thermal Coupling
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Common Cross Sections

About Beams
A beam is a slender structure that can be fully described by the propertiesarea,
moments of inertia, and densityof the cross section. Beams are the choice for
modeling reinforcements in 3D solids and shell structures, as well as in 2D solids under
the plane stress assumption. Naturally, they can also model lattice works, both planar
and three-dimensional.

Beams can sustain loads and moments in any direction, both distributed and on
individual nodes. The beams ends and interconnections can be free, simply supported,
or clamped. In fact, the simplified boundary conditions are usually responsible for
most of the difference that can be found between a beam solution and a full 3D solid
simulation of the same structure. Point constraints on beams are well-behaved, in
contrast to the solid case, and it is possible to use discrete point masses and mass
moments of inertia.

The Beam interface is based on the principle of virtual work. The resulting equation
can equivalently be viewed as a weak formulation of an underlying PDE. The Beam

282 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

interface uses special shape function classes to define stresses and strains in the beams
using Euler (or Euler-Bernoulli) theory.

In-Plane Euler Beams

Use the Beam interface in 2D to analyze planar lattice works of uniaxial beams.

In-plane Euler beams are defined on edges in 2D. They can be used separately or as
stiffeners to 2D solid elements.

VA R I A BL E S A N D S P A C E D I M E N S I O N S
The degrees of freedom (dependent variables) are the global displacements u and v in
the global x and y directions and the rotation about the global z-axis.

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 283

 3D Euler Beam
Use the Beam interface in 3D to model three-dimensional frameworks of uniaxial
beams.

3D Euler beams are defined on edges in 3D. They can be used separately or as
stiffeners to 2D solid or shell elements.

VAR IA BL ES AN D SPA C E DIM E NS IO N S

The degrees of freedom (dependent variables) are the global displacements u, v, w in
the global x, y, z directions and the global rotations x, y, and z about the global x-,
y-, and z-axes.

Strain-Displacement/Rotation Relation
The axial strain depends on the rotation derivative and axial displacement derivative
defined by the shape function and the transversal coordinate in the beam. For the 3D
case it becomes

ly lz u axi
= z l ---------- y l ---------- + -------------
s s s

The coordinates from the beam center line in the local transversal directions are
denoted zl and yl respectively. In the 2D case, the second term is omitted, and the local
z direction is always directed out of the plane.

The total strain consists of thermal (th), initial (i), and elastic strains(el)

284 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

 = el + th + i

Stress-Strain Relation
The stress-strain relation in the beam is described by

= E

The stress-strain relation for linear conditions including initial stress and strain and
thermal effects reads:

= E el + i = E th i + i

where E is known as Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity.

Thermal Strain
The temperature is assumed to vary linearly across the beams cross section. For the
3D beam it becomes

T = T m + T gz z l + T gy y l

Tm is the temperature at the beam center line while Tgz and Tgy are the temperature
gradients in the two local transversal directions. The thermal strain is thus

th = T m + T gz z l + T gy y l T ref

For the 2D beam, the term depending on zl disappears.

Initial Load and Strain

The initial stress means the stress before any loads, displacements, and initial strains
have been applied.

The initial stress distribution is given as initial moments and initial normal force

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 285


M yi = i z l dA
A
M zi = i y l dA
A

N i = i dA
A

M xi = ixz y l iyz z l dA
A

In 2D the y and z components of moments disappear.

The initial strain is the strain before any loads, displacements, and initial stresses have
been applied. The initial axial strain distribution is given as initial curvature and initial
axial strain

ly lz u axi
i = z l ---------- y l ---------- + -------------
s i s i s i

In 2D the zl dependent term disappears. As initial strain for the torsional degree of
freedom, the derivative of the twist angle,

lx
----------
s i

is used.

Implementation
The implementation is based on the principle of virtual work, which states that the sum
of virtual work from internal strains and external loads equals zero:

T
W = el + u F dV = 0
V

The beam elements are formulated in terms of the stress resultants (normal force,
bending moments and twisting moment).

The normal force is defined as

286 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

 N = dA = Eel + i dA =
A A
E z lz u axi ly lz u axi
y l ---------- + ------------- z l ---------- y l ---------- + -------------

ly
----------
l s s s s i s i s i
A

T m + T gz z l + T gy y l T ref + i dA =

u axi u axi
E -------------
s
------------- T m T ref dA + i dA =
s i
A A
u axi u axi
EA ------------- ------------- T m T ref + N i
s s i

Because the local coordinates are defined with their origin at the centroid of the cross
section, any surface integral of an odd power of a local coordinate evaluates to zero.

The beam bending moments are defined as

M ly = zl dA = zl Eel + i dA =
A A
ly lz u axi ly lz u axi
z l E z l ---------- y l ---------- + ------------- z l ---------- y l ---------- + -------------
s s s s i s i s i
A

T m + T gz z l + T gy y l T ref + i dA =

2 ly ly
zl E ---------- ---------- T gz dA + i z l dA =
s s i
A A
ly ly
EI yy ---------- ---------- T gz + M iy
s s i

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 287


M lz = y l dA = y l E el + i dA =
A A
ly lz u axi ly lz u axi
y l E z l ---------- y l ---------- + ------------- z l ---------- y l ---------- + -------------
s s s s i s i s i
A

T m + T gz z l + T gy y l T ref + i dA =

lz lz
y l E ---------- + ---------- T gy dA i y l dA =

2
s s i
A A
lz lz
EI zz ---------- ---------- + T gy + M iz
s s i

Mly is present only in 3D, and so is the torsional moment Mlx described below. The
torsional stiffness of the beam is defined using the torsional constant J given by

M
J = -------- l
G

In a similar way as for the bending part a torsional moment is then defined as

lx lx
M lx = GJ ---------- ---------- + M ix
s s i

Using the beam moment and normal force the expression for the virtual work becomes
very compact:

ly lz u axi lx
W = Mly ----------
s test
+ M lz ----------
s test
+ N -------------
s test
+ M lx ---------- dx
s test
L

For 2D, the first and fourth terms are omitted.

A special feature of some unsymmetrical cross sections is that they twist under a
transversal load that is applied to beam centerline. As an example, this would be the
case for a U-profile under self-weight, loaded in the stiff direction. It is only a load
applied at the shear center, which causes a pure deflection without twist. This effect
can be incorporated by supplying the coordinates of the shear center in the local
coordinate system (ey, ez). A given transversal load (flx, fly, flz), which is defined as
acting along the centerline, is then augmented by a twisting moment given by

m lx = f ly e z f lz e y

288 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Stress Evaluation
Since the basic result quantities for beams are the integrated stresses in terms of section
forces and moment, special considerations are needed for the evaluation of actual
stresses.

The normal stress from axial force is constant over the section, and computed as

N
n = ----
A

The normal stress from bending is computed in four user-selected points (ylk, zlk) in
the cross section as

M ly z lk M lz y lk
bk = ----------------- -----------------
I yy I zz

In 2D, only two points, specified by their local y-coordinates are used.

The total normal stress in these points is then

k = bk + n

The peak normal stress in the section is defined as

max = max k

The shear stress from twist in general has a complex distribution over the cross section.
The maximum shear stress due to torsion is defined as

M lx
t, max = -------------
Wt

where Wt is the torsional section modulus. This result is available only in 3D.

The section shear forces are computed as

2
ly
T lz = EI yy ------------
2
-
s
2
lz
T ly = E I zz ------------
2
-
s

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 289

 where Tlz is available only in 3D. The average shear stresses are computed from the
shear forces as

T lz
sz, ave = --------
A
(5-1)
T ly
sy, ave = --------
A

Since the shear stresses are not constant over the cross section, the maximum shear
stresses are also available, using section dependent correction factors:

sz, max = z sz, ave

(5-2)
sy, max = y sy, ave

As the directions and positions of maximum shear stresses from shear and twist are not
known in a general case, upper bounds to the shear stress components are defined as

xz, max = sz, max + t, max

xy, max = sy, max + t, max

The maximum von Mises effective stress for the cross section is the defined as

2 2 2
mises = max + 3 xy, max + 3 xz, max

Since the maximum values for the different stress components in general occur at
different positions over the cross section, the effective stress thus computed is a
conservative approximation.

Thermal Coupling
Material expands with temperature, which causes thermal strains to develop in the
material. The beams can handle any temperature variation along the beam, and linear
variation across the beam. The thermal strains together with the initial strains and
elastic strains from structural loads form the total strain.

= el + th + i

where

th = T m + T z ------ + T y ------ T ref

z y
hz hy

290 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

Thermal coupling means that the thermal expansion is included in the analysis.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion defines how much a material expands due to an
increase in temperature.

th = T m + T z --- + T y --- T ref

z y
h h

where th is the thermal strain, Ty and Tz are the temperature difference over the
cross section of the beam in the y and z directions, and is the coefficient of thermal
expansion. Tm is the temperature in the middle and Tref is the stress free reference
temperature.

Common Cross Sections

The cross section data for the common cross sections can be computed internally in
COMSOL. In this section, the expressions used are summarized.

RECTANGULAR SECTION

Figure 5-2: Rectangular section diagram for common cross section. The diagram also
displays in COMSOL Multiphysics when this option is selected.

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 291

 TABLE 5-1: RECTANGULAR SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A hy hz

Izz 3
hy hz
------------
12
ez 0
y 1.5
Iyy 3
hz hy
------------
-
12
ey 0
z 1.5
J 2 q=
h y h z q
2 2
192q ------------------------
2n 1 -
----------------- 1
3 5
------------------------------
2n 1
5
tanh
2q
min(hy/hz,hz/hy)
n=1

Wt J q=
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
2 min(hy/hz,hz/hy)
8
hy hz q 1
2 2 2n 1
-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
n = 1 2n 1 cosh -------------------------
2q

p1 h y h z
--------
2 2
- ---------

p2
h h
-----y- --------z-
2 2
p3
h h
-----y- -----z-
2 2
p4 h y h z
--------
2 2
- ------

292 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

BOX SECTION

Figure 5-3: Box section diagram for common cross section. The diagram also displays in
COMSOL Multiphysics when this option is selected.

TABLE 5-2: BOX SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A 2 hy tz + hz ty 4 ty tz

Izz 3 3 2
t z h y + t y h z 2t z t y h z 2t z h y t y
------------------------------------------------ + -------------------------------------------------------
6 2
ez 0
y 2 2
h y h z h y 2t y h z 2t z A
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
16t z I zz

Iyy 3 3 2
t y h z + t z h y 2t y t z h y 2t y h z t z
------------------------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------------------
6 2
ey 0
z 2 2
h z h y h z 2t z h y 2t y A
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
16t y I yy

J 2 2 Thin-walled
2 hy ty hz tz
----------------------------------------------------- approximation
hy ty hz tz
----------------- + ----------------
tz ty

Wt 2 h y t y h z t z min t y t z Thin-walled
approximation

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 293

 TABLE 5-2: BOX SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

p1 h y h z
--------
- ---------
2 2
p2
h h
-----y- --------z-
2 2
p3
h h
-----y- -----z-
2 2
p4 h y h z
--------
- ------
2 2

CIRCULAR SECTION

Figure 5-4: Circular section diagram for common cross section. The diagram also displays
in COMSOL Multiphysics when this option is selected.

TABLE 5-3: CIRCULAR SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A 2
d o
----------
4
Izz 4
d
---------o-
64
ez 0

294 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

TABLE 5-3: CIRCULAR SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

y 4
---
3
Iyy I zz

ey 0
z y
J 4
d
---------o-
32
Wt 3
d
---------o-
16
p1 do
--------
- 0
2
p2 d o
0 --------
-
2
p3
d
-----o-
2 0
p4
0 d
-----o-
2

PIPE SECTION

Figure 5-5: Pipe section diagram for common cross section. The diagram also displays in
COMSOL Multiphysics when this option is selected.

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 295

 TABLE 5-4: PIPE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY FORMULA REMARKS

A 2 2
do di
---------------------------
4
Izz 4 4
do di
---------------------------
64
ez 0
y 3 3
d o d i A
------------------------------------
-
12 d o d i I zz

Iyy I zz

ey 0
z y
J
4 4
do di
---------------------------
32
Wt 4 4
do di
---------------------------
16d o

p1 do
--------
2 0
-

p2 d o
0 --------
-
2
p3 do
-----
- 0
2
p4
0 d
-----o-
2

296 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

H-PROFILE SECTION

Figure 5-6: H-profile section diagram for common cross section. The diagram also displays
in COMSOL Multiphysics when this option is selected.

TABLE 5-5: H-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A 2h z t y + t z h y 2t y

Izz 3 3 2
2h z t y + t z h y 2t y ty hz hy ty
- + -----------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ -
12 2
ez 0
y 2
4h z t y h y t y + t z h y 2t y A
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8t z I zz

Iyy 3 3
2t y h z + t z h y 2t y
----------------------------------------------------
12
ey 0
z 2 2
h z t z A
--------------------------
8I yy

J 3 3 Thin-walled
2t y h z + t z h y 2t y
---------------------------------------------------- approximation
3
Wt J Thin-walled
-----------------------------
-
max t y t z approximation

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 297

 TABLE 5-5: H-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

p1 h y h z
--------
- ---------
2 2
p2
h h
-----y- --------z-
2 2
p3
h h
-----y- -----z-
2 2
p4 h y h z
--------
- ------
2 2

U-PROFILE SECTION

Figure 5-7: U-profile section diagram for common cross section. Also displays in COMSOL
Multiphysics when this option is selected.

TABLE 5-6: U-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A h y t z + 2 h z t z t y

Izz 3 3 2
t z h y + 2t y h z t z t y h z t z h y t y
- + ----------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
12 2
zCG 2
h y t z 2h z t z + 2t y h z t z
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
2A

298 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

TABLE 5-6: U-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

ez 2 2
t z t y 2h z t z h y t y
h z ---- + ---------------------------------------------------------- z CG
2 16I zz

y 2 2
h y h z h y 2t y h z t z A
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
8t z I zz

Iyy 3 3 2
8t y h z + t z h y 2t y + 3t z h y 2t y 2h z t z
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
12
2
z CG A

ey 0
z 2
z CG A
-----------------
2I yy

J 3 3 Thin-walled
2t y h z + t z h y 2t y
---------------------------------------------------- approximation
3
Wt J Thin-walled
-----------------------------
-
max t y t z approximation

p1 hy
--------
- z CG
2
p2
h
-----y- z
2 CG
p3
h
-----y- h
2 z z CG
p4 hy
--------
- h z z CG
2

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 299

 T- P R O F I L E S E C T I O N

Figure 5-8: T-profile section diagram for common cross section. Also displays in COMSOL
Multiphysics when this option is selected.

TABLE 5-7: T-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

A h z t y + h y t y t z

yCG 2
t z h y t y + t y h z 2h y t y
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
2A
Izz 3 3 2
4t z h y t y + h z t y + 3t y h z 2h y t y 2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- y CG A
12
ez 0
y 2
y CG A
------------------
2I zz

Iyy 3 3
ty hz + tz hy ty
---------------------------------------------
12
ey ty
h y ---- y CG
2
z 2 2
h z t z A
--------------------------
8I yy

300 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS

TABLE 5-7: T-PROFILE SECTION CONSTANTS

PROPERTY EXPRESSION REMARKS

J 3 3 Thin-walled
ty hz + tz hy ty
--------------------------------------------- approximation
3
Wt J Thin-walled
---------------------------
-
max t y t z approximation

p1 t z
y -------
CG 2
p2 h z
h y --------
-
y CG 2
p3
h y h
-----z-
y CG 2
p3
y t---z-
CG 2

THEORY FOR THE BEAM INTERFACE | 301

302 | CHAPTER 5: BEAMS
 6

Trusses

This chapter describes the Truss interface, which you find under the Structural
Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Truss Interface

Theory for the Truss Interface

303
 The Truss Interface

The Truss interface is available on edges in 3D models and boundaries in

2D
2D models.

3D

The Truss interface ( ) is found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard. Trusses are elements that can only sustain axial forces; therefore use
trusses to model truss works where the edges are straight but also to model sagging
cables like the deformation of a wire exposed to gravity.

Vibrating String: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Verification_Models/vibrating_string
In-Plane and Space Truss: Model Library path
Model Structural_Mechanics_Module/Verification_Models/
inplane_and_space_truss

The Linear Elastic Material node is the default material model, which adds a linear elastic
equation for the displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic material
properties.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder:
Linear Elastic Material, Cross Section Data, Free (a condition where points are free, with
no loads or constraints), Straight Edge Constraint (to ensure that the points lie on a
straight line between the end points of the edge or boundary), and Initial Values.

Right-click the Truss node to add other features that implement, for example, loads and
constraints. The following sections provide information about all features available in
this interface.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables

304 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is truss.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges (3D models) or All boundaries (2D models)
in the model to define the truss. To choose specific edges or boundaries, select Manual
from the Selection list.

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation refpnt
(SI unit: m). All summed moments (applied or as reactions) are then computed
relative to this reference point.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Displacement field u which has two
components (u, v) in 2D and three components (u, v, and w) in 3D. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Displacement field. Specify the
Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).

Show More Physics Options

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Truss Interface

See Also About the Edge Load and Point Load

Theory for the Truss Interface

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 305
 Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Conditions for the Truss Interface
The Truss Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair conditions available as
indicated.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

These are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order). The list also includes
subfeatures:

Antisymmetry
Cross Section Data
Edge Load
Initial Stress and Strain
Initial Values
Linear Elastic Material
Phase
Pinned
Prescribed Acceleration (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity (for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies)
Point Mass
Point Mass Damping
Straight Edge Constraint
Symmetry
Thermal Expansion

These are described for the Solid Mechanics interface:

Added Mass
Damping (described for the Beam interface)
Fixed Constraint
Free

306 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
 Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Spring Foundation

If there are subsequent boundary conditions specified on the same

geometrical entity, the last one takes precedence.
Tip

The Continuity pair condition is described in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Users Guide:

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Material feature adds the equations for a linear elastic truss element,
and an interface for defining the elastic material properties.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define a
linear elastic truss elements and compute the displacements, stresses, and strains.

MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.

LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL

Define the linear elastic material properties.

These settings are the same as described under Linear Elastic Material for
The Beam Interface.
Note

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 307
 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
In this section there is always one check box. Either Force linear strains or Include
geometric nonlinearity is shown.

If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step. The default value is that the check box
is cleared, except when opening a model created in a version prior to 4.3. In this case
the state is chosen so that the properties of the model are conserved.

The Include geometric nonlinearity check box is displayed only if the model was created
in a version prior to 4.3, and geometric nonlinearity was originally used for the selected
domains. It is then selected and forces the Include geometric nonlinearity check box in
the study step to be selected. If the check box is cleared, the check box is permanently
removed and the study step assumes control over the selection of geometric
nonlinearity.

Thermal Expansion
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add the Thermal Expansion node. Thermal
expansion is an internal thermal strain caused by changes in temperature. The
temperature is assumed to be constant over the cross section of the truss element.

The settings for the Truss interface are the same as described for the Beam
interface (excluding the thermal bending options). See Thermal
Note Expansion.

Initial Stress and Strain

Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add an Initial Stress and Strain node,
which is the stress-strain state in the structure before applying any constraint or load.
Initial strain can, for instance, describe moisture-induced swelling, and initial stress can
describe stresses from heating.

308 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
 BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
initial stress or strain.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

INITIAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Enter an Initial axial strain eni (unitless) and Initial axial stress ni (SI unit: N/m2). The
default values are zero, which means no initial stress or strain.

Cross Section Data

This is required input data for the truss.

Important

Use the Cross Section Data node to enter the cross section area for the truss elements.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
cross section.

BASIC SECTION PROPERTIES

2
Enter an Area A (SI unit: m ).

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the displacement field u (the
displacement components u, v, and, in 3D, w), and the velocity field. It can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
analysis. Right-click to add additional Initial Values features.

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 309
 BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define
initial values.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions in the applicable fields based on the space dimension. The
default value is 0 for all initial values of the Displacement field u (SI unit: m) and the
du
Velocity field (SI unit: m/s).
dt

About the Edge Load and Point Load

Add force loads acting on all levels of the Truss geometry:

Edge Load as a force distributed along an edge

Point Load as concentrated forces at points

For these loads, right-click and choose Phase to add a phase for harmonic loads in
frequency-domain computations. In this way, define a harmonic load where the
amplitude and phase shift can vary with the excitation frequency f:

F freq = F F Amp f cos 2f + F Ph f

Edge Load
Add an Edge Load as a force distributed along an edge (3D models) or boundary (2D
models). Also right-click and add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain
computations.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define an
edge load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

FORCE
From the Load type list, select the definition of the force load. Select Load defined as
force per unit length FL (the default) (SI unit: N/m) or Edge load defined as force per
unit volume F (SI unit: N/m3). In the latter case the given load intensity is multiplied

310 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
by the cross section area. Enter values or expressions for the components of the Edge
load in the table.

Phase
Right-click an Edge Load or Point Load node to add a Phase node, which adds a phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

EDGE OR PO INT SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (edges or points) to add phase.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

PHASE
Add the phase load Fph (unit: rad) for harmonic loads. Enter the phase for each
component of the load in the corresponding fields.

Straight Edge Constraint

The Straight Edge Constraint controls the addition of an additional constraint, forcing
the edge to be straight; see Straight Edge Option. The default is to add the constraint.
Using this additional constraint removes the need to use a mesh with only one element
per edge. The problem with internal nodes is that they makes the problem singular
because the truss only has stiffness in the axial direction. The same applies when using
higher-order elements. The additional constraint increases the solution time, especially
for large 3D and transient problems.

BOUNDARY OR EDGE SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries or edges) to define the
straight edge constraint.

Pinned
The Pinned node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or point (2D and 3D) condition
that makes the edge, boundary, or point fixed; that is, the displacements are zero in all
directions.

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 311
 B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) that
are fixed.

PAIR SELECTION
If Pinned is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Prescribed Displacement
The Prescribed Displacement node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or point (2D
and 3D) condition where the displacements are prescribed in one or more directions.

If a prescribed displacement or rotation is not activated in any direction, this is the

same as a Free constraint.
If zero displacements are prescribed, this is the same as a Pinned constraint.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a displacement or rotation.

PAIR SELECTION
If Prescribed Displacement is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define.
An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

312 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT

To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction (x and y),

select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y
direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed
2D
displacements u0 and v0, (SI unit: m).

To define a prescribed displacement for each space direction (x, y, and z),
select one or all of the Prescribed in x, y, and z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, or w0
3D
(SI unit: m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Prescribed Velocity
The Prescribed Velocity node adds an edge, boundary, or point condition that
prescribes the velocity in one or more directions. The prescribed velocity condition is
applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this condition it is
possible to prescribe a velocity in one direction, leaving the truss free in the other
directions.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a velocity.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. The coordinate system

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 313
 selection is based on the geometric entity level. Coordinate systems with directions
which change with time should not be used.

P R E S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y

To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x and y), select
one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed velocity
2D
components vX and vY (SI unit: m/s).

To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x, y, and z), select
one or more of the Prescribed in x, y, and z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for the prescribed velocity components vX, vY,
3D
and vZ (SI unit: m/s).

Prescribed Acceleration
The Prescribed Acceleration node adds a boundary, edge, or point condition where the
acceleration is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed acceleration
condition is applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this
boundary condition it is possible to prescribe a acceleration in one direction, leaving
the truss free in the other directions.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe an acceleration.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Coordinate systems with
directions which change with time should not be used.

PRESCRIBED ACCELERATION

Select one or both of the Prescribed in x direction and Prescribed in y

direction check boxes then enter a value or expression for the prescribed
2D acceleration components aX and aY (SI unit: m/s2).

314 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
 Select one or more of the Prescribed in x, y, and z direction check boxes
then enter a value or expression for the prescribed acceleration
3D components aX, aY, and aZ (SI unit: m/s2).

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or point (2D and 3D)
condition that defines a symmetry edge, boundary, or point.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe symmetry.

PAIR SELECTION
If Symmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

SYMMETRY
Select an Axis to use as normal direction. This specifies the direction of the normal to
the symmetry plane in the selected coordinate system.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 315
 Antisymmetry
The Antisymmetry node adds an edge (3D), boundary (2D), or point (2D and 3D)
condition that defines an antisymmetry edge, boundary, or point.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe antisymmetry.

PAIR SELECTION
If Antisymmetry is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

ANTISYMMETRY
Select an Axis to use as normal direction. This specifies the direction of the normal to
the symmetry plane in the selected coordinate system.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

See Also

Point Mass
The Point Mass node adds a discrete mass that is concentrated at a point in contrast to
distributed mass modeled through the density and area of the truss element.
Right-click to add a Point Mass Damping subnode.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the point mass.

316 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
PAIR SELECTION
If Point Mass is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

PO IN T MA SS
Enter a Point mass m (SI unit: kg).

Point Mass Damping

Right-click the Point Mass to add a Point Mass Damping subnode and define the mass
damping parameter.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the point mass damping.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

PO IN T MASS DAMPIN G
Enter a Mass damping parameter dM (SI unit: 1/s).

T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 317
 Theory for the Truss Interface
The Truss Interface theory is described in this section:

About Trusses
Theory Background for the Truss Interface

About Trusses
Truss elements are elements that can only sustain axial forces. They have displacements
as degrees of freedom. Truss elements are sometimes referred to as bars or spars. They
live on boundaries in 2D and edges in 3D. The Truss interface supports the same study
types as the Solid Mechanics interface. Use trusses to model truss works where the
edges are straight but also to model sagging cables like the deformation of a wire
exposed to gravity. In such applications trusses are often referred to as cable elements.

I N - P L A N E TR U S S
Use the Truss interface in 2D to analyze planar lattice trusses or sagging cable-like
structures. The Truss interface is defined on edges in 2D.

Variables and Space Dimensions

The degrees of freedom (dependent variables) are the global displacements u and v in
the global x and y directions, respectively.

318 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
TR U S S ( 3 D )
Use the Truss interface to model three-dimensional trusses or sagging cable-like
structures. The Truss interface is defined on edges in 3D.

Variables and Space Dimensions

The degrees of freedom (dependent variables) are the global displacements u, v, and
w in the global x, y, and z directions, respectively.

Theory Background for the Truss Interface

Trusses are modeled using Lagrange shape function. The Lagrange shape function
makes it possible to specify both normal strains and Green-Lagrange strains to handle
small strains as well as large deformations.

STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATION
The axial strain n is calculated by expressing the global strains in tangential derivatives
and projecting the global strains on the edge.

t
n = t gT t

where t is the edge tangent vector and gT is defined as

xT xyT xzT
gT = xyT yT yzT
xzT yzT zT

T H E O R Y F O R T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 319
 The strains can be expressed as either engineering strains for small displacements or
Green-Lagrange strains for large displacements. The Green-Lagrange strain tensor
used for large displacements is defined as

1 u i u j u k u k
ijT = --- + +
2 xj xi xi xj
T T T T

The engineering strain tensor used for small displacements is defined as

1 u i u j
ijT = --- + (6-1)
2 xj xi
T T

The axial strain written out becomes

n = t x xT t x + xyT t y + xzT t z +
t y xyT t x + yT t y + yzT t z +
t z xzT t x + yzT t y + zT t z

STRESS-STRAIN RELATION
The constitutive relation for the axial stress including thermal strain and initial stress
and strain is

n = E n T T ref ni + ni (6-2)

In a geometrically nonlinear analysis, this equation should be interpreted as a relation

between Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange strains,

S n = E n T Tref ni + S ni

For output, the First Piola-Kirchhoff stress Pn is then computed from the Second
Piola-Kirchhoff stress using

P n = S n s'

where s is the ratio between current and initial length. The axial force in the element
is then computed as

N = Pn A0

where A0 is the undeformed cross-section area. The engineering (Cauchy) stress is

defined by

320 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
 A0
n = P n -------
A

where A is the deformed area of the element. For a linearly elastic material, the area
change is

A0 2
------- = 1 n
A

This is the only occasion where the Truss interface uses the Poissons ratio .

In a geometrically linear analysis all the stress representations have the same value, as
defined by Equation 6-2.

THERMAL COUPLING
Material expands with temperature, which causes thermal strains to develop in the
material. The trusses can handle any temperature variation along the truss. The
thermal strains together with the initial strains and elastic strains from structural loads
form the total strain.

= el + th + i

where

th = T Tref

Thermal coupling means that the thermal expansion is included in the analysis.

IMPLEMENTATION
Using the principle of virtual work results in the following weak formulation

u FPi
t t
W = d n n + u F V dV +
V i

where the summation stands for summation over all points in the geometry. Replacing
the integration over the cross section with the cross-sectional area (A) and the volume
forces with line forces, the equation becomes

ntest n A + utest FL dL + utest FPi

t t
W =
L i

T H E O R Y F O R T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 321
 STRAIGHT EDGE OPTION
The optional constraint to enforce the nodes to lie on the straight line between the end
points of the edge are formulated as follows:

Starting with the large displacement case, let xd1 and xd2 be the deformed position of
the two end points of the edge

x di = u i + x i (6-3)

where ui is the displacement, and xi is the coordinate (undeformed position) at end

point i. The equation for the straight line through the end points is

x + u = x d1 + ta (6-4)

where t is a parameter along the line, and a is the direction vector for the line. a is
calculated from the deformed position of the end points as

a = x d2 x d1

The constraints for the edge is derived by substituting the parameter t from one of the
scalar equations in Equation 6-4 into the remaining ones. In 2D the constraint
equations become

x + u x d1 a y y + v y d1 a x

In 3D the two constraints equations become

x + u x d1 a z z + w z d1 a x
y + v y d1 a z z + w z d1 a y

To avoid problems when the edge is directed in one of the coordinate axes directions,
a third constraint is added. This constraint is a linear combination of the two earlier
constraints:

y + v y d1 a x x + u x d1 a y

A linear constraint is needed in order for the solution of the small displacement
problem to become independent of the solver. The linear relation for the displacement
is

u 1 x n2 x n + u 2 x n x n1
u = ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + u ax x 2 x 1 (6-5)
x n2 x n1

322 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
where uax is the axial displacement along the edge, and xn are a linear parameter along
the edge

x x 2 x1 + y y2 y 1 + z z2 z1
x n = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2 2
x2 x1 + y2 y1 + z2 z1

Eliminating uax from Equation 6-5 results in the following linear constraint in 2D

u 1 x n2 x n + u 2 x n x n1
------------------------------------------------------------------------ u y 2 y 1
x n2 x n1
v 1 x n2 x n + v 2 x n x n1
---------------------------------------------------------------------- v x 2 x 1 = 0
x n2 x n1

and the following three linear constraints in 3D:

u 1 x n2 x n + u 2 x n x n1
------------------------------------------------------------------------ u z 2 z 1
x n2 x n1
w 1 x n2 x n + w 2 p x n1
----------------------------------------------------------------------- w x 2 x 1 = 0
x n2 x n1
v 1 x n2 x n + v 2 x n x n1
---------------------------------------------------------------------- v z 2 z 1
x n2 x n1
(6-6)
w 1 x n2 x n + w 2 x n x n1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- w y 2 y 1 = 0
x n2 x n1
v 1 x n2 x n + v 2 x n x n1
---------------------------------------------------------------------- v x 2 x 1
x n2 x n1
u 1 x n2 x n + u 2 x n x n1
------------------------------------------------------------------------ u y 2 y 1 = 0
x n2 x n1

T H E O R Y F O R T H E TR U S S I N T E R F A C E | 323
324 | C H A P T E R 6 : TR U S S E S
 7

Membranes

This chapter describes the Membrane interface, which you find under the
Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Membrane Interface

Theory for the Membrane Interface

325
 The Membrane Interface
The Membrane interface ( ) is found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in
the Model Wizard. Membranes can be considered as plane stress elements in 3D with a
possibility to deform both in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions. The difference
between a shell and a membrane is that the membrane does not have any bending
stiffness. When a membrane is used by itself, a tensile prestress is necessary in order to
avoid singularity, since a membrane with no stress or compressive stress has no
transverse stiffness.

This interface can be used to model prestressed membranes, but can also be used to
model a thin cladding on solids.

Since prestress is used in almost all cases, the interface is formulated so that it always
includes geometric nonlinearity. This property does not interact with the settings for
geometric nonlinearity within the study settings, which apply to other interfaces under
the Structural Mechanics branch.

The Linear Elastic Material node is the only available material model. It adds a linear
elastic equation for the displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic
material properties.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder:
Linear Elastic Material, Free (a condition where edges are free, with no loads or
constraints), and Initial Values.

Right-click the Membrane node to add other features that implement, for example,
loads and constraints. The following sections provide information about all features
available in this interface.

Vibrating Membrane: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Verification_Models/vibrating_membrane
Model

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables

326 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is mem.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
The default setting is to include All boundaries in the model to define the membrane.
To choose specific boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
Select an option from the Structural transient behavior listInclude inertial terms (the
default) or Quasi-static.

THICKNESS
Define the Thickness h by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in the field. The
default is 0.0001 m. Use the Change Thickness feature to define a different thickness
in parts of the membrane. The thickness can be variable if an expression is used.

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation xref (SI unit: m).
All summed moments (applied or as reactions) are then computed relative to this
reference point.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Displacement field u which has three
components (u, v, and w). The name can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Displacement field. Specify the
Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).

Show More Physics Options

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Membrane Interface
See Also
Theory for the Membrane Interface

THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 327

 Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Membrane
Interface
The Membrane Interface has the following boundary, edge, point, and pair conditions
available as indicated.

Edge Load
Face Load
Initial Stress and Strain
Initial Values
Linear Elastic Material
Prescribed Displacement

These features are described for the Solid Mechanics interface. The list also includes
subfeatures:

Added Mass
Body Load
Change Thickness
Damping
Fixed Constraint
Free
Phase
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Spring Foundation
Thermal Expansion

328 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal

Analysis

See Also Continuity on Interior Boundaries

Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide do not work in the PDF, only from the online help in COMSOL
Important Multiphysics.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Material feature adds the equations for a linear elastic membrane and
an interface for defining the elastic material properties. Right-click to add a Damping,
Thermal Expansion, or Initial Stress and Strain subnode.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define a linear elastic membrane and
compute the displacements, stresses, and strains.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
the coordinate systems in which the local in-plane equations can be formulated. The
coordinate system is used when stresses or strains are presented in a local system.

LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL

The Solid model is always set to Isotropic.

THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 329

 Specification of Elastic Properties for Isotropic Materials
Select a pair of elastic properties for an isotropic material:

Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus)
E (SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio (dimensionless). For an isotropic material
Youngs modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form is E
where is the stress and is the strain. Poissons ratio defines the normal strain in
the perpendicular direction, generated from a normal strain in the other direction
and follows the equation = .
Youngs modulus and shear modulus to specify Youngs modulus (elastic modulus)
E (SI unit: Pa) and the shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). For an isotropic material
Youngs modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form is E
where is the stress and is the strain. The shear modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to shear deformations.
Bulk modulus and shear modulus to specify the bulk modulus K (SI unit: Pa) and the
shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). The bulk modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to volume changes. The shear modulus is a measure of the solids
resistance to shear deformations.
Lam constants to specify the first and second Lam constants (SI unit: Pa) and
(SI unit: Pa).
Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds to specify the pressure-wave speed
(longitudinal wave speed) cp (SI unit: m/s) and the shear-wave speed (transverse
wave speed) cs (SI unit: m/s).

This is the wave speed for a solid continuum. In plane stress, for example,
the actual speed with which a longitudinal wave travels is lower than the
Note value given.

For each pair of properties, select from the applicable list to use the value From material
or enter a User defined value or expression.

Initial Stress and Strain

Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add an Initial Stress and Strain node,
which is the stress-strain state in the structure before applying any constraint or load.
Initial strain can, for instance, describe moisture-induced swelling, and initial stress can
describe stresses from heating.

330 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define the initial stress or strain.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate system that the model includes. The given initial stresses and
strains are interpreted in this system.

INITIAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Specify the initial stress as the Initial local in-plane force N0 (SI unit: N/m) and the
initial strain as the Initial local in-plane strain 0 (unitless).

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the displacement field and the
structural velocity field. It can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or
as an initial guess for a nonlinear analysis. Right-click to add additional Initial Values
features.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define initial values.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions in the applicable fields based on the space dimension. The
default value is 0 for all initial values of the Displacement field u (SI unit: m) and
du
Structural velocity field (SI unit: m/s).
dt

Face Load
Add a Face Load to boundaries to use it as a pressure or tangential force acting on a
surface. Right-click and add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain
computations.

THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 331

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define a face load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Specify the coordinate system to use for specifying the load. From the Coordinate
system list select from:

Global coordinate system (the default)

Boundary System (a predefined normal-tangential coordinate system)
Any additional user-defined coordinate system

FORCE
Select a Load typeLoad defined as force per unit area, Total force, or Pressure.

If Load defined as force per unit area is selected, enter values or expressions for the
components of the Load FA (SI unit: N/m2).
If Pressure is selected, enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). A
positive pressure is directed in the negative shell normal direction.

The pressure load is a follower load. The direction changes with

deformation.
Note

If Total force is selected, enter values or expressions in the components of the Total
force Ftot (SI unit: N).

Edge Load
Add an Edge Load as a force distributed along an edge. Also right-click and add a Phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.

EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define an edge load.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

332 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

FORCE
From the Load type list, select the definition of the force load. Select one of the
following and then enter values or expressions for the components in the table.

Load defined as force per unit length FL (SI unit: N/m)

Load defined as force per unit area FA (SI unit: N/m2)
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N)

Prescribed Displacement
The Prescribed Displacement feature adds a condition where the displacements are
prescribed in one or more directions to the geometric entity (boundary, edge, or
point).

If a displacement is prescribed in one direction, this leaves the membrane free to

deform in the other directions.

If a prescribed displacement is not activated in any direction, this is the

same as a Free constraint.
If a zero displacement is applied in all directions, this is the same as a
Note
Fixed Constraint.

B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (boundaries, edges, or points) to
prescribe a displacement.

PAIR SELECTION
If Prescribed Displacement is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define.
An identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. If you choose another, local
coordinate system, the displacement components change accordingly.

THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 333

 PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT
Define the prescribed displacements.

For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or both of the Prescribed in r

direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
2D Axi expression for the prescribed displacements u0 or w0 (SI unit: m).

For 3D models, select one or more of the Prescribed in x direction,

Prescribed in y direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for the prescribed displacements u0, v0, or w0
3D
(SI unit: m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, select click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required,
select the Use weak constraints check box.

Using Weak Constraints to Evaluate Reaction Forces

Using Weak Constraints in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

334 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

Theory for the Membrane Interface
The Membrane Interface theory is described in this section:

About Membranes
Theory Background for the Membrane Interface

About Membranes
Membranes are can be considered as plane stress elements in 3D with a possibility to
deform both in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions. The difference between a
shell and a membrane is that the membrane does not have any bending stiffness. The
Membrane Interface supports the same study types as the Solid Mechanics interface
except it does not include the Linear Buckling study type.

To describe a membrane, provide its thickness and the elastic material properties. All
properties may be variable over the element. All elemental quantities are integrated
only at the midsurface and this is a good approximation since by definition a membrane
is thin.

The interface is intended to model either prestressed membranes or a thin cladding on

top of a solid.

STIFFNESS IN THE NORMAL DIRECTION

If membrane elements are used separately, a prestress is necessary in order to avoid a
singularity since they have no stiffness in the normal direction. It is the geometrically
nonlinear effects (stress stiffening) which supplies the out-of-plane stiffness. A
prestress can be given either through initial stress and strain or through a tensile
boundary load. Prestress is not necessary in the case where inertia effects are included
in a dynamic analysis. A small prestress may however still be useful to stabilize the
analysis in the initial state.

MEMBRANES - 3D MODELS
The Membrane interface in 3D can be active on internal and external boundaries of a
domain, as well as on boundaries not adjacent to any domain.

The dependent variables are the displacements u, v, and w in the global x, y, and z
directions, and the displacement derivative unn in the direction normal to the
membrane.

THEORY FOR THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 335

 MEMBRANES - 2D AXISYMMETRIC MODELS
The Membrane interface for 2D axisymmetric models can be active on internal and
external edges of a solid, as well as on edges not adjacent to a solid.

The dependent variables are the displacements u and w in the global r and z directions,
and the displacement derivative unn in the direction normal to the membrane in r-z
plane.

Theory Background for the Membrane Interface

A 3D membrane is similar to a shell. It has, however, only translational degrees of
freedom and the results are invariant in thickness direction.

The thickness of the membrane is h, which can vary over the element. The
displacements are interpolated by the n:th order Lagrange basis functions.

A 2D axisymmetric membrane is similar to the 3D membrane and it has a non-zero

circumferential strain in the out-of-plane direction.

STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATION
The local tangential strains in the membrane are calculated by expressing the global
strains in tangential derivatives and projecting the global strains on the membrane.

t
= t gT t (7-1)

where is the local in-plane strain tensor (2x2) and gT in 3D is defined as

xT xyT xzT
gT = xyT yT yzT
xzT yzT zT

in cases of 2D axisymmetry, gT reduces to

rT 0 rzT

gT = u-
0 --- 0
R
rzT 0 zT

where u is the displacement in global R direction and R is the radial coordinate.

336 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

In Equation 7-1, t is the matrix containing two tangential directions of the membrane
in a 3D model and an edge tangent vector of the membrane and out-of-plane direction
in 2D axisymmetric models.

The strains can are expressed as Green strains for large displacements. The Green strain
tensor is defined as

1 u i u j u k u k
ijT = --- + +
2 xj xi xi xj
T T T T

The local strain tensor (3x3) is defined using local in-plane strain tensor () and given
by

xT xyT 0
l =
xyT yT 0
0 0 en

where en is a normal strain (an additional degree of freedom) and defined as a

dependent variable, which has a shape function one order less than the shape function
of the displacement field.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION AND WEAK EQUATIONS

The constitutive relation for the membrane on the reference surface is similar to that
of linear elastic continuum mechanics. It should be interpreted as a relation between
second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green strains, since the equations in this interface
always assume geometric nonlinearity.

The thermal strains and initial stresses-strains (only in in-plane directions of the
membrane) are added in the constitutive relation in a similar manner as it is done in
linear elastic continuum mechanics.

The weak equations in the Membrane interface are similar to that of linear elastic
continuum mechanics.

EXTERNAL LOADS
Contributions to the virtual work from the external load are of the form

u test F

THEORY FOR THE MEMBRANE INTERFACE | 337

 where the forces (F) can be distributed over a boundary or an edge or be concentrated
in a point. In the special case of a follower load, defined by its pressure p, the force
intensity is

F = pn

For a follower load, the change in midsurface area is taken into account, and
integration of the load is done in spatial frame.

STRESS CALCULATIONS
The strains are calculated in the element as described above The stresses are computed
by applying the constitutive law to the computed strains.

The membrane does not support transverse and bending forces and the only section
forces it support is the membrane force and defined as:

N = hs

where s is the local stress tensor and contains only in-plane stress components.

LOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Many quantities for a membrane can best be interpreted in a local coordinate system
aligned to the membrane surface. Material data, initial stresses-strains, and constitutive
laws are always represented in the local coordinate system.

This local membrane surface coordinate system is defined by the boundary coordinate
system (t1,t2,n).

The quantities like stresses and strains are also available in global coordinate systems
after doing a transformation from a local (boundary) to a global coordinate system.

338 | CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANES

 8

Multiphysics Interfaces

The Structural Mechanics Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces to

facilitate easy set up of models with the most commonly occurring couplings. Three
of the interfaces are found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model
WizardThermal Stress, Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion, and Piezoelectric
Devices. The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface is found under the Fluid Flow
branch ( ). In this chapter:

The Thermal Stress Interface

The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
Theory for the Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface
The Piezoelectric Devices Interface
Theory for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface

If you also have the Subsurface Flow Module or Geomechanics Module, the
Poroelasticity interface is also available. See the Subsurface Flow Module Users
Guide or Geomechanics Module Users Guide for details.

339
 If you also have the Acoustics Module, the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Acoustic-Shell
Interaction, and Acoustic-Piezoelectric Interaction interfaces are also available. See the
Acoustics Module Users Guide for details.

340 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Thermal Stress Interface
The Thermal Stress interface ( ), found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( )
in the Model Wizard, combines a Solid Mechanics interface with a Heat Transfer
interface. The coupling occurs on the domain level, where the temperature from the
Heat Transfer interface acts as a thermal load for the Solid Mechanics interface, causing
thermal expansion. The interface has the equations and features for stress analysis and
general linear and nonlinear solid mechanics, solving for the displacements. It also
includes the equations and features for heat transfer. By default, thermal expansion is
included.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Thermal Linear Elastic Material (the default material model, which adds a linear elastic
equation for the displacements and the heat equation for the temperature), Free (a
boundary condition where boundaries are free, with no loads or constraints), Thermal
Insulation, and Initial Values. Right-click the Thermal Stress node to add other features
that implement, for example, loads, constraints, heat sources, and nonlinear material
models.

Fuel Cell Bipolar Plate: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Thermal-Structure_Interaction/bipolar_plate

If you also have the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, see

Model Viscoplastic Creep in Solder Joints: Model Library path
Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Viscoplasticity/
viscoplastic_solder_joints

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ts.

THE THERMAL STRESS INTERFACE | 341

 DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the displacements
and the equations that describe the solid mechanics. To choose specific domains, select
Manual from the Selection list.

2D APPROXIMATION

From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain. When
modeling using plane stress, the interface solves for the out-of-plane strain
2D components in addition to the displacement field u.

THICKNESS

Enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models, where it represents a a
unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress models, enter the actual
thickness, which should be small compared to the size of the plate for the
plane stress assumption to be valid. In rare cases, when thickness is
2D
changed in parts of the geometry; then use the Change Thickness feature.
This thickness also controls the thickness dz, active in the separate Heat
Transfer interface for 2D out-of-plane heat transfer.

S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Quasi-static or Include inertial terms to
treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass effects; that is, no second-order
time derivatives) or as a mechanical wave in a time-dependent study. The default is to
use the quasi-static behavior for a time-dependent thermal stress study. Select Include
inertial terms to model the structural behavior in a time-dependent study as a
mechanical wave.

REFERENCE PO INT F OR MO MENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates of the Reference point for moment computation xref (SI unit: m).
All moments are then computed relative to this reference point.

TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D F O R P E R F E C T L Y M A T C H E D L A Y E R S
The typical wave speed cref is a parameter for the perfectly matched layers (PMLs) if
used in a solid wave propagation model. The default value is ts.cp, the pressure-wave

342 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

speed. If you want to use another wave speed, enter a value or expression in the Typical
wave speed for perfectly matched layers field.

PHYSICAL MODEL

If you also have the Heat Transfer Module, the out-of-plane heat transfer,
surface-to-surface radiation, and radiation in participating media options
are available in this section and described in the Heat Transfer Module
Tip
Users Guide.

For 2D models, select either the Out-of-plane heat transfer model or

Surface-to-surface radiation check boxes. When surface-to-surface
radiation is active, a Radiation Settings section displays. You can also select
2D
the Radiation in Participating Media check box.

Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to include

surface-to-surface heat radiation in the model. When surface-to-surface
radiation is active, a Radiation Settings section displays. You can also select
3D
the Radiation in Participating Media check box.

RADIATION SETTINGS

If you have the Heat Transfer Module, then this section can be made
available. To display this section select the Surface-to-surface radiation
Note check box under Physical Model.

Select a Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube (the default) or Direct area

integration. See the Heat Transfer interface documentation for details.

If Hemicube is selected, select a Radiation resolution. 256 is the default.

If Direct area integration is selected, select a Radiation integration order. 4 is the
default.

For either method, also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability
to define radiation groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation
calculations.

THE THERMAL STRESS INTERFACE | 343

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Displacement field u and its
components, the Temperature T, and (for surface-to-surface radiation) the Surface
radiosity J. The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables
must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

Select an Element typeMixed order (the default) or Equal order. Mixed order means
that the Thermal Stress interface uses shape functions that are one order higher for the
displacements than for the temperature. Select U1+T1, U2+T1 (the default), U3+T2, or
U4+T3 for the Thermal stress fields for mixed-order elements or the corresponding
element-order combinations for equal-order elements. U2+T1, for example, means
second-order elements for the displacements and first-order elements for the
temperature.

For the thermal radiation, if applicable, select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic,
Quartic, or (in 2D) Quintic for the Surface radiosity. Specify the Value type when using
splitting of complex variablesReal (the default) or Complex.

For information about the constitutive equations including thermal

expansion in the section dealing with the theory background, see Theory
Tip for the Solid Mechanics Interface

Show More Physics Options

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Thermal
See Also Stress Interface

344 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Thermal
Stress Interface
Because The Thermal Stress Interface is a multiphysics interface, almost every feature
is shared with, and described for, other interfaces. Below are links to the domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair features as indicated.

These features are described in this section:

Initial Values
Thermal Hyperelastic Material
Thermal Linear Elastic Material
Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material

These features are described for the Heat Transfer interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide (listed in alphabetical order):

The links to features described the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

do not work in the PDF, only from within the online help.
Important

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Boundary Heat Source

Heat Flux
Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids
Heat Transfer in Solids
Line Heat Source
Outflow
Point Heat Source
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Symmetry

THE THERMAL STRESS INTERFACE | 345

 Temperature
Thermal Insulation
Thin Thermally Resistive Layer and Pair Thin Thermally Resistive Layer

These features are described for Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical order):

Added Mass
Antisymmetry
Body Load
Boundary Load
Contact
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint
Free
Linear Elastic Material
Linear Viscoelastic Material
Periodic Condition
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Prescribed Acceleration
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity
Rigid Connector
Roller
Spring Foundation
Symmetry
Thin Elastic Layer

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds initial values for the displacement field (the displacement
components u, v, and w in 3D), the temperature, and the surface radiosity (applicable
for surface-to-surface radiation only) that can serve as an initial condition for a

346 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear analysis. Right-click to add
additional Initial Values nodes.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define initial values.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Displacement field u (default
value 0 m) and of the Temperature T (default value 293.15 K).

Thermal Linear Elastic Material

The Thermal Linear Elastic Material node combines a linear elastic material with thermal
expansion. In the Thermal Linear Elastic Material settings window, the elastic material
properties are defined in the Linear Elastic Material section and the thermal expansion
properties are defined in the Thermal Expansion section.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define initial values.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Prescribed displacements
or rotations are specified along the axes of this coordinate system.

LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIAL

See the Linear Elastic Material node for details about this section and as
described for the Solid Mechanics interface.
Note

THERMAL EXPANSION
By default, the Coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K) is taken From material.
Select User defined to enter a value or expression for , then select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter one or more components for a general thermal
expansion coefficient vector vec.

THE THERMAL STRESS INTERFACE | 347

 Enter a value or expression for the Strain reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). This
is the reference temperature that defines the change in temperature together with the
actual temperature. The default is 293.15 K.

HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If User
defined is selected, choose Isotropic to define a scalar value, or Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Anisotropic to enter other values or expressions in the field or matrix.

THERMODYNAMICS
The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)) is taken From
material. If User defined is selected, enter a value.

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface and

Modeling with Geometric Nonlinearity
Study Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide
See Also
Adding Study Steps in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

THERMAL LINEAR ELASTIC

Right-click the Thermal Linear Elastic node to add Initial Stress and Strain and Damping.
The sections on these pages are the same as for the Solid Mechanics interface.

With the addition of the Heat Transfer Module or the CFD Module,
right-click the Thermal Linear Elastic Material node to add a Pressure Work
Note node.

Thermal Hyperelastic Material

The Thermal Hyperelastic Material feature combines a hyperelastic material with thermal
expansion.

With the Heat Transfer Module or the CFD Module, right-click the
Thermal Hyperelastic Material node to add a Pressure Work node.
Note

348 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define initial values.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. Prescribed displacements
or rotations are specified along the axes of this coordinate system.

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL
Select a hyperelastic Material modelNeo-Hookean, Mooney-Rivlin, Murnaghan, or User
defined. Then see below for details about each selection.

For any selection, the material Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material by
default. Select User defined to enter a different value or expression.

Neo-Hookean
If Neo-Hookean is selected as the Material model, the default values for both Lam
constant (SI unit: Pa) and Lam constant (SI unit: Pa) use values From material.
Select User defined to enter different values or variables.

To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra

dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box, and
enter a value for the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa) and Lam constant (SI unit:
Pa).

Mooney-Rivlin
If Mooney-Rivlin is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters C10 (SI unit: Pa)
and C01 (SI unit: Pa) use values From material. Select User defined to enter different
values or variables. Enter the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).

Murnaghan
If Murnaghan is selected as the Material model, the Murnaghan third-order elastic moduli
constants l (SI unit: Pa), m (SI unit: Pa), and n (SI unit: Pa) and the Lam constants
(SI unit: Pa) and (SI unit: Pa) use values From material. Select User defined to enter
different values or variables for the constants as required.

User defined
If User defined is selected as the Material model, enter an expression for the Strain energy
density Ws (SI unit: J/m3).

To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra

dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box,

THE THERMAL STRESS INTERFACE | 349

 then enter the Isochoric strain energy density Wsiso (SI unit: J/m3) and the Volumetric
strain energy density Wsvol (SI unit: J/m3).

For the rest of the settings, see Thermal Linear Elastic Material for details
about the Thermal Expansion, Heat Conduction, and Thermodynamics
Note sections.

Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material

The Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material combines a viscoelastic material with thermal
effects. In this settings window, the viscoelastic material properties are defined in the
Long-Term Elastic Properties and Generalized Maxwell Model sections.

Right-click the Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material node to add an Initial Stress and
Strain node. The settings window for this node is the same as for the Solid Mechanics
interface.

L O N G - TE R M E L A S T I C P R O P E R T I E S A N D G E N E R A L I Z E D M A X W E L L M O D E L

Linear Viscoelastic Material

See Also

THERMAL EFFECTS

Thermal Effects
See Also

For the rest of the settings, see Thermal Linear Elastic Material for details
about the Heat Conduction, Thermodynamics, and Geometric Nonlinearity
Note sections.

350 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

T he Flui d- S tr uc t u re In t erac t i on
Interface
The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow branch ( )
in the Model Wizard, has the equations and features for fluid-structure interaction,
solving for the displacements, fluid velocity, and fluid pressure. All functionality from
the solid mechanics and fluid-flow interfaces is accessible for modeling the solid and
fluid domains under the Laminar Flow (the default) and Solid Mechanics submenus. On
the solid and boundary level, material models, sources, loads, and boundary conditions
for the individual physics is also accessible.

The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface in available for planar 2D,

axisymmetric 2D, and 3D geometries.
2D
In planar 2D, the interface uses the assumption that the structures deform
2D Axi
in the plane strain regime. This means that the interpretation of the results
are values per meter thickness, and there is no specific thickness to
specify.
3D

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Linear Elastic Material, and Free Deformation (for the mesh movement
and default boundary conditions) in the domains; Wall (for the fluid), Prescribed Mesh
Displacement (for the mesh movement), and Free (for the solid mechanics, which
initially is not applicable to any boundary because the default settings assume a fluid
domain) as default boundary conditions; and Initial Values. In addition, for the
fluid-solid boundary, a Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary node adds the fluid-structure
interaction. This node is only applicable to interior fluid-solid boundaries.

Right-click Fluid-Structure Interaction to add other nodes that implement, for example,
loads, constraints, and nonlinear materials for the solid domain. The Fluid-Structure
Interaction page contains the following sections plus additional sections that are similar

THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 351

 to those for interface nodes settings windows for fluid flow, solid mechanics, and
moving mesh interfaces.

The Fluid-Structure Interaction interface default is to treat all domains as

fluid. The Linear Elastic Material node, which is the default node for the
solid domain, initially has an empty selection. When a solid mechanics
material is added to the solid domains, the interface automatically
Note identifies the fluid-solid interaction boundaries and assigns the Fluid-Solid
Interface Boundary condition to those boundaries. Two materials are
typically defined in an FSI model: one for the fluid and one for the solid.

For an overview of available variables for monitoring and plotting the

moving mesh, see Predefined Variables in the The Deformed Geometry
and Moving Mesh Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.
Note Note, however, that the variables in the Fluid-Structure Interaction
interface use the identifier fsi instead of ale.

Peristaltic Pump: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/

Fluid-Structure_Interaction/peristaltic_pump
Model

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is fsi.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define fluid-structure
interaction (domains representing the fluid and the solid). To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.

FREE DEFORMATION SETTINGS

Select a Mesh smoothing typeWinslow (the default), Laplace, or Hyperelastic.

352 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
Select a CompressibilityCompressible flow (Ma<0.3) or Incompressible flow.

Depending or your license, the settings in the Physical Model section can also include
selections of a turbulence model, Stokes flow, and channel flow approximation.

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation, xref
(SI unit: m). All moments are then computed relative to this reference point.

TY P I C A L W AV E S P E E D F O R PE R F E C T L Y M A T C H E D L A Y E R S
The typical wave speed cref is a parameter for the perfectly matched layers (PMLs) if
used in a solid wave propagation model. The default value is fsi.cp, the
pressure-wave speed. If you want to use another wave speed, enter a value or
expression in the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers field.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variables) include the following. The turbulence
variables are only active if the fluid-flow part uses a turbulence model. The name can
be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3)
Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s3)
Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
Displacement field usolid (SI unit: m)
Velocity field ufluid (SI unit: m/s)

For modeling using a memory-efficient form, there are also dependent variables for the
corrected velocity field and its components and for the corrected pressure.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select a
Discretization of fluidsP1+P1, P2+P1 (the default), or P3+P2. Select a Displacement
fieldLinear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic. Specify the Value type when
using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).

THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 353

 CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. Any settings
unique to this interface are listed below.

The consistent stabilization methods are available for the Navier-Stokes equations.
The Isotropic diffusion inconsistent stabilization method is available for the
Navier-Stokes equations.

Show More Physics Options

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the
Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
See Also Theory for the Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
Basic Modeling Steps for Fluid-Structure Interaction

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the

Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface
Because The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface is a multiphysics interface, almost
every feature is shared with, and described for, other interfaces. Below are links to the
domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair features as indicated.

These features are unique to the interface and described in this section:

Initial Values
Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary

These features are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):

Added Mass
Antisymmetry
Body Load
Boundary Load
Contact
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint
Free

354 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Linear Elastic Material
Linear Viscoelastic Material
Periodic Condition
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Prescribed Acceleration
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity
Rigid Connector
Roller
Spring Foundation
Symmetry
Thin Elastic Layer
These features are described for the Moving Mesh interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:

The links to features described the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

do not work in the PDF, only from within the online help.
Important

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Fixed Mesh
Free Deformation
Prescribed Deformation
Prescribed Mesh Displacement

These features are described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide (listed in alphabetical order):

Boundary Stress
Flow Continuity

THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 355

 Fluid Properties
Inlet
Open Boundary
Outlet
Periodic Flow Condition
Pressure Point Constraint
Symmetry
Volume Force
Wall

About Infinite Element Domains and Perfectly Matched Layers

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also Identity and Contact Pairs

Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for pressure, turbulent dissipation rate,
turbulent kinetic energy, reciprocal wall distance, displacement field and velocity field.

These variables can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear analysis. If more than one set of initial values is required,
right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define an initial value.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter the initial values as values or expressions. The variables for turbulence are only
valid for fluid flow using a turbulence model.

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Turbulent dissipation rate p (ep) (SI unit: m2/s3)
Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s3)
Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)

356 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Displacement field usolid (SI unit: m)
Velocity field ufluid (SI unit: m/s)

Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary

The Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary condition defines the fluid load on the structure and
how structural displacements affect the fluids velocity.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The fluid-solid boundaries are automatically included. The default setting

is to include All boundaries in the model.
Note

Prescribed Mesh Displacement

Use the Prescribed Mesh Displacement condition on the boundary of domains with free
deformation. The spatial frame in the adjacent domain moves in accordance with the
displacement.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define a prescribed mesh
displacement. The default setting is to include all boundaries in the model.

PRESCRIBED MESH DISPLACEMENT

Select one or all of the Prescribed x, y, and z displacement (SI unit: m) check boxes to
enter values or expressions for each coordinate.

Interior Wall

If you have a CFD Module or Heat Transfer Module, the Interior Wall
boundary condition is also available and is documented in the CFD
Module Users Guide or Heat Transfer Module Users Guide,
respectively. This boundary condition is useful for avoiding meshing of
Tip
thin wall structures by using no-slip conditions on interior curves and
surfaces.

THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 357

 Basic Modeling Steps for Fluid-Structure Interaction
The following steps describe the basics of how to set up a model of fluid-structure
interaction:

1 In the Model Wizard, select the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface ( ) on the Add
Physics page; then click Next ( ).
2 Select Stationary ( ) or Time Dependent ( ) from the Preset Studies branch on
the Select Study Type list; then click Finish ( ).
3 Create the geometry, which should contain a fluid domain and a solid domain.
4 Add the materials, typically a fluid and a solid. Then assign the material added last
to the domains that represents the solid (or the fluid, if the solid material was added
first).
5 By default, the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface adds a Fluid Properties node for
the fluid domain as well as a Free Deformation node for the mesh displacements in
the moving mesh to all domains in the geometry. For the solid domain, the default
is the Linear Elastic Material node with the setting to include geometric nonlinearity
and an initially empty selection. To use another material model for the solid,
right-click the Fluid-Structure Interaction node and from the Solid Mechanics
submenu, in the top section of the context menu, select a material node for the
solid. Add the domains that represent the solid to its selection. That selection
automatically overrides the Fluid Properties and Free Deformation nodes in the solid.

Typically, fluid-structure interaction means that there are large

deformations. In this case, the Include geometric nonlinearity check box
should be selected in the Geometric Nonlinearity section of the settings
Tip window for the solid material if other solid mechanics material nodes are
used (other than the one that is added by default).

6 Verify that the default boundary conditions are correctly assigned for the three types
of boundaries in the model: the Wall node for all fluid boundaries (and a Prescribed
Mesh Displacement node for zero mesh displacements on the same boundaries), the
Free node for all solid boundaries, and the Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary node on the
interior boundaries between the fluid and the solid. The Fluid-Solid Interface
Boundary node implements the coupling from the force exerted on the solid
boundary by the fluid as well as the as the structural velocities acting on the fluid as
a moving wall.

358 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

7 Add additional boundary conditions as needed. Typically the fluid domain needs an
Inlet node and an Outlet node for the inflow and outflow boundaries, respectively.
Add these nodes by right-clicking the Fluid-Structure Interaction node and then
select Laminar Flow>Inlet and Laminar Flow>Outlet (if the fluid is laminar). The solid
domain needs some constraint such as a Fixed Constraint at some boundary.
8 Create the mesh and check that it resolves the domains sufficiently. A finer mesh
might be needed other than what the default mesh settings provide.
9 To solve the problem, right-click the Study node and select Compute. The solver
settings might require some adjustments depending on the characteristics of the
model.
10 Also add additional physics to the model such as Joule heating, thermal expansion,
or conjugate heat transfer, if applicable.

THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 359

 Theory for the Fluid-Structure
Interaction Interface
The Fluid-Structure Interaction Interface combines fluid flow with solid mechanics to
capture the interaction between the fluid and the solid structure. A Solid Mechanics
interface and a Single-Phase Flow interface model the solid and the fluid, respectively.
The Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) couplings appear on the boundaries between
the fluid and the solid. The interface uses an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
method to combine the fluid flow formulated using an Eulerian description and a
spatial frame with solid mechanics formulated using a Lagrangian description and a
material (reference) frame.

The fluid flow is described by the Navier-Stokes equations, which provide a solution
for the velocity field ufluid. The total force exerted on the solid boundary by the fluid
is the negative of the reaction force on the fluid,

f = n pI + u fluid + u fluid T --- u fluid I
2
(8-1)
3

where p denotes pressure, the dynamic viscosity for the fluid, n the outward normal
to the boundary, and I the identity matrix. Because the Navier-Stokes equations are
solved in the spatial (deformed) frame while the solid mechanics interfaces are defined
in the material (undeformed) frame, a transformation of the force is necessary. This is
done according to

dv
F = f --------
dV

where dv and dV are the mesh element scale factors for the spatial frame and the
material (reference) frame, respectively.

The coupling in the other direction consists of the structural velocities

u solid
t

(the rate of change for the displacement of the solid), which act as a moving wall for
the fluid domain. The predefined Fluid-Solid Interface Boundary condition includes
these couplings for bidirectionally coupled FSI simulations.

360 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The solid mechanics formulation supports geometric nonlinearity (large
deformations). The spatial frame also deforms with a mesh deformation that is equal
to the displacements usolid of the solid within the solid domains. The mesh is free to
move inside the fluid domains, and it adjusts to the motion of the solid walls. This
geometric change of the fluid domain is automatically accounted for in COMSOL
Multiphysics by the ALE method.

THEORY FOR THE FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACE | 361

 The Joule Heating and Thermal
Expansion Interface
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion interface ( ), found under the Structural
Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, is a combination of the Solid Mechanics,
Electric Currents, and Heat Transfer interfaces, and it includes as predefined
couplings:

A Joule Heating Model and an Electromagnetic Heat Source

A Thermal Linear Elastic default model for the thermal-structural coupling

You can use this multiphysics interface for coupled thermal, electrical, and structural
analysis of, for example, the movement of some actuator, where an electric current
causes a temperature increase, which in turn leads to a displacement through thermal
expansion.

In addition, all other features from the individual physics interfaces are accessible.

Thermal Microactuator: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Thermal-Structure_Interaction/
Model thermal_actuator_tem_parameterized

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier edit
field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is tem.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define Joule heating and
thermal expansion. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the Selection list.

362 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

2D APPROXIMATION

From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain. When
modeling using plane stress, the interface solves for the out-of-plane strain
2D components in addition to the displacement field u.

THICKNESS

For 2D models, enter a value or expression for the Thickness d

(SI unit: m). The default value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models,
where it represents a a unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress
models, enter the actual thickness, which should be small compared to the
size of the plate for the plane stress assumption to be valid.
2D In rare cases, when changing the thickness in parts of the geometry; then
use the Change Thickness feature. This thickness also controls the
thickness dz, active in the separate Heat Transfer interface for 2D
out-of-plane heat transfer.

S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Quasi-static or Include inertial terms to
treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass effects; that is, no second-order
time derivatives) or as a mechanical wave in a time-dependent study. The default is to
use the quasi-static behavior for a time-dependent study. Select Include inertial terms
to model the structural transient behavior as a mechanical wave.

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION

Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation xref (SI unit: m).
All moments are then computed relative to this reference point.

SWEEP SETTINGS
Select the Activate terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific
name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep.
The generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance matrix elements. The
terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed voltage or fixed charge type.

THE JOULE HEATING AND THERMAL EXPANSION INTERFACE | 363

 The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file.

Select an Output format for the Touchstone exportMagnitude angle, Magnitude (dB)
angle, or Real imaginary. Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is
50 .

PHYSICAL MODEL

If you have the Heat Transfer Module, the out-of-plane heat transfer,
surface-to-surface radiation, and radiation in participating media options
are available in this section and described in the Heat Transfer Module
Tip
Users Guide.

For 2D models, select either the Out-of-plane heat transfer model or

Surface-to-surface radiation check boxes. When surface-to-surface
radiation is active, a Radiation Settings section displays. You can also select
2D
the Radiation in Participating Media check box.

For 3D models, select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to include

surface-to-surface heat radiation in the model. When surface-to-surface
radiation is active, a Radiation Settings section appears. You can also select
3D
the Radiation in Participating Media check box.

RADIATION SETTINGS

To display this section select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box

under Physical Model. Surface-to-surface radiation requires the Heat
Note Transfer Module.

Select a Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube (the default) or Direct area

integration. See the Heat Transfer interface documentation for details.

If Hemicube is selected, select a Radiation resolution. 256 is the default.

If Direct area integration is selected, select a Radiation integration order. 4 is the
default.

364 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

For either method, also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability
to define radiation groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation
calculations.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or (in 2D) Quintic for the order of the elements for
each of these variablesElectric potential, Displacement field, Temperature, Surface
radiosity, and Radiative intensity. The default is to use quadratic elements for the electric
potential, displacements, and temperature, and to use linear elements for the surface
radiosity. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or
Complex (the default).

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variables (field variables) include the following. The names can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

Electric potential V (SI unit: V)

Displacement field u (SI unit: m) and its components
Temperature T (SI unit: K)
Surface radiosity J and the Radiative intensities (SI unit: W/m2) for
surface-to-surface radiation

Show More Physics Options

Initial Values

See Also Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Joule
Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for electric potential, displacement field,
temperature, and surface radiosity. These variables can serve as an initial condition for

THE JOULE HEATING AND THERMAL EXPANSION INTERFACE | 365

 a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear analysis. Right-click to add
additional Initial Values nodes.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define an initial value.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter the initial values as values or expressions for Electric potential V (SI unit: V),
Displacement field u (SI unit: m), and Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values
are 0 except for the temperature, which has a default initial value of 293.15 K.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the Joule
Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface
Because The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface is a multiphysics
interface, every feature (except Initial Values) is shared with, and described for, other
interfaces. Below are links to the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair features as
indicated.

These features are described for the Thermal Stress interface:

Thermal Hyperelastic Material

Thermal Linear Elastic Material
Thermal Linear Viscoelastic Material

These features are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):

Added Mass
Antisymmetry
Body Load
Boundary Load
Contact
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint
Free
Linear Elastic Material

366 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Linear Viscoelastic Material
Periodic Condition
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Prescribed Acceleration
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity
Rigid Connector
Roller
Spring Foundation
Symmetry
Thin Elastic Layer
These features are described for the Electric Currents and Electrostatics interfaces in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide (listed in alphabetical order):

Boundary Current Source

Contact Impedance
Current Conservation
Current Source
Distributed Impedance
Electric Insulation
Electric Potential
External Current Density
Ground
Line Current Source
Line Current Source (on Axis)
Normal Current Density
Point Current Source
Sector Symmetry

These features are described for the Heat Transfer and Joule Heating interfaces in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source

THE JOULE HEATING AND THERMAL EXPANSION INTERFACE | 367

 Boundary Heat Source
Electromagnetic Heat Source
Heat Flux
Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids
Heat Transfer in Solids
Joule Heating Model
Line Heat Source
Outflow
Point Heat Source
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Symmetry
Temperature
Thermal Insulation
Thin Thermally Resistive Layer

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Using Symmetries
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

The links to features described the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

do not work in the PDF, only from within the online help.
Important

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

368 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Piezoelectric Devices Interface
The Piezoelectric Devices interface ( ), found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, combines Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics for
modeling of piezoelectric devices, for which all or some of the domains contain a
piezoelectric material. The interface has the equations and features for modeling
piezoelectric devices, solving for the displacements and the electric potential.

The piezoelectric coupling can be presented in stress-charge or strain-charge form. All

solid mechanics and electrostatics functionality for modeling is also accessible to
include surrounding linear elastic solids or air domains. For example, add any solid
mechanics material for other solid domain, a dielectric model for air, or a combination.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Piezoelectric Material, Free (for the solid mechanics and default boundary conditions),
Zero Charge (for the electric potential), and Initial Values. Right-click the Piezoelectric
Devices node to add other features that implement, for example, loads, constraints, and
solid mechanics and electric materials. In 2D and 2D axial symmetry, adding a
Piezoelectric Devices interface also adds predefined base-vector coordinate systems for
the materials (in the plane 2D case) XY-, YZ-, ZX-, YX-, XZ-, and XY-planes. These
additional coordinate systems are useful for simplifying the material orientation for the
piezoelectric material.

All functionality from the Solid Mechanics and Electric Current interfaces is
accessible for modeling the solid and electric properties and
non-piezoelectric domains. Only the features unique to this interface are
described in this section. For details about the shared features see:

Note The Solid Mechanics Interface

The Electrostatics Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide

Piezoelectric Shear-Actuated Beam: Model Library path

Structural_Mechanics_Module/Piezoelectric_Effects/shear_bender
Model

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 369

 INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is pzd.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.

2D APPROXIMATION

From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain (the
default). When modeling using plane stress, the Piezoelectric Devices
interface solves for the out-of-plane strain components in addition to the
2D
displacement field u.

THICKNESS

Enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models, where it represents a a
unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress models, enter the actual
thickness, which should be small compared to the size of the plate for the
2D
plane stress assumption to be valid. In rare cases, use a Change Thickness
node to change thickness in parts of the geometry.

S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Quasi-static or Include inertial terms to
treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass effects; that is, no second-order
time derivatives) or as a mechanical wave in a time-dependent study. The default is to
use the quasi-static behavior for a time-dependent study. Select Include inertial terms
to model the structural transient behavior as a mechanical wave.

370 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

REFERENCE POINT FOR MOMENT COMPUTATION
Enter the coordinates for the Reference point for moment computation xref (SI unit: m).
All moments are then computed relative to this reference point.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

This interface defines these dependent variables (fields): the Displacement field u (and
its components) and the Electric potential V. The names can be changed but the names
of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, Quartic, or (in 2D) Quintic for the Displacement
field and Electric potential. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex
variablesReal or Complex (the default).

Show More Physics Options

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the
Piezoelectric Devices Interface
See Also
Theory for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Features for the

Piezoelectric Devices Interface
Because The Piezoelectric Devices Interface is a multiphysics interface, many features
are shared with, and described for, other interfaces. Below are links to the domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair features as indicated.

These features are described in this section:

Damping and Loss

Dielectric Loss
Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic)
Electrical Material Model
Initial Values

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 371

 Periodic Condition
Piezoelectric Material
Remanent Electric Displacement

These features are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):

Added Mass
Antisymmetry
Body Load
Boundary Load
Contact
Edge Load
Fixed Constraint
Free
Linear Elastic Material
Linear Viscoelastic Material
Point Load
Pre-Deformation
Prescribed Acceleration
Prescribed Displacement
Prescribed Velocity
Rigid Connector
Roller
Spring Foundation
Symmetry
Thin Elastic Layer
These features are described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:

Electric Displacement Field

Electric Potential
Floating Potential
Ground

372 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Line Charge
Line Charge (on Axis)
Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)
Point Charge
Point Charge
Point Charge (on Axis)
Space Charge Density
Surface Charge Density
Thin Low Permittivity Gap
Zero Charge

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide do not work in the PDF, only from within the online help.
Important

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Piezoelectric Material
Use the Piezoelectric Material to define the piezoelectric material properties on
stress-charge form using the elasticity matrix and the coupling matrix or on
strain-charge form using the compliance matrix and the coupling matrix. The default
settings is to use material data defined for the material in the domain. Right-click
Piezoelectric Material to add Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic), Initial Stress and
Strain, and Damping and Loss nodes as required.

For entering these matrices, the ordering is different from the standard
ordering used in COMSOL Multiphysics. Instead, use the following
order (Voigt notation), which is the common convention for piezoelectric
Important
materials: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, zy.

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 373

 DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. The default setting is to include
All domains in the model.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Select a Constitutive relationStress-charge form or Strain-charge form. For each of the
following, the default uses values From material. Select User defined to enter other
values in the matrix or field as required.

For Stress-charge form, select an Elasticity matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy) (cE)
(SI unit: 1/Pa).
For a Strain-charge form, select a Compliance matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy)
(sE) (SI unit: 1/Pa).
Select a Coupling matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy) (d) (SI unit: C/m2 or C/N).
Select a Relative permittivity (erS or erT) (unitless).
Select a Density (p) (SI unit: kg/m3).

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step.

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also See The Solid Mechanics Interface for details about this section.

374 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Electrical Material Model
The Electrical Material Model adds an electric field to domains in a piezoelectric device
model that only includes the electric field. Right-click Electrical Material Model to add
Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic) and Dielectric Loss features as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Select a Constitutive relationRelative permittivity, Polarization, or Remanent
displacement.

If Relative permittivity is selected, also choose a Relative permittivity (r) (unitless).

The default uses values From material. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values in the matrix or field.
If Polarization is selected, enter the Polarization P (SI unit: C/m2) coordinates.
If Remanent displacement is selected, select a Relative permittivity (r). The default
uses values From material. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values in the matrix or field. Then enter the
Remanent displacement (Dr) (SI unit: C/m2) coordinates.

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 375

 linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step.

Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface

See Also See The Solid Mechanics Interface for details about this section.

Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic)

Right-click the Piezoelectric Material node or the Electrical Material Model to add an
Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic) feature. This subnode adds ohmic conductivity
to the material. For example, if the model has metal electrodes, or if the piezoelectric
material might not be a perfect insulator but has some electrical conductivity. Because
the Piezoelectric Devices interface solves for the charge balance equation (that is,
electrostatics) this conductivity would lead to a time integral of the ohmic current in
the equation. This feature can therefore only operate in a time-harmonic study (as
pointed out in the name), and the equivalent electric displacement Jij appears in
the equation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
Select an Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m). Select:

From material to use the conductivity value from the domain material.

376 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Linearized resistivity to define the electric resistivity (and conductivity) as a linear
function of temperature.
User defined to enter a value (SI unit: S/m) or expressions for an isotropic or
anisotropic conductivity. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic from
the list based on the properties of the conductive media.

If Linearized resistivity is selected, each default setting in the corresponding Reference

temperature (Tref), Resistivity temperature coefficient (), and Reference resistivity (0)
lists is From material, which means that the values are taken from the domain material.
To specify other values for these properties, select User defined from the corresponding
list and then enter a value or expression in the applicable field.

Damping and Loss

Right-click the Piezoelectric Material node to add a Damping and Loss subnode, which
adds damping (Rayleigh damping or loss damping), coupling losses, and dielectric
losses to the piezoelectric material.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to add damping.

By default, this feature inherits the selection from its parent node, and use
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping, Loss factor for cE, Loss factor for sE, No
damping, or Isotropic loss factor:

No damping
For Rayleigh damping, enter the Mass damping parameter dM and the Stiffness
damping parameter in the dM corresponding fields. The default values are 0, which
means no damping.
For Loss factor for cE, select From material (the default) from the Loss factor for
elasticity matrix cE list to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select
Symmetric to enter the components of cE in the upper-triangular part of a

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 377

 symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor. The
default values are 0.
For Loss factor for sE, from the Loss factor for compliance matrix sE list, select From
material (the default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select
Symmetric to enter the components of sE in the upper-triangular part of a
symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor. The
default values are 0.
For an Isotropic loss factor s, select From material (the default) from the Isotropic
structural loss factor list to take the value from the material or select User defined to
enter a value or expression for the isotropic loss factor in the field. The default value
is 0.

COUPLING LOSS SETTINGS

Select a Coupling lossNo loss, Loss factor for e, or Loss factor for d.

For Loss factor for e and Loss factor for d, select a Loss factor for coupling matrix e or d
from the list. Select User defined to enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the
associated fields. Select Symmetric to enter the components of e or d in the
upper-triangular part of a symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or select Isotropic to enter a single
scalar loss factor. The default values are 0.

DIELECTRIC LOSS SETTINGS

From the Dielectric loss list, select Loss factor for S, Loss factor for T, or No loss.

For Loss factor for S and Loss factor for T, select a Loss factor for permittivity. Select
From material (the default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select Symmetric
to enter the components of eS or eT in the upper-triangular part of a symmetric
6-by-6 matrix, select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor, or select Diagonal. The
default values are 0.

Remanent Electric Displacement

Right-click the Piezoelectric Material node to add a Remanent Electric Displacement
subnode to include a remanent electric displacement vector Dr (the displacement
when no electric field is present).

378 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

REMANENT ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT

Enter the components of the remanent electric displacement Dr (SI unit: C/m2) in
the Remanent displacement fields (the default values are 0).

Dielectric Loss
Right-click the Electrical Material Model node to add a Dielectric Loss subnode to
include a dielectric loss using a dielectric loss factor.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.

By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
Note

DIELECTRIC LOSS SETTINGS

The default Dielectric loss factor uses values From material. If User defined is selected,
then also select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter one or more
components in the field or matrix. The default values are 0.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the displacement field and the electric
potential. Right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define. The default setting is to include
all domains in the model.

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 379

 INITIAL VALUES
Enter the initial values as values or expressions for the Displacement field u (SI unit: m)
and the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition feature adds a periodic boundary condition. This periodicity
make uix0uix1 for a displacement component ui or similarly for the electric
potential. Control the direction that the periodic condition applies to and if it applies
to the electric potential. Right-click the Periodic Condition node to add a Destination
Selection boundary condition. If the source and destination boundaries are rotated
with respect to each other, this transformation is automatically performed, so that
corresponding displacement components are connected.

This feature works well for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In
other cases use a Destination Selection subnode to control the destination.
Note By default it contains the selection that COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.

PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicityContinuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, Floquet periodicity,
Cyclic symmetry, or User defined.

If Floquet periodicity is selected, enter a k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit:
rad/m) for the X, Y, and Z coordinates (3D models), or the R and Z coordinates
(2D axisymmetric models), or X and Y coordinates (2D models).
If Cyclic symmetry is selected, select a Sector angleAutomatic (the default), or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value for S (SI unit: rad). For any
selection, also enter a Mode number m (unitless).
If User defined is selected, select the Periodic in u, Periodic in v (for 3D and 2D
models), and Periodic in w (for 3D and 2D axisymmetric models) check boxes as
required. For all dimensions the Periodic in V check box is also available. Then for

380 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 each selection, choose the Type of periodicityContinuity (the default) or
Antiperiodicity.

Periodic Condition is also described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide:

Periodic Condition

See Also Destination Selection

Using Periodic Boundary Conditions
Periodic Boundary Condition Example

THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 381

 T he o r y f o r the Pi ez oel ect ri c D ev i c es
Interface
The Piezoelectric Devices Interface theory is described in this section:

The Piezoelectric Effect

Piezoelectric Constitutive Relations
Piezoelectric Material
Piezoelectric Dissipation
Initial Stress, Strain, and Electric Displacement
Geometric Nonlinearity for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface
Damping and Losses Theory
References for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface

The Piezoelectric Effect

The piezoelectric effect manifests itself as a transfer of electric to mechanical energy
and vice versa. It is present in many crystalline materials, while some materials such as
quartz, Rochelle salt, and lead titanate zirconate ceramics display the phenomenon
strongly enough for it to be of practical use.

The direct piezoelectric effect consists of an electric polarization in a fixed direction

when the piezoelectric crystal is deformed. The polarization is proportional to the
deformation and causes an electric potential difference over the crystal.

The inverse piezoelectric effect, on the other hand, constitutes the opposite of the
direct effect. This means that an applied potential difference induces a deformation of
the crystal.

PIEZOELECTRICITY CONVENTIONS
The documentation and the Piezoelectric Devices interface use piezoelectricity
conventions as much as possible. These conventions differ from those used in other
structural mechanics interfaces. For instance, the numbering of the shear components
in the stress-strain relation differs, as the following section describes. However, the
names of the stress and strain components remain the same as in the other structural
mechanics interfaces.

382 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Piezoelectric Constitutive Relations
It is possible to express the relation between the stress, strain, electric field, and electric
displacement field in either a stress-charge or strain-charge form:

STRESS-CHARGE
T
T = cE S e E
D = eS + S E

STRAIN-CHARGE
T
S = sE T + d E
D = dT + T E

The naming convention differs in piezoelectricity theory compared to structural

mechanics theory, but the Piezoelectric Devices interface uses the structural mechanics
nomenclature. The strain is named instead of S, and the stress is named instead of
T. This makes the names consistent with those used in the other structural mechanics
interfaces.

The numbering of the strain and stress components is also different in piezoelectricity
theory and structural mechanics theory, and it is quite important to keep track of this
aspect in order to provide material data in the correct order. In structural mechanics
the following is the most common numbering convention, and it is also the one used
in the structural mechanics interfaces:

xx xx xx
yy yy yy
zx zz zz
= = =
xy xy 2 xy
yz yz 2 yz
xz xz 2 xz

In contrast, textbooks on piezoelectric effects and the IEEE standard on piezoelectric

effects use the following numbering convention (also called Voigt notation):

THEORY FOR THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 383

 xx xx xx
yy yy yy
zz zz zz
= = =
yz yz 2 yz
xz xz 2 xz
xy xy 2 xy

The Piezoelectric Devices interface uses the immediately preceding piezo numbering
convention (Voigt notation) to make it easier to work with material data and to avoid
mistakes.

The constitutive relation using COMSOL Multiphysics symbols for the different
constitutive forms are thus:

STRESS-CHARGE
T
= cE e E
D = e + 0 rS E

STRAIN-CHARGE
T
= sE + d E
D = d + 0 rT E

Most material data appears in the strain-charge form, and it can be easily transformed
into the stress-charge form. In COMSOL Multiphysics both constitutive forms can be
used; simply select one, and the software makes any necessary transformations. The
following equations transform strain-charge material data to stress-charge data:

1
cE = sE
1
e = d sE
1 T
S = 0 rT d s E d

384 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Piezoelectric Material
The Piezoelectric Devices interface also has different materials for easier modeling of
piezo components. This means that the material for each domain can be defined as:

Piezoelectric material (the default material)

Purely solid as a linear elastic or nonlinear material
Purely dielectric using an electrical material (to model surrounding air, for example)

The piezoelectric material operates as described above, whereas using the two other
materials, structural and electrical problems can be modeled, together or either of
them independently.

Piezoelectric Dissipation
In order to define dissipation in the piezoelectric material for a time-harmonic analysis,
all material properties in the constitutive relations can be complex-valued matrices
where the imaginary part defines the dissipative function of the material.

As described in Damping and Losses Theory complex-valued data can be defined

directly in the fields for the material properties, or a real-valued material X and a set of
loss factors X can be defined, which together form the complex-valued material data

X = X 1 j X

See also the same references for an explanation of the sign convention. It is also
possible to define the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric material: S or T
depending on the constitutive relation. Electrical conductivity does not appear directly
in the constitutive equation, but it appears as an additional term in the variational
formulation (weak equation).

The conductivity does not change during transformation between the

formulations. S and T are used to get fully-defined materials in each
Note formulation.

THEORY FOR THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 385

 Initial Stress, Strain, and Electric Displacement
Using the piezoelectrical physics interfaces initial stress (0), initial strain (0), and
initial electric displacement (D0) can be defined for models. In the constitutive relation
for piezoelectric material these additions appear in the stress-charge formulation:

T
= cE 0 e E + 0
D = e 0 + 0 rS E + D 0

When solving the model, these program does not interpret these fields as a constant
initial state, but they operate as additional fields that are continuously evaluated. Thus
use these initial field to add, for example, thermal expansion or pyroelectric effects to
models.

Geometric Nonlinearity for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS WITH LARGE DEFORMATIONS

The linear piezoelectric equations as presented in Piezoelectric Constitutive Relations
with engineering strains are valid if the model undergoes only relatively small
deformations. As soon as the model contains larger displacements or rotations, these
equations produce spurious strains that result in an incorrect solution. To overcome
this problem, so-called large deformation piezoelectrical equations are required.

The Piezoelectric Devices interface implements the large deformation piezoelectrical

equations according to Yang (Ref. 8). Key items of this formulation are:

The strains are calculated as the Green-Lagrange strains, ij:

1 u i u j u k u k
ij = --- -------- + -------- + --------- --------- (8-2)
2 X j X i X i X j

Green-Lagrange strains are defined with reference to an undeformed geometry.

Hence, they represent a Lagrangian description. In a small-strain, large rotational
analysis, the Green-Lagrange strain corresponds to the engineering strain in
directions that follow the deformed body.

386 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 Electrical field variables are calculated in the material directions, and the electric
displacement relation is replaced by an expression that produce electric polarization
in the material orientation of the solid.
In the variational formulation, the electrical energy is split into two parts: The
polarization energy within the solid and the electric energy of free space occupied
by the deformed solid.

The first two items above result in another set of constitutive equations for large
deformation piezoelectricity:

T
S = cE e Em
P m = e + 0 rS 0 I E m

where S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress; is the Green-Lagrange strain, Em and

Pm are the electric field and electric polarization in the material orientation; I is the
identity matrix; and cE, e, and rS are the piezoelectric material constants. The
expression within parentheses equals the dielectric susceptibility of the solid:

= 0 rS 0 I

Electric displacement field in the material orientation results from the following
relation

1
D m = P m + 0 JC E m

where C is the right Cauchy-Green tensor

T
C = F F

Fields in the global orientation result from the following transformation rules:

T
E = F Em
1
P = J FP m
(8-3)
1
D = J FD m
1
v = V J

where F is the deformation gradient; J is the determinant of F; and v and V are the
volume charge density in present and material coordinates. The deformation gradient
is defined as the gradient of the present position of a material point xX + u:

THEORY FOR THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 387

 x
F = -------
X

DECOUPLED MATERIALS WITH LARGE DEFORMATIONS

The large deformation formulation described in the previous section applies directly to
non-piezoelectric materials if the coupling term is set to zero: e0. In that case, the
structural part corresponds to the large deformation formulation described for the
solid mechanics interfaces.

The electrical part separates into two different cases: For solid domains the electric
energy consists of polarization energy within the solid and the electric energy of free
space occupied by the deformed solidthe same as for the piezoelectric materials. For
nonsolid domains this separation does not occur, and the electric displacement in these
domains directly results from the electric fieldthe electric displacement relation:

Dm = 0 r Em

On nonsolid domains the global orientation of the fields is not known

unless the ALE method is used.
Note

LARGE DEFORMATION AND DEFORMED MESH

The Piezoelectric Devices interface can be coupled with the Moving Mesh (ALE)
physics interface in a way so that the electrical degrees of freedom are solved in an ALE
frame. This feature is intended to be used in applications where a model contains
nonsolid domains, such as modeling of electrostatically actuated structures. This
functionality is not required for modeling of piezoelectric or other solid materials.

The use of ALE has impacts on the formulation of the electrical large deformation
equations. The first impact is that with ALE, the gradient of electric potential directly
results in the electric field in the global orientation, and the material electric field
results after transformation.

The most visible impact is on the boundary conditions. With ALE any surface charge
density or electric displacement is defined per the present deformed boundary area,
whereas for the case without ALE they are defined per the undeformed reference area.

388 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Damping and Losses Theory

HYSTERETIC LOSS
The equivalent viscous and loss factor damping are special cases of a more general way
of defining damping: hysteretic loss. Generally, and independently of the microscopic
origin of the loss, the dissipative behavior of the material can be modeled using
complex-valued material properties. For the case of piezoelectric materials, this means
that the constitutive equations are written as follows:

For the stress-charge formulation

T
= c E e E
D = e + E
S

and for the strain-charge formulation

T
= s E + d E
D = d + ET

where c E , d , and are complex-valued matrices, where the imaginary part defines
the dissipative function of the material.

Similarly to the real-valued material data, it is not possible to freely define the
complex-valued data. Instead the data must fulfill certain requirement to represent
physically proper materials. A key requirement is that the dissipation density is positive;
that is, there is no power gain from the passive material. This requirement sets rules for
the relative magnitudes for all material parameters, this is important to know, especially
when defining the coupling losses.

In COMSOL Multiphysics the complex-valued data can be entered directly, or the

concept of loss factors can be used. Similarly to the loss factor damping, the complex

data X is represented as pairs of a real-valued parameter

X = real X

and a loss factor

X = imag X real X

the ratio of the imaginary and real part, and the complex data is then

THEORY FOR THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 389


X = X 1 j X

where the sign depends on the material property used. The loss factors are specific to
the material property, and thus they are named according to the property they refer to,
for example, cE. For a structural material without coupling, simply use s, the
structural loss factor.

Depending on the field, different terminology is in use. For example, the loss tangent
tan might be referred to when working with electrical applications. The loss tangent
has the same meaning as the loss factor. Often the quality factor Qm is defined for a
material. The quality factor Qm and the loss factor i are inversely related: i1 Qm,
where i is the loss factor for cE, sE, or the structural loss factor depending on the
material.

The Piezoelectric Devices interface uses a formulation that assumes that a positive loss
factor corresponds to a positive loss. The complex-valued data is then based on sign
rules. For piezoelectric materials, the following equations apply (m and n refer to
elements of each matrix):

m n m n m n
c E = c E 1 + j cE
m n m n m n
e =e 1 j e
m n m n m n
S = S 1 j S
(8-4)
m n m n m n
s E = s E 1 j sE
m n m n m n
d =d 1 j d
m n m n m n
T = T 1 j T

The losses for other than piezoelectric materials are more straightforward to define.
Again, using the complex stiffness and permittivity, the following equations describe
the lossy material:

m n m n m n
D = 1 + j D
(8-5)
m n m n m n
e = 1 j e e

Often fully defined complex-valued data is not accessible. In the Piezoelectric Devices
interface the loss factors can be defined as full matrices or as scalar isotropic loss factors
independently of the material and the other coefficients.

390 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

For more information about hysteretic losses, see Ref. 1 to Ref. 4.

T H E L O S S F A C T O R U S I N G D I F F E R E N T D A M P I N G TY P E S
The following damping types use an isotropic loss factor s:

Loss factor damping

Equivalent viscous damping
Isotropic loss

In each case the meaning of the loss factor is the same: the fractional loss of energy per
cycle.

The difference between these damping types is how the loss enters the equation
system. Using the isotropic loss, s is used to build complex-valued material
properties, whereas when using the loss factor damping, s appears in a
complex-valued multiplier in the stress-strain relation. In the equivalent viscous
damping, s appears in a complex-valued and frequency-dependent expression for dK
of the Rayleigh damping model.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND DIELECTRIC LOSSES

In the piezoelectrical physics interfaces, for frequency response and damped
eigenfrequency analyses, the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric and decoupled
material (see Ref. 2, Ref. 5, and Ref. 6) can be defined. Depending on the formulation
of the electrical equation, the electrical conductivity appears in the variational
formulation (the weak equation) either as an effective electric displacement

Jp
D = r 0 E j ------

(the actual displacement variables do not contain any conductivity effects) or in the
total current expression

J = Jd + Jp

where Jp = eE is the conductivity current and Jd is the electric displacement current.

Both a dielectric loss factor (Equation 8-4 and Equation 8-5) and the electrical
conductivity can be defined at the same time. In this case, ensure that the loss factor
refers to the alternating current loss tangent, which dominates at high frequency,
where the effect of ohmic conductivity vanishes (Ref. 7).

THEORY FOR THE PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES INTERFACE | 391

 References for the Piezoelectric Devices Interface
1. R. Holland and E. P. EerNisse, Design of Resonant Piezoelectric Devices, Research
Monograph No. 56, The M.I.T. Press, 1969.

2. T. Ikeda, Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity, Oxford University Press, 1990.

3. A.V. Mezheritsky, Elastic, Dielectric, and Piezoelectric Losses in Piezoceramics:

How it Works all Together, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and
Frequency Control, vol. 51, no. 6, 2004.

4. K. Uchino and S. Hirose, Loss Mechanisms in Piezoelectrics: How to Measure

Different Losses Separately, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and
Frequency Control, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 307321, 2001.

5. P.C.Y. Lee, N.H. Liu, and A. Ballato, Thickness Vibrations of a Piezoelectric Plate
with Dissipation, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency
Control, vol. 51, no. 1, 2004.

6. P.C.Y. Lee and N.H. Liu, Plane Harmonic Waves in an Infinite Piezoelectric Plate
with Dissipation, Frequency Control Symposium and PDA Exhibition, IEEE
International, pp. 162169, 2002.

7. C. A. Balanis, Electrical Properties of Matter, Advanced Engineering

Electromagnetics, John Wiley & Sons, 1989.

8. J. Yang, An Introduction to the Theory of Piezoelectricity, Springer Science and

Business Media, N.Y., 2005.

392 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 9

Materials

This chapter describes the materials databases included with the Structural
Mechanics Module.

In this chapter:

Material Library and Databases

Liquids and Gases Material Database
MEMS Materials Database
Piezoelectric Materials Database

393
 Material Library and Databases
The Structural Mechanics Module includes these materials databases: Liquids and
Gases ( ), with temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties, MEMS
( ), an extended solid materials library with metals, semiconductors, insulators, and
polymers common in MEMS devices, and a Piezoelectric ( ) database with over 20
common piezoelectric materials.

For detailed information about all the other materials databases and the
separately purchased Material Library, see the section Materials in the
Note COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.

In this section:

About the Material Databases

About Using Materials in COMSOL
Opening the Material Browser
Using Material Properties

About the Material Databases

Material Browserselect predefined

materials in all applications. Recent MaterialsSelect from recent
materials added to the model.

Material LibraryPurchased
separately. Select from over 2500
predefined materials.

Built-In databaseAvailable to all

users and contains common materials.

Application specific material databases

available with specific modules.

User-defined material database library.

394 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

All COMSOL modules have predefined material data available to build models. The
most extensive material data is contained in the separately purchased Material Library,
but all modules contain commonly used or module-specific materials. For example, the
Built-In database is available to all users but the MEMS database is included with the
MEMS Module and Structural Mechanics Module. Also create custom materials and
material libraries by researching and entering material properties.

All the material databases (including the Material Library) are accessed from the
Material Browser. These databases are briefly described below.

RECENT MATERIALS
From the Recent Materials folder ( ), select from a list of recently used materials, with
the most recent at the top. This folder is available after the first time a material is added
to a model.

MATERIAL LIBRARY
An optional add-on database, the Material Library ( ), contains data for over 2500
materials and 20,000 property functions.

BUILT-IN
Included with COMSOL Multiphysics, the Built-In database ( ) contains common
solid materials with electrical, structural, and thermal properties.

Predefined Built-In Materials for all COMSOL Modules in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

AC/DC
Included in the AC/DC Module, the AC/DC database ( ) has electric properties for
some magnetic and conductive materials.

BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

Included in the Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, the Batteries and Fuel Cells
database ( ) includes properties for electrolytes and electrode reactions for certain
battery chemistries.

MATERIAL LIBRARY AND DATABASES | 395

 LIQUIDS AND GASES
Included in the Acoustics Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, Heat Transfer Module, MEMS Module, Pipe Flow Module, and Subsurface
Flow Module, the Liquids and Gases database ( ) includes transport properties and
surface tension data for liquid/gas and liquid/liquid interfaces.

MEMS
Included in the MEMS Module and Structural Mechanics Module, the MEMS
database ( ) has properties for MEMS materialsmetals, semiconductors,
insulators, and polymers.

PIEZOELECTRIC
Included in the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, and Structural Mechanics
Module, the Piezoelectric database ( ) has properties for piezoelectric materials.

PIEZORESISTIVITY
Included in the MEMS Module, the Piezoresistivity database ( ) has properties for
piezoresistive materials, including p-Silicon and n-Silicon materials.

USER-DEFINED LIBRARY
The User-Defined Library folder ( ) is where user-defined materials databases
(libraries) are created. When any new database is created, this also displays in the
Material Browser.

The materials databases shipped with COMSOL Multiphysics are

read-only. This includes the Material Library and any materials shipped
Important with the optional modules.

Creating Your Own User-Defined Libraries in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

396 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

About Using Materials in COMSOL

USING THE MATERIALS IN THE PHYSICS SETTINGS

The physics set-up in a model is determined by a combination of settings in the
Materials and physics interface nodes. When the first material is added to a model,
COMSOL automatically assigns that material to the entire geometry. Different
geometric entities can have different materials. The following example uses the
heat_sink.mph model file contained in the Heat Transfer Module and CFD Module
Model Libraries.

Figure 9-1: Assigning materials to a heat sink model. Air is assigned as the material to
the box surrounding the heat sink, and aluminum to the heat sink itself.

If a geometry consists of a heat sink in a container, Air can be assigned as the material
in the container surrounding the heat sink and Aluminum as the heat sink material itself
(see Figure 9-1). The Conjugate Heat Transfer interface, selected during model set-up,
has a Fluid flow model, defined in the box surrounding the heat sink, and a Heat
Transfer model, defined in both the aluminum heat sink and in the air box. The Heat
Transfer in Solids 1 settings use the material properties associated to the Aluminum
3003-H18 materials node, and the Fluid 1 settings define the flow using the Air material
properties. The other nodes under Conjugate Heat Transfer define the initial and
boundary conditions.

MATERIAL LIBRARY AND DATABASES | 397

 All physics interface properties automatically use the correct Materials properties when
the default From material setting is used. This means that one node can be used to
define the physics across several domains with different materials; COMSOL then uses
the material properties from the different materials to define the physics in the
domains. If material properties are missing, the Material Contents section on the
Materials page displays a stop icon ( ) to warn about the missing properties and a
warning icon ( ) if the property exists but its value is undefined.

The Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also

There are also some physics interface properties that by default define a material as the
Domain material (that is, the materials defined on the same domains as the physics
interface). For such material properties, select any other material that is present in the
model, regardless of its selection.

EVALUATING AND PLOTTING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

You can access the material properties for evaluation and plotting like other variables
in a model using the variable naming conventions and scoping mechanisms:

To access a material property throughout the model (across several materials) and
not just in a specific material, use the special material container root.material. For
example, root.material.rho is the density as defined by the materials in each
domain in the geometry. For plotting, you can type the expression material.rho
to create a plot that shows the density of all materials.

If you use a temperature-dependent material, each material contribution

asks for a special model input. For example, rho(T) in a material mat1
asks for root.mat1.def.T, and you need to define this variable (T)
Note manuallyif the temperature is not available as a dependent variableto
make the density variable work.

To access a material property from a specific material, you need to know the tags for
the material and the property group. Typically, for the first material (Material 1) the
tag is mat1 and most properties reside in the default Basic property group with the
tag def. The variable names appear in the Variable column in the table under Output
properties in the settings window for the property group; for example, Cp for the

398 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

 heat capacity at constant pressure. The syntax for referencing the heat capacity at
constant pressure in Material 1 is then mat1.def.Cp. Some properties are
anisotropic tensors, and each of the components can be accessed, such as
mat1.def.k11, mat1.def.k12, and so on, for the thermal conductivity. For
material properties that are functions, call these with input arguments such as
mat1.def.rho(pA,T) where pA and T are numerical values or variables
representing the absolute pressure and the temperature, respectively. The functions
can be plotted directly from the function nodes settings window by first specifying
suitable ranges for the input arguments.
Many physics interfaces also define variables for the material properties that they
use. For example, solid.rho is the density in the Solid Mechanics interface and is
equal to the density in a material when it is used in the domains where the Solid
Mechanics interface is active. If you define the density in the Solid Mechanics
interface using another value, solid.rho represents that value and not the density
of the material. If you use the density from the material everywhere in the model,
solid.rho and material.rho are identical.

Opening the Material Browser

When using the Material Browser, the words window and page are
interchangeable. For simplicity, the instructions refer only to the Material
Note Browser.

1 Open or create a model file.

2 From the View menu choose Material Browser or right-click the Materials node and
choose Open Material Browser.
The Material Browser opens by default in the same position as the settings window.
3 Under Material Selection, search or browse for materials.
- Enter a Search term to find a specific material by name, UNS number (Material
Library materials only), or DIN number (Material Library materials only). If the

MATERIAL LIBRARY AND DATABASES | 399

 search is successful, a list of filtered databases containing that material displays
under Material Selection.

To clear the search field and browse, delete the search term and click
Search to reload all the databases.
Tip

- Click to open each database and browse for a specific material by class (for
example, in the Material Library) or physics module (for example, MEMS
Materials).

Always review the material properties to confirm they are applicable for
the model. For example, Air provides temperature-dependent properties
Important that are valid at pressures around 1 atm.

4 When the material is located, right-click to Add Material to Model.

A node with the material name is added to the Model Builder and the Material page
opens.

Using Material Properties

For detailed instructions, see Adding Predefined Materials and Material

Properties Reference in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.
See Also

400 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

Liquids and Gases Material Database
In this section:

Liquids and Gases Materials

References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database

Liquids and Gases Materials

The Liquids and Gases materials database contains thermal and fluid dynamic
properties for a set of common liquids. All properties are given as functions of
temperature and at atmospheric pressure, except the density, which for gases is also a
function of the local pressure. The database also contains surface and interface tensions

LIQUIDS AND GASES MATERIAL DATABASE | 401

 for a selected set of liquid/gas and liquid/liquid systems. All functions are based on
data collected from scientific publications.
TABLE 9-1: LIQUIDS AND GASES MATERIALS

GROUP MATERIAL

Gases References 1, 2, 7, 8, 11, Air

and 12 Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Humid air
Hydrogen
Helium
Steam
Propane
Ethanol vapor
Diethyl ether vapor
Freon12 vapor
SiF4
Liquids References 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Engine oil
9, and 10 Ethanol
Diethyl ether
Ethylene glycol
Gasoline
Glycerol
Heptane
Mercury
Toluene
Transformer oil
Water

DEFAULT GRAPHICS WINDOW APPEARANCE SETTINGS

The MEMS Materials database has data for these materials and a default
appearance for 3D models is applied to each material as indicated.
3D

402 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

 See Working on the Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide for more information about customizing the materials appearance
See Also in the Graphics window.

TABLE 9-2: MATERIALS 3D MODEL DEFAULT APPEARANCE SETTINGS

MATERIAL DEFAULT DEFAULT CUSTOM DEFAULT SETTINGS

FAMILY LIGHTING MODEL

DIFFUSE AND AMBIENT

SPECULAR EXPONENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
NORMAL INCIDENCE
NOISE FREQUENCY

REFLECTANCE AT
NORMAL VECTOR

NORMAL VECTOR

COLOR OPACITY
NOISE SCALE
All gases Air Simple 0.08 3 0.1 - - -
All liquids Water Cook-Torrance 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.7 0.05
(except Engine
oil, Mercury, and
Transformer oil)
Engine oil Custom Cook-Torrance 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.7 0.05
Mercury Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Transformer oil Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -

References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database

1. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 1993.

2. E. R. G. Eckert and M. Drake, Jr., Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer,

Hemisphere Publishing, 1987.

3. H. Kashiwagi, T. Hashimoto, Y. Tanaka, H. Kubota, and T. Makita, Thermal

Conductivity and Density of Toluene in the Temperature Range 273-373K at
Pressures up to 250 MPa, Int. J. Thermophys., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 201215, 1982.

4. C. A. Nieto de Castro, S.F.Y. Li, A. Nagashima, R.D. Trengove, and W.A.

Wakeham, Standard Reference Data for the Thermal Conductivity of Liquids, J.
Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 10731086, 1986.

LIQUIDS AND GASES MATERIAL DATABASE | 403

 5. B.E. Poling, J.M. Prausnitz, and J.P. OConnell, The Properties of Gases and
Liquids, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2001.

6. C.F. Spencer and B.A. Adler, A Critical Review of Equations for Predicting
Saturated Liquid Density, J. Chem. Eng. Data, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 8288, 1978.

7. N.B.Vargnaftik, Tables of Thermophysical Properties of Liquids and Gases, 2nd

ed., Hemisphere Publishing, 1975.

8. R.C.Weast (editor), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th ed., CRC
Press, 1988.

9. M. Zabransky and V. Ruzicka, Jr., Heat Capacity of Liquid n-Heptane Converted

to the International Temperature Scale of 1990, Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 23,
no. 1, pp. 5561, 1994.

10. M. Zabransky, V. Ruzicka, Jr., and E.S. Domalski, Heat Capacity of Liquids:
Critical Review and Recommended Values. Supplement I, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data,
vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 11991397, 2002.

11. W. Wagner, and H-J Kretzschmar, International Steam Tables, 2nd ed., Springer,
2008.

12. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth
ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2002.

404 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

MEMS Materials Database
For an example of the MEMS materials database, see Piezoelectric
Shear-Actuated Beam: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/
Model Piezoelectric_Effects/shear_bender.

The MEMS material database contains 33 materials commonly used in MEMS

applications. The materials are divided into the following groups: metals,
semiconductors, insulators, and polymers.

The basic structure of this library comes from the book Microsensors, MEMS, and
Smart Devices (Ref. 13). The material properties come from two primary sources: the
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Ref. 14) and MacMillans Chemical and
Physical Data (Ref. 15). Some of the mechanical properties in the library are instead
more MEMS-specific values from The MEMS Handbook (Ref. 16), and most of the
semiconductor properties are values from Ref. 17. Ref. 18 provides a valuable resource
for cross-checking the insulation material properties.

The table below lists the materials and the corresponding groups:
TABLE 9-3: MEMS MATERIALS

MATERIAL GROUP

Aluminium (Al) Metals

Silver (Ag) Metals
Gold (Au) Metals
Chrome (Cr) Metals
Copper (Cu) Metals
Indium (In) Metals
Titanium (Ti) Metals
Iron (Fe) Metals
Nickel (Ni) Metals
Lead (Pb) Metals
Palladium (Pd) Metals
Platine (Pt) Metals
Antimon (Sb) Metals
Tungsten (W) Metals

MEMS MATERIALS DATABASE | 405

 TABLE 9-3: MEMS MATERIALS

MATERIAL GROUP

C [100] Semiconductors
GaAs Semiconductors
Ge Semiconductors
InSb Semiconductors
Si(c) Semiconductors
Poly-Si Semiconductors
Silicon (single-crystal) Semiconductors
Al2O3 Insulators
SiC (6H) Insulators
Si3N4 Insulators
SiO2 Insulators
ZnO Insulators
Borosilicate Insulators
Nylon Polymers
PMMA Polymers
Polymide Polymers
Polyethylene Polymers
PTFE Polymers
PVC Polymers

DEFAULT GRAPHICS WINDOW APPEARANCE SETTINGS

The MEMS Materials database has data for these materials and a default
appearance for 3D models is applied to each material as indicated.
3D

406 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

TABLE 9-4: MEMS MATERIALS 3D MODEL DEFAULT APPEARANCE SETTINGS

MATERIAL DEFAULT DEFAULT CUSTOM DEFAULT SETTINGS

FAMILY LIGHTING MODEL

DIFFUSE AND AMBIENT

SPECULAR EXPONENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
NORMAL INCIDENCE
NOISE FREQUENCY

REFLECTANCE AT
NORMAL VECTOR

NORMAL VECTOR

COLOR OPACITY
NOISE SCALE
Aluminium (Al) Aluminum Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Silver (Ag) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Gold (Au) Gold Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Chrome (Cr) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Copper (Cu) Copper Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.17
Indium (In) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Titanium (Ti) Titanium Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Iron (Fe) Iron Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.99 0.14
Nickel (Ni) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Lead (Pb) Lead Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.3 0.1
Palladium (Pd) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Platine (Pt) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Antimon (Sb) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Tungsten (W) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
C [100] Custom Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
GaAs Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Ge Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
InSb Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Si(c) Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.7 0.5
Poly-Si Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.7 0.5
Silicon Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.7 0.5
(single-crystal)
Al2O3 Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
SiC (6H) Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
Si3N4 Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
SiO2 Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -

MEMS MATERIALS DATABASE | 407

 TABLE 9-4: MEMS MATERIALS 3D MODEL DEFAULT APPEARANCE SETTINGS

MATERIAL DEFAULT DEFAULT CUSTOM DEFAULT SETTINGS

FAMILY LIGHTING MODEL

DIFFUSE AND AMBIENT

SPECULAR EXPONENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
NORMAL INCIDENCE
NOISE FREQUENCY

REFLECTANCE AT
NORMAL VECTOR

NORMAL VECTOR

COLOR OPACITY
NOISE SCALE
ZnO Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Borosilicate Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
Nylon Custom Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 500 - -
PMMA Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
Polymide Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
Polyethylene Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
PTFE Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -
PVC Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -

See Working on the Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide for more information about customizing the materials appearance
See Also in the Graphics window.

References for the MEMS Materials Database

13. J.W. Gardner, V.K. Varadan, and O.O. Awadelkarim, Microsensors, MEMS, and
Smart Devices, John Wiley & Sons, 2001.

14. D.R. Lide (editor), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th edition, CRC
Press, 2003.

15. A.M. James and M.P. Lord, MacMillans Chemical and Physical Data,
MacMillans Press, 1992.

16. M. Gad-el-Hak (Editor), The MEMS Handbook, CRC Press, 2002.

17. New Semiconductor Materials. Characteristics and Properties, 2003,

www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM.

18. Ceramics WebBook, 2003, www.ceramics.nist.gov/srd/scd/scdquery.htm

408 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

Piezoelectric Materials Database
For an example of the Piezoelectric materials database, see Piezoelectric
Shear-Actuated Beam: Model Library path Structural_Mechanics_Module/
Model Piezoelectric_Effects/shear_bender.

The Piezoelectric materials database included with this module contains the following
materials:

MATERIAL

Barium Sodium Niobate

Barium Titanate
Barium Titanate (poled)
Lithium Niobate
Lithium Tantalate
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-2)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-4)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-4D)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-5A)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-5H)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-5J)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-7A)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-8)
Quartz
Rochelle Salt
Bismuth Germanate
Cadmium Sulfide
Gallium Arsenide
Tellurium Dioxide
Zinc Oxide
Zinc Sulfide
Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate
Aluminum Nitride

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS DATABASE | 409

 All materials define the following material properties needed for piezoelectric
modeling:

MATERIAL PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

cE Elasticity matrix
e Coupling matrix, stress-charge
rS Relative permittivity, stress-charge
sE Compliance matrix
d Coupling matrix, strain-charge
rT Relative permittivity, strain-charge
Density

DEFAULT GRAPHICS WINDOW APPEARANCE SETTINGS

The Piezoelectric Materials database has data for these materials and a
default appearance for 3D models is applied to each material as indicated.
3D

TABLE 9-5: PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS 3D MODEL DEFAULT APPEARANCE SETTINGS

MATERIAL DEFAULT DEFAULT CUSTOM DEFAULT SETTINGS

FAMILY LIGHTING MODEL
DIFFUSE AND AMBIENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
SPECULAR EXPONENT

NORMAL INCIDENCE
NOISE FREQUENCY

REFLECTANCE AT
NORMAL VECTOR

NORMAL VECTOR

COLOR OPACITY
NOISE SCALE

All materials Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1

(excluding
Quartz and
Rochelle Salt)
Quartz Custom Cook-Torrance 0 1 0.1 - 0.99 0.02
Rochelle Salt Plastic Blinn-Phong 0 1 1 64 - -

410 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS

 See Working on the Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide for more information about customizing the materials appearance
See Also in the Graphics window.

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS DATABASE | 411

412 | CHAPTER 9: MATERIALS
 10

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite element modeling terms in a structural

mechanics context. For mathematical terms, and geometry and CAD terms specific
to the COMSOL Multiphysics software and documentation see the glossary in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide. For references to more information about a
term, see the index.

413
 Glossary of Terms
anisotropy Variation of material properties with direction. Both global and local user
defined coordinate systems can be used to define anisotropic material properties.

axial symmetry Symmetry in both load and geometry, solves for the radial (r) and
axial (z) displacement.

bar A line element that only has translational degrees of freedom, capable of
sustaining axial forces, with no bending moments, torsional moments, or shear forces.
Can be used on lines in 2D and 3D.

beam A line element having both translational and rotational degrees of freedom.
Capable of sustaining axial forces, bending moments, torsional moments, and shear
forces. Can be used on curves in 2D and 3D.

benchmark Standard test designed to evaluate the accuracy or efficiency of a finite

element system or model.

body forces Forces distributed through the volume of a body.

buckling The sudden collapse or reduction in stiffness of a structure under a critical

combination of applied loads.

cable A tension-only truss member used to model large deformation including sag.

Cauchy stress The most fundamental stress measure defined as force/deformed area
in fixed directions not following the body.

compliance matrix The inverse of the elasticity matrix. See elasticity matrix.

constitutive equations The equations formulating the stress-strain relationship of a

material.

constraint Constrains the displacement or rotations to zero or a specified value.

contact model The mathematical method to model bodies that come into contact
with each other.

414 | CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY

contact pair A pair that consists of some source boundaries and destination
boundaries and is used for contact modeling.

coordinate system Global Cartesian, local geometrical, application specific, and

user-defined coordinate systems. Loads, constraints, material properties, and variables
are defined in a specific coordinate system.

creep Time-dependent material nonlinearity that usually occurs in metals at high

temperatures in which the effect of the variation of stress and strain with time is of
interest.

damping Dissipation of energy in a vibrating structure. A common assumption is

viscous damping where the damping is proportional to the velocity. See also Rayleigh
damping.

destination boundary One side of a contact pair; the destination boundary is

prohibited to penetrate the source boundary.

eigenfrequency study Solving for the undamped natural frequencies and vibration
modes of a structure.

elasticity matrix The matrix D relating strain to stresses:

= D

equilibrium equation The equation expressing the equilibrium formulated in the stress
components.

fatigue A term describing the phenomena where a component fails after repeated
loadings and unloadings.

first Piola-Kirchhoff stress A rather mathematical stress measure used in the

hyperelastic material model, its conjugate strain is the displacement gradient.

flexibility matrix The inverse of the elasticity matrix. See elasticity matrix.

free vibration The undamped vibration of a structure after it is displaced from the
equilibrium position and released. See also eigenfrequency analysis.

G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 415
 frequency response A harmonic analysis solving for the steady-state response from a
harmonic excitation. Typically a frequency sweep is performed, solving for many
excitation frequencies at one time.

geometric nonlinearity See large deformation.

Green-Lagrange strain Nonlinear strain measure used in large-deformation analysis.

In a small strain, large rotation analysis, the Green-Lagrange strain corresponds to
the engineering strain, with the strain values interpreted in the original directions. The
Green-Lagrange strain is a natural choice when formulating a problem in the
undeformed state. The conjugate stress is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress.

hyperelastic material Material where the stresses are computed from a strain energy
density function. Often used to model rubber, but also used in acousto-elasticity.

initial strain The strain in a stress-free structure before it is loaded.

initial stress The stress in a non-deformed structure before it is loaded.

isotropic material A material where the material properties are independent of

direction.

isotropic hardening A hardening model for an elasto-plastic material where the yield
surface increases in size but maintains its original shape.

kinematic hardening A hardening model for an elasto-plastic material where the

yield surface is translated to a new position in the stress space as the plastic strain is
increased, with no change in size or shape.

large deformation The deformations are so large so the nonlinear effect of the change
in geometry or stress stiffening need to be accounted for.

linear buckling analysis Solves for the linear buckling load using the eigenvalue solver.

mass damping parameter Rayleigh damping parameter, the coefficient in front of the
mass matrix.

mixed formulation A formulation where the pressure have been added as a dependent
variable, used for nearly incompressible materials to avoid numerical problems.

nonlinear geometry See large deformations.

416 | CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY

orthotropic material An orthotropic material has at least two orthogonal planes of
symmetry, where material properties are independent of direction within each plane.
Such materials require nine independent variables (that is, elastic constants) in the
constitutive equations.

parametric study A study that finds the solution dependence due to the variation of a
specific parameter.

pinned A constraint condition where the displacement degrees of freedom are fixed
but the rotational degrees of freedom are free, typically used for frames modeled using
beams and truss elements.

plane strain An assumption on the strain field where all out-of-plane strain
components are assumed to be zero.

plane stress An assumption on the stress field, all out-of-plane stress components are
assumed to be zero.

plate Thin structure loaded in the normal direction.

primary creep The initial creep stage where the strain rate is decreasing with time.

principle of virtual work States that the variation in internal strain energy is equal to
the work done by external forces.

principal stresses/strains Normal stresses/strains with no shear components that act

on the principal planes. The magnitude of the principal stresses/strains are
independent of the coordinate system used.

quasi-static transient study The loads vary slowly so inertia terms can be neglected. A
transient thermal study coupled with a structural analysis can often be treated as
quasi-static.

Rayleigh damping A viscous damping model where the damping is proportional to the
mass and stiffness through the mass and stiffness damping parameters.

rotational degrees of freedom Degrees of freedom associated with a rotation around

an axis. Beams, Mindlin plates, and shells have rotational degrees of freedom.

secondary creep A creep regime where the strain rate is almost constant.

G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 417
 second Piola-Kirchhoff stress Conjugate stress to Green-Lagrange strain used in
large deformation analysis.

shell elements A thin element where both bending and membrane effects are
included.

source boundary One side of a contact pair; the destination boundary is prohibited
to penetrate the source boundary.

stationary study A study where the loads and constraints are constant in time. Also
called static.

strain Relative change in length, a fundamental concept in structural mechanics.

stress Internal forces in the material, normal stresses are defined as forces/area normal
to a plane, and shear stresses are defined as forces/area in the plane. A fundamental
concept in structural mechanics.

stiffness damping parameter Rayleigh damping parameter, the coefficient in front of

the stiffness matrix.

strain energy The energy stored by a structure as it deforms under load.

tertiary creep The creep stage where the strain rate increases very rapidly, followed by
eventual failure.

time-dependent study A time-dependent or transient study shows how the solution

varies over time, taking into account mass, mass moment of inertia, and damping.

Tresca stress An effective stress measure that is equal to the maximum shear stress.

truss See bar.

viscoelastic material Viscoelastic materials have a time-dependent response, even if

the loading is constant. Many polymers and biological tissues exhibit such a behavior.
Linear viscoelasticity is a commonly used approximation where the stress depends
linearly on the strain and its time derivatives.

viscoelastic transient initialization A stationary study with viscoelasticity included.

Used to precompute initial states for time-dependent studies when the viscoelastic
material model is used. It is a regime of instantaneous deformation and/or loading.

418 | CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY

I n d e x
A absolute-tolerance parameters 97 B beam interface 254
acceleration loads 43 theory 282
acoustic-structure interaction, frequency beams
domain interface 52 coefficient of thermal expansion 291
added mass (node) 157 cross section data 263
added mass, theory 204 damping 261
advanced settings 27 initial loads and strains 285
ALE method 388 intial stresses and strains 259, 285
analysis types. see study types. linear elastic material 257
angular excitation, frequency 22 loads applied 280
anisotropic materials prescribed acceleration 274
defining 169 prescribed displacement/rotation 271
elastic properties 118 prescribed velocity 273
loss factor damping and 121, 188 section orientation 267
antisymmetry (node) strain-displacement/rotation 284
beam interface 279 stress evaluation 289
shell and plate interfaces 237 thermal coupling 290
solid mechanics interface 131 thermal expansion 258
truss interface 316 thermal strain 285
applied force (node) 139 body load (node)
applied moment (node) 139 shell and plate interfaces 226
applying solid mechanics interface 123
loads 39 boundary conditions
moments 42 beam interface 256
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) contact pairs 65
method 60 fluid-structure interaction interface
augmented Lagrangian method 18, 63, 354
196 joule heating and thermal expansion
axial symmetry interface 366
constraints and 44 membrane interface 328
initial stress and strain 201 piezoelectric devices interface 371
solid mechanics 174 shell and plate interfaces 218, 247
viscoelastic materials and 194 solid mechanics interface 113
axisymmetric models thermal stress interface 345
solid mechanics interface 106 truss interface 306
azimuthal wave-number 211 boundary load (node) 124

INDEX| 419
 boundary loads theory 180 converse piezoelectric effect 81
box sections, beams 263 coordinate systems
buckling 16 constraints and 44
built-in materials database 395 in physics symbols 108
bulk modulus loads and 39
elastic moduli 165 local edge system 234
PMLs and 99
C cable elements 318
solid mechanics theory 162
cables 319
coordinate systems, membranes 338
calculating stress and strain 249
Coulomb friction 143
canonical systems 162
critical load factor 62
Cartesian coordinate system and PMLs
cross section (node) 263
99
cross section data (node) 309
Cauchy stress 173
crystal cut standards 82
Cauchy stress tensor 59
curvature 286
Cauchy-Green tensor 171
cyclic symmetry, settings 133
Cauchy-Green tensors 189
cyclic symmetry, theory 210
centrifugal acceleration loads 43
cylindrical coordinate systems 99, 106
change thickness (node)
shell and plate interfaces 224 D damped eigenfrequency study 79
solid mechanics interface 119 damping
circular sections, beams 263 equation of motion and 73
coefficient of thermal expansion linear viscoelastic material and 77
beams 259, 291 loss factors 121
shells and plates 221 losses and 73
thermal couplings and 24 matrix 22
cohesion sliding resistance 197 piezoelectric devices 377, 389
common sections, beam interface 263 point mass 281
complex modulus 79 solid mechanics 120
consistent stabilization settings 28 types 391
constitutive relation, membranes 337 viscoelastic materials and 193
constraint settings 28 damping (node)
constraints 44 beam interface 261
contact (node) 141 shell and plate interfaces 223
contact formulation 66 solid mechanics interface 120
contact help variables 197 damping and loss (node) 377
contact modeling 195 damping models 186187
contact modeling, friction 198 defining
contact pairs 6364 anisotropic materials 169

420 | I N D E X
 constraints 44 membrane interface 328
contact models 63 piezoelectric devices interface 371
isotropic materials 164 solid mechanics interface 113
multiphysics models 52 thermal stress interface 345
orthotropic materials 167 truss interface 306
thermoelastic materials 169 edge load (node)
deformation gradient 171 beam interface 268
deformations, modeling 189 membrane interface 332
destinations and sources 64 shell and plate interfaces 228
dielectric loss 391 solid mechanics interface 126
dielectric loss (node) 379 truss interface 310
dielectric loss factor 91 eigenfrequency study 21, 69
direct piezoelectric effect 81, 382 solid mechanics 185
discretization settings 27 eigenvalue solvers 69
displacement field, defining 58 elastic material properties 116118, 330
displacement gradients 163 elastic moduli 164
dissipation, piezoelectric materials 385 elasticity matrix 164
distributed loads, theory 179 elcontact variable 196
documentation, finding 29 electrical conductivity (time-harmonic)
domain features (node) 376
fluid-structure interaction interface electrical material model (node) 375
354 emailing COMSOL 30
joule heating and thermal expansion equation of motion, damping and 73
interface 366 equation view 27
piezoelectric devices interface 371 equivalent viscous damping 78
solid mechanics interface 113 equivalent Youngs modulus 143
thermal stress interface 345 Eulerian frame 59
domain material 398 excitation frequency 22, 78
Duhamel-Hookes law 163 expanding sections 27
Dulong-Petit law 169 explicit damping 80
dynamic cyclic symmetry 210 external loads, shell and plate interfaces
dynamic frictional coefficients 198 249

E edge conditions F face load (node) 227, 331

beam interface 256 first Piola-Kirchhoff stress 174
fluid-structure interaction interface fixed constraint (node) 127
354 Floquet periodicity, settings 133
joule heating and thermal expansion Floquet periodicity, theory 210
interface 366 fluid-solid interface boundary (node) 357

INDEX| 421
 fluid-structure interaction interface 351 hysteretic loss 88, 389
setting up a model 358
I I.R.E. standard, for material orientation
theory 360
82
fold lines 246
IEEE standard, for material orientation
fold-line limit angle 216
82
follower loads 181, 338
IEEE standard, piezoelectric materials
free (node) 127
383
frequency domain study 22
imperfection sensitivity 62
solid mechanics 184
implementation
frequency response study 7879
beams 286
friction (node) 143
trusses 321
friction forces 144
implementing
friction in contact modeling 198
PMLs 98
friction models 143
incompressible deformation state 189
friction traction penalty factor 197
inconsistent stabilization settings 28
G gap distance variable 196 inertial effects, contact modeling 66
generalized Maxwell model 191 initial loads and strains, beams 285
geometric nonlinearity 55, 172 initial stress and strain 386
membranes and 335 beams 285
micromechanics and 57, 60 theory 200
piezoelectric devices 386 trusses 320
solid mechanics theory 205 initial stress and strain (node)
geometry, working with 28 beam interface 259
glass transition temperature, viscoelastic membrane interface 330
materials 193 shell and plate interfaces 222
global coordinate systems 162 solid mechanics interface 146
GMG preconditioners 96 truss interface 308
GMRES iterative solvers 96 initial values (node)
gradient displacements 163 beam interface 262
Green strains 171 fluid-structure interaction interface
Green-Lagrange strain 58 356
Green-Lagrange strain tensors 189 joule heating and thermal expansion
Green-Lagrange strains 171 interface 365
membrane interface 331
H harmonic loads 184
piezoelectric interface 379
heat dissipation 79
shell and plate interfaces 225
Hermitian matrices 96
solid mechanics interface 123
hide button 27
thermal stress interface 346
H-profile sections, beams 263

422 | I N D E X
 truss interface 309 linearized buckling analysis 61
initial values, theory for shells and plates liquids and gases materials 401
246 load cases 40
interior wall (node) 357 load multiplier 61
Internet resources 28 loads
inverse piezoelectric effect 382 acceleration 43
isotropic materials applied to beams 280
defining 164 pressure 42
elastic properties 116, 330 singular 41
loss damping and 188 solid mechanics theory 179
loss factor damping and 121 total 43
iterative solvers 96 trusses 310
local coordinate systems 162
J Joule heating and thermal expansion in-
local edge system 234
terface 53, 362
logarithmic decrement 74
K kinematic constraints 46
loss factor damping
knowledge base, COMSOL 30
modeling 79
L Lagrange shape functions, trusses and solid mechanics and 121
319 solid mechanics theory 187
Lagrangian formulations 162 springs and 93
Lagrangian frame 58 loss modulus 79, 194
Lam constants 165 loss tangents 390
large deformations 16, 171 losses and damping 73
piezoelectric materials 386 low-reflecting boundary (node) 158
lattice trusses 318 low-reflecting boundary, theory 209
linear buckling study 16, 23, 57
M mass and moment of inertia (node) 140
linear elastic material (node) 115
mass damping parameter 77
beam interface 257
mass matrix 22
membrane interface 329
mass moment of inertia 280
shell and plate interfaces 219
Material Browser
truss interface 307
opening 399
linear elastic materials 50, 163
material coordinates 161
linear viscoelastic material (node) 133
material frame 58
linear viscoelastic material, damping and
Material Library 395
77
material models 50
linear viscoelastic materials
materials
theory 190
databases 395
linear viscoelasticity 190
domain, default 398

INDEX| 423
 linear elastic 163 thermal stress interface 341
linear viscoelastic 190 truss interface 304
liquids and gases 401 viscoelastic material 134
MEMS 405 modeling fluid-structure interaction 358
nearly incompressible 207 modeling, large deformations 189
piezoelectric 383, 409 moment computations 47
piezoelectric devices 385 moments
properties, evaluating and plotting 398 beams 265, 285
membrane interface 326 shells and plates 249
theory 335 solid mechanics and 42
MEMS materials 405 moments of inertia 282
Mindlin-Reissner type shell 241 MPH-files 29
MITC shell formulation 241, 245 multiphysics modeling 52
mixed formulations 51, 208 MUMPS direct solvers 96
Model Builder settings 27
N Navier-Stokes equations 360
Model Library 29
nearly incompressible materials 51, 200,
Model Library examples
207
beam interface 254
no rotation (node)
cross section data 263
beam interface 277
damping 120
shell and plate interfaces 231
fluid-structure interaction interface
nominal stress 205
352
nonlinear geometry 172, 205
geometric nonlinearity 57
normal forces 285
initial stress and strain 146
normal stress 173
Joule heating and thermal expansion
O orientation, piezoelectric material 82
interface 362
orthotropic materials
linear elastic material 257
defining 167
load cases 40
elastic properties 117
membrane interface 326
loss damping and 188
MEMS materials database 405
loss factor damping and 121
model mass 70, 72
override and contribution settings 27
piezoelectric devices interface 369
piezoelectric materials database 409 P pair conditions
prestressed analysis study 24 beam interface 256
rigid connector 137 fluid-structure interaction interface
shell interface 214 354
solid mechanics interface 111 joule heating and thermal expansion
thermal expansion 145 interface 366

424 | I N D E X
 membrane interface 328 truss interface 311
piezoelectric devices interface 371 pipe sections, beams 263
solid mechanics interface 113 plane stress and strain 105, 112
thermal stress interface 345 planes, symmetry and constraints 45
truss interface 306 plate interface 214
pair selection 28 theory 241
parametric analysis 16 plates
parametric solvers 40 damping 223
penalized friction traction 197 external loads 249
penalty factors initial and prescribed values 246
contact node and 142 intial stresses and strains 222
contact pairs and 65 linear elastic material 219
theory 197 MITC shell formulation 245
perfectly matched layers. see PML. prescribed acceleration 235
periodic condition (node) prescribed displacement/rotation 231
piezoelectric devices interface 380 prescribed velocity 233
solid mechanics interface 132 stress and strain calculations 249
periodic conditions, theory 210 symmetry and antisymmetry 247
phase (node) thermal expansion 221
beam interface 270 plotting, material properties 398
shell and plate interfaces 229 PML 98, 100
solid mechanics interface 147 point conditions
truss interface 311 beam interface 256
physics settings windows 27 fluid-structure interaction interface
physics symbols 354
coordinate directions for 108 joule heating and thermal expansion
showing 106 interface 366
piezoelectric 82 membrane interface 328
piezoelectric coupling 369 piezoelectric devices interface 371
piezoelectric crystal cut 82 solid mechanics interface 113
piezoelectric devices interface 369 thermal stress interface 345
theory 382 truss interface 306
piezoelectric losses 88 point load (node) 126
piezoelectric material (node) 373 beam interface 269
piezoelectric materials 409 shell and plate interfaces 229
pinned (node) point loads example 41
beam interface 276 point mass (node)
shell and plate interfaces 230 beam interface 280

INDEX| 425
 truss interface 316 Rayleigh damping 75, 77, 186
point mass damping (node) reaction forces, evaluating 47
beam interface 281 rectangle sections, beams 263
truss interface 317 reference coordinates 161
Poissons ratio 51, 165 reference point for moment computa-
pre-deformation (node) 154 tion 47
prescribed acceleration (node) refpnt variable 112
beam interface 274 remanent electric displacement (node)
shell and plate interfaces 235 378
solid mechanics interface 149 resonant frequency 75
truss interface 314 results evaluation, for shells 240
prescribed displacement 46 rigid connector 198
prescribed displacement (node) rigid connector (node) 137, 238
solid mechanics interface 128, 333 rigid connectors
truss interface 312 kinematic constraints and 46
prescribed displacement/rotation (node) moments and 42
beam interface 271 rigid domain (node) 140
shell and plate interfaces 231 roller (node) 131
prescribed mesh displacement (node) rotated coordinate system 86
357 rotational degrees of freedom 283
prescribed values, shells and plates 246 rotational joints, beams 46
prescribed velocity (node)
S sagging cables 318
beam interface 273
scaling of eigenvectors 69
shell and plate interfaces 233
second Piola Kirchoff stress 59
solid mechanics interface 148
second Piola-Kirchhoff stress 174
truss interface 313
section orientation (node) 267
pressure loads 42, 181
selecting
pressure-wave speeds 165
solvers 95
prestressed analysis, eigenfrequency
shear modulus expression 165
study 57
shear strain 170
prestressed analysis, frequency domain
shear stress 173
study 57
shear-wave speeds 165
principle of virtual work 182
shell interface 214
Prony series 191
theory 241
Q quality factors and losses 390 shells
quaternion representation, of rigid con- damping 223
nector 199 external loads 249
initial and prescribed values 246
R rate of strain tensor 173

426 | I N D E X
 intial stresses and strains 222 St. Venants principle 41
linear elastic material 219 stabilization settings 28
MITC shell formulation 245 static frictional coefficients 198
prescribed acceleration 235 stationary solvers 40, 95
prescribed displacement/rotation 231 stationary study 21
prescribed velocity 233 stiffness damping parameter 77
stress and strain calculations 249 stiffness matrix 22
symmetry and antisymmetry 247 storage modulus 79, 194
thermal expansion 221 straight edge constraint (node) 311
show button 27 straight edges 322
showing strain 170, 173
physics symbols 106 axial symmetry 171
singular loads 41 engineering form 170
skew-symmetric part 172 shear 170
solid mechanics tensor form 170
damping 120 strain tensor 170
edge loads 126 strain-displacement relation 170
intial stresses and strains 146 large displacement 171
prescribed acceleration 149 small displacement 170
prescribed velocity 148 strain-displacement, trusses 319
solid mechanics interface 111 strain-displacement/rotation 284
theory 160 strains, membranes 336
solver methods, augmented Lagrangian stress 173
196 Cachy 173
solver parameters 95 first Piola-Kirchhoff 174
solver settings 95 normal 173
SOR line solvers 97 second Piola-Kirchhoff 174
sources and destinations 64 shear 173
spatial coordinates 161 tensor 173
spatial frame 59 stress and strain tensors 163
spatial stress tensor 59 stress and strain, piezoelectric devices
spherical coordinate systems 99 383
spin tensor 173 stress evaluation, beams 289
SPOOLES solvers 53 stress stiffening 335
spring constant 93 stresses, membranes 336
spring foundation (node) 150 stress-strain relation 173
spring foundation, solid mechanics 93 beams 285
spring foundation, theory 201 trusses 320

INDEX| 427
 structural damping 79 beams 290
Structural Mechanics Module 14 trusses 321
study steps, geometric nonlinearity and thermal effects (node) 135
55 thermal expansion
study types 21 loads and 43
eigenfrequency 185 thermal expansion (node)
frequency domain, solid mechanics in- beam interface 258
terface 184 shell and plate interfaces 221
parametric 16 solid mechanics interface 144
stationary, solid mechanics interface truss interface 308
183 thermal expansion, Joule heating and 362
viscoelastic transient initialization 183 thermal hyperelastic material (node) 348
surface traction and reaction forces 49 thermal linear elastic material (node) 347
symbols for physics 106 thermal linear viscoelastic material
symmetric matrices 95 (node) 350
symmetry (node) thermal strain
beam interface 277 beams 285
shell and plate interfaces 236 study types and 24
solid mechanics interface 130 thermal stress interface 341
truss interface 315 modeling 52
symmetry constraints 44 thermal-electric-structural interaction
53
T tangential strains 336
thermal-structural analysis 24
technical support, COMSOL 30
thermoelastic materials, defining 169
temperature loads 43
thermorheologically simple viscoelastic
tensors
materials 192
linear elastic materials 163
thin elastic layer (node) 155
the moving mesh interface, piezoelectric
thin elastic layer, solid mechanics 93
devices and 388
thin elastic layer, theory 202
theory
time-dependent study 21
beam interface 282
torsional constants and moments 288
fluid-structure interaction interface
total force loads 180
360
total Lagrangian formulation 16
membrane interface 335
total loads 43
piezoelectric devices interface 382
t-profile sections, beams 263
shell and plate interfaces 241
tractions 59
solid mechanics interface 160
transient study 21
truss interface 318
TRS material 193
thermal coupling

428 | I N D E X
 true stress tensor 59 viscous damping 80, 94
truss interface 304 Voigt form 82
theory 318 Voigt notation 122, 167, 383
trusses volume ratio 171
intial stresses and strains 308, 320
W wave speeds 117, 258, 330
linear elastic material 307
weak constraint settings 28
loads 310
weak constraints, using 48
prescribed displacements 312
web sites, COMSOL 30
prescribed velocity 313
WLF shift functions 136137, 193
straight edge 322
Y Youngs modulus expression 165
strain-displacement 319
thermal coupling 321
thermal expansion 308
typographical conventions 30

U undamped models 91
units, loads and 39
u-profile sections, beams 263
user community, COMSOL 30
using
coordinate systems 162
predefined variables 47
spatial and material coordinates 161
weak constraints 48
uspring variable 93

V variables
elcontact 196
for material properties 398
material and spatial coordinates 161
predefined 47
refpnt 112
vdamper variable 94
viscoelastic materials
axial symmetry 194
definition 51
frequency domain analysis and damp-
ing 193
temperature effects 192
viscoelastic transient initialization 24, 183

INDEX| 429
430 | I N D E X