ELEMENTS OF

1 QUANTUM
MECHANICS

1.1 INTRODUC TION

A revolution took place in physics between 1900 and 1930. This was the era
of a new and more general scheme called quantum mechanics. This new
approach was highly successful in explaining the behaviour of atoms, mol-
ecules and nuclei. Moreover, the quantum theory raduces to classical physics
when applied to macroscopic systems.
The basic ideas of quantum theory were first introduced by Max Planck,
but most of the subsequent mathematical developments and interpretations
were made by a number of distinguished physicists including Einstein, Bohr,
Schrdinger, de Broglie, Heisenberg, Born and Dirac.
This chapter is simply an introduction to the underlying ideas of quan-
tum theory and the wave-particle nature of matter. We shall also discuss
some simple applications of quantum theory.

1.2 WAVE-PARTICLE DU
WAVE-PARTICLE ALIT
DUALIT
ALITYY
It is well recognised that the same light beam that can eject photoelectrons
from a metallic surface can also be diffracted by a grating. In other words, the
photon concept and the wave theory of light complement each other. Thus,
all forms of electromagnetic radiation can be described from two points of
view. In one extreme electromagnetic waves describe interference and dif-
fraction pattern formed by a large number of photons while in other extreme,
the photon description is natural when we deal with highly energetic photon
of very short wavelength.
Light and other electromagnetic radiation sometimes act like waves and
sometimes like particles. Interference and diffraction demonstrate wave
behaviour while emission and absorption of photons demonstrate the par-
ticle behaviour. Besides waves that sometimes acts like particles, quantum
mechanics extend the concept of wave-particle duality to include particles
that sometimes show wavelike behaviour. In these situations, a particle is
modelled as an inherently spread-out entity that cannot be described as a
point with a perfectly definite position and velocity.

1
2 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

1.3 de BROGLIE W
BROGLIE AVES
WA
de Broglie postulated that a free particle with mass m moving with speed v
should have a wavelength related to its momentum exactly the same way
as for a photon. A photon of light of frequency has the momentum.
h
p = .
c
Since = c so, the wavelength of a photon is specified by its momentum
according to the relation
h
= . ...(1.1)
p
de Broglie suggested that eqn. (1.1) is a completely general one that applies
to material particles as well as to photons. The momentum of a particle of
mass m and velocity v is p = mv and its de Broglie wavelength is accordingly.
h
= . ...(1.2)
mv
In eqn. (1.2) m is the relativistic mass
m0
m = .
1 v2 c2
The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be observed
at the same time. In certain situations a moving body exhibits wave proper-
ties and in others it exhibits particle properties. Which set of properties is
most conspicuous depends upon how its de Broglie wavelength compares
with its dimensions and the dimensions of whatever it interacts with.

de Broglie Wave Velocity

If we call the de Broglie wave velocity as W, we may write
W = .
Where is the de Broglie wavelength and is the frequency. To find the
frequency, we equate the quantum expression E = h with the relativistic
formula for total energy E = mc2
h = mc2
mc 2
= .
h
The de Broglie wave velocity is therefore
mc2 h c 2
W = = .
h mv v
Since particle velocity v must be less than the velocity of light c, de
Broglie waves always travel faster then light. In order to understand this
unexpected result, we must understand distinction between phase velocity
and group velocity. Phase velocity is the velocity of wave.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 3

1.4 WAVE EQU

WAVE ATION
EQUA
The equation of the wave travelling in the direction of increasing x and whose
vibrations are in the y direction can be given as

y = A cos 2 t
x

W
where A is the amplitude of vibrations (that is, their maximum displacement
on either side of the x-axis) and their frequency. The wave has some speed
W and travels the distance x in time t.
Since the wave speed W is given by
W = .
We have wave equation

y = A cos 2 t .
x
...(1.3)

Equation (1.3) is more convenient to use. The most widely used descrip-
tion of a wave, however, is still another form with angular frequency and
wave number. Angular frequency and wave number k can be defined by
the formulas
2
= 2, k = .
W
The unit of is the radian per second and that of k is the radian per
meter. In terms of and k eqn. (1.3) becomes
y = A cos (t kx). ...(1.4)

1.5 PHASE AND GROUP VEL

GROUP OCITIES
VELOCITIES
The wave representation of a moving particle corresponds to a wave packet
or wave group as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Mathematically a wave group can
be described in terms of the superpo-
sition of individual waves of different
wavelengths whose interference with
one another results in the variation in
amplitude. If the velocities of the Fig. 1.1. Wave group
waves are the same, the velocity with
which the wave group travels is the common wave velocity. If the wave
velocity varies with wavelength, the different individual waves do not pro-
ceed together and the wave group has a velocity different from those of the
waves that compose it.
Let us suppose that a wave group arises from the combination of the
following two waves that have the same amplitude A but differ in angular
frequency and wave number.
4 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

y1 = A cos (t kx)
y2 = A cos [( + d)t (k + dk)x].
The resultant displacement y at any time t and any position x is the sum
of y1 and y2.
1
y = y1 + y2 = 2A cos [(2 + d)t (2k + dk)x]
2
1
cos (dt dkx).
2
Since d and dk are small compared with and k respectively.
2 + d 2
2k + dk 2k
d
y = 2A cos (t kx) cos
dk
t x ...(1.5)
2 2
Equation (1.5) represents a wave of angular frequency and wave num-
ber k which has superimposed upon it a wave (the process is known as
d
modulation) of angular frequency dk
and wave number . The effect
2 2
of this modulation is to produce successive wave groups.
The phase velocity or wave velocity W is given by
2
W = =
2
k
while the group velocity u of the group of waves is given by
d
u = .
dk
The group velocity may be greater or less than the phase velocity. It
depends on the manner in which phase velocity varies with wave number.
For light waves in vacuum, the group and phase velocities are the same.
The angular frequency and wave number of the de Broglie waves asso-
ciated with a particle of rest mass m0 moving with the velocity v are
Angular frequency of de Broglie waves
2 mc 2 2 m0 c 2
= 2 = .
h h 1 v2 c2
Wave number of de Broglie waves
2 2 mv 2 m0 v
k = .
h h 1 v2 c2
de Broglie phase velocity
c2
W =
k v
which exceeds both the velocity of the particle v and the velocity of light c,
since v < c.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 5
The group velocity u of the de Broglie waves associated with the particle
is
d d dv
u =
dk dk dv
d 2 m0 v
=
dk h(1 v 2 c 2 )3/2
dk 2 m0
and =
dv h(1 v 2 c 2 )3/2
so u = v.
The de Broglie wave group associated with a moving particle travels
with the same velocity as the particle.
The wave velocity W of de Broglie waves has no simple physical signifi-
cance.
The wave velocity is a function of wavelength even in free space and
here it differs from the velocity of light which may be shown as under
p = mv and total energy E = mc2
E
So, p = v and now using the relativistic expression for the mass of a
c2
particle, the equation for its momentum can be given as
m0
p = v
v2
1 2
c
where m0 is the rest mass of the particle.
Eliminating v between the last two equation, we get
2
E2 p
m02 =
c4 c2
h
Since we known that p = and E = h.

h 2 1
So, m0 =
c c2 2
For de Broglie wave W = .
h W2 1
Hence m0 =
c c 2 2 2

m02c2
From which W = c 1 2
h2
This equation shows that for a particle of rest mass m0 > 0, the wave
velocity W is always greater than c and also the wave velocity of de Broglie
waves is a function of even in free space.
6 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Now consider electromagnetic wave as a special case of de Broglie wave

and so, these de Broglie waves are propagated with a velocity W = c. The
velocity of the associated particle i.e., photon is also equal to c. If W = c is
substituted in the last equation given above, we find that rest mass of the
photon m0 = 0 i.e., there is no such thing as a photon at rest, photon always
moves with the velocity c.

1.6 DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

DAVISSON
In 1927, Davisson and Germer predicted
experimentally the electron waves pre-
dicted by de Broglie. Davisson and
Germer were studying the scattering of
electrons from a nickel target using an
apparatus like that sketched in Fig. 1.2.
The energy of the electrons in the
primary beam, the angle at which they
are incident upon the target and the
position of the detector could all be var-
ied. The nickel target was subjected to
such a high temperature treatment that
the crystal was transformed into a group Fig. 1.2
of crystals. In this case the reflection be-
came anomalous and the reflected intensity showed striking maxima and minima
instead of a continuous variation of scattered electron intensity with angle.
The position of the maxima and minima observed depended upon the
electron energy. Then, they suspected that the beam of electron might be
diffracted from the crystals like X-rays. This shows that electrons behave like
waves under certain circumstances. Typical polar graphs of electron intensity
after the heat treatment are shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 7
The method of plotting is such that the intensity at any angle is propor-
tional to the distance of the curve at that angle from the point of scattering.
If the intensity were the same at all scattering angles, the curves would be
circles centered on the point of scattering.
de Broglie hypothesis suggested the interpretation that the electron waves
were being diffracted by the target, much as X-rays are diffracted by the
planes of atoms in a crystal. This idea was confirmed when it was realised
that the effect of heating a block of nickel at high temperature is to cause
many small individual crystals of which it is normally composed to form into
a single large crystal all of whose atoms are arranged in a regular lattice.
To verify whether de Broglie waves are responsible for the findings of
Davisson and Germer, an analysis of the observation should be made.
For the beam of electrons falling normally
on the surface of the crystal, the current ob-
served in detector is a measure of the inten-
sity of the diffracted beam. Several curves
were obtained for different voltage electrons
when graphs were plotted between the co-
latitude (angle between the incident beam and
the beam entering the detector) which are
shown in Fig. 1.4.
It is observed that a bump begins to ap-
pear in the curve at 44 volt electrons. This
bump moves upward for 54 volts at colati-
Fig. 1.4
tude of 50. Above 54 volts the bump again
diminishes. The bump at 54 volts offers the evidence for the existence of
electron waves.
The angles of incidence and scattering relative to the family of Bragg
plane shown in Fig. 1.4 are both 65. The spacing of the planes in this family,
which can be measured by X-ray diffraction is 0.091 nm. The Bragg equation
for maxima in the diffraction pattern is
n = 2d sin .
Here d = 0.091 nm, = 65. For n = 1, the de Broglie wavelength of the
diffracted electrons is
= (2) (0.091) (sin 65) = 0.165 nm,
We use de Broglie formula to calculate the expected wavelength of the
electrons. The electron kinetic energy of 54 eV is small compared with its rest
energy m0c2 of 0.51 MeV so we can ignore relativistic considerations.
1
Since K = mv 2 .
2
8 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

The electron momentum mv is

mv = 2mk (2) (9.1 10 31 ) (54) (1.6 10 19 )

= 4.0 1024 kg m/s.

The electron wavelength is therefore

h 6.63 1034
= = 1.66 1010 m = 0.166 nm
mv 4.0 10 24
is in excellent agreement with the observed wavelength. The Davisson-Germer
experiment thus provides direct verification of de Broglies hypothesis of the
wave nature of moving bodies.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
SOLVED
EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with a proton mov-
1
ing with a velocity equal to th of the velocity of light.
20
SOLUTION: Velocity of proton
3 10 8
v = = 1.5 107 m/s
20
Mass of the protonm = 1.67 1027 kg

h 6.6 10 34
= = 2.634 1014 m.
mv 1.67 10 27 1.5 107
EXAMPLE 2: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of neutron of energy 12.8 MeV.
Given h = 6.62 1034 J.sec, m = 1.67 1027 kg.
1.507 1010
SOLUTION: m0c2 = = 941.87 MeV
1.6 1019
Since 12.8 MeV is very small compared to rest mass energy hence rela-
tivistic consideration may be ignored
h h
= E = Ve where V is voltage in volts
mv 2mE
6.62 10 34
=
2 1.67 10 27 12.8 106 1.6 1019
= 8.0 105 .
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 9
EXAMPLE 3: Show that the de Broglie wavelength for a material particle of rest
mass m0 and charge q accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V volts
relativistically is given by
h
= .
qV
2m0 qV 1
2m0 c 2

SOLUTION: Kinetic energy Ek = Vq.
Ek mv2 because v is relativistic velocity and so, we cannot find momen-
tum directly from Ek. Now, we use relativistic formula
E2 = p2c2 + m02c4
E = Ek + m0c2 = Vq + m0c2
P2c2 = E2 m02c4 = (Vq + m0c2)2 m02c4
P2c2 = V2q2 + 2Vq m0c2

V 2 q2 Vq
P2 = 2Vq m0 2m0 Vq 1
c 2 2m0 c 2

Vq
P = 2m0 Vq 1
2m0 c2

1
de Broglie wavelength =
Vq
2m0 Vq 1
2m0 c 2

EXAMPLE 4: Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron accelerated to
a potential difference of 1.25 keV.
SOLUTION: If E is the K.E. of the electron, the de Broglie wavelength of the
wave associated with the electron is

h 6.6 10 34
=
2mE 2 9.1 10 31 1.25 10 3 1.6 10 19

= 3.46 1011.
EXAMPLE 5: What will be the kinetic energy of an electron if its de Broglie
wavelength equals the wavelength of the yellow line of sodium (5896 ). The rest
mass of electron is m0 = 9.1 1031 kg and h = 6.63 1034 J. sec.
SOLUTION: de Broglie wavelength
h h
= or v= .
mv m
10 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

In the absence of relativistic consideration m = m0

h 1
= , Kinetic energy K = m0 v 2
m0 v 2
2
1 h h2
K = m0 .
2 m0 2m0 2
Putting the values of h, m0 and
(6.63 10 34 )2 6.95 10 25
K =
2 9.1 1031 (5896 10 10 )2 1.6 1019
= 4.34 106 eV.
EXAMPLE 6: A particle of rest mass m0 has a kinetic energy K. Show that its de
Broglie wavelength is given by
hc
= .
K (K 2m0 c 2 )
Hence, calculate the wavelength of an electron of kinetic energy 1 MeV. What
will be the value of if K << m0c2?
SOLUTION: According to de Broglies concept of matter wave, the wave-
length
h m0
= m=
mv (1 v 2 c 2 )1/2
1/2
v2 m0
1 2 =
m
c
m02 v2
1 =
m2 c2
v2 m2 m02
or =
c2 m2
or m2v2 = (m m02)c2
2

or mv = c(m2 m02)1/2.
Substituting this value of mv in equation of wavelength, we get
h
=
c m m02 2

hc
or =
c 2
m2 m02
c2(m2 m02)1/2 = [c4(m m0) (m + m0)]1/2
= [c2(m m0) {(m + m0)c2}]1/2
= [(m m0)c2 {(m m0)c2 + 2m0c2}]1/2
or c2(m2 m02)1/2 = [K(K + 2m0c2)]1/2.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 11
hc
Therefore = .
[K (K 2m0 c 2 ]1/2
For an electron m0c2 = 9.1 1031 (3 108)2 joule
81.9 1015
= eV = 0.51 106 eV = 0.51 MeV
1.6 1019
hc hc
For K = 1 MeV, =
1(1 (2 0.51)) 2.02
6.62 10 34 3 108
= m
2.02 1.6 10 19 106
= 8.78 1013 m = 8.78 103 .
If K << m0c then K + 2m0c2 = 2m0c2
2

hc h
= .
2 2m0 K
2m0 Kc
EXAMPLE 7: What is the de Broglie wavelengths of any electron which has been
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 100 V.
12.25
SOLUTION: =
V
V = 100 volts
12.25
= = 1.225 .
100
EXAMPLE 8: Can a photon and an electron of the same momentum have the same
wavelength? Compare their wavelengths if the two have the same energy.
S OLUTION : Using de Broglie concept of matter wave, momentum
h
of the electron may be written as pe = and momentum of photon
e
h h
as pph = .
c p
So, if the electron and photon have same momentum, then we have e = p.
Thus, the photon and electron of the same momentum have the same
wavelength.
The de Broglie wavelength of electron is given by
h 1
e = and mv 2 = E or mv = 2mE
mv 2
where E is the energy of the electron
1
So, e =
2mE
12 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

The de Broglie wavelength of photon is given by

h hc
ph = but E = h = = pc
p
hc
ph =
E
ph hc 2mE 2m 2mc 2
Now = c .
e E h E E
EXAMPLE 9: Find the energy of the neutron in units of electron volt whose de
Broglie wavelength is 1 .
SOLUTION: Given mass of the neutron = 1.674 1027 kg
Plancks constant h = 6.60 1034 joule/sec
h h
We know that =
mv 2mE
h2
or E =
2m 2
where m = 1.674 1027 kg
= 1 = 1010 m
h = 6.60 1034 J.s.
(6.60 1034 )2
E = = 13.01 1021 joules
2 1.674 1027 (10 10 )2
13.01 10 21
= = 8.13 102 eV.
1.6 10 19
EXAMPLE 10(a): What would be the wavelength of quantum of radiant energy
emitted, if an electron transmitted into radiation and converted into one quantum?
SOLUTION: When the energy of an electron is transmitted into radiation,
we use the following relations to get the value of
hc
E = mc2 and E = h =

h 6.6 10 34
So =
mc 9.1 10 31 3 108
= 0.0242 1010 m = 0.0242 .
EXAMPLE 10(b): A lamp of 150 W is emitting 8% of its energy as blue light
having a mean wavelength of 4500 . How many photons are being emitted by the
lamp per second.

SOLUTION: Power emitted by the lamp = 150 8 W 12 W

100
The energy emitted per second = 12 J
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 13

Energy contained in one photon = hc/ =

6.625 10 34 3 108
4500 1010
20
= 44.2 10 J
12
No. of photons emitted per second = 27.15 1018.
44.2 10 20

1.7 UNCERTAINT
UNCERTAINT
AINTYY PRINCIPLE
It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an
object at the same time.
To regard a moving particle as a wave group implies that there are some
fundamental limits to the accuracy with which we can measure position and
momentum of a particle.

Fig. 1.5
The narrower the wave group of the particle, its position can be precisely
determined (Fig. 1.5a).
The wavelength and hence particles momentum cannot be established
h
because = and it is not well defined in a narrow packet.
mv
On the other hand, a wide wave group such as in Fig. 1.5b, the wave-
length can be precisely determined but not the position of the particle.
The relationship between the distance x and the wave number spread
k depends upon the shape of the wave group and upon how x and k are
defined. If (x) representes a wave group and the function g(k) describes how
the amplitudes of the waves that contribute to (x) vary with wave number
k and x and k are taken as the standard deviations of the respective func-
1
tions (x) and g(k), then the minimum value of x k = .
2
It is more realistic to express the relationship between x and k as
1
x k .
2
The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of momentum p is
h
= .
p
The wave number corresponding to this wavelength is
2 2p
k = .
h
14 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Hence an uncertainty k in the wave number of the de Broglie waves

associated with the particle results in an uncertainty p in the particles
momentum according to the formula
hk
p = .
2
1 1
Since x k , k
2 2(x)
h
x p . ...(1.6)
4
Equation (1.6) states that the product of the uncertainty x in the position
of an object at some instant and the uncertainty p in its momentum compo-
h
nent in the x direction at the same instant is equal to or greater than . For
4
a narrow wave group x is small and then p will be large and in a broad
wave group p is small and then x will be large.
h
Generally is abbreviated as (h bar)
2
h
= = 1.054 1034 J.s.
2
Thus, in terms of , the uncertainty principle becomes

x p .
2
In the above discussion we have considered wave nature of particle
while uncertainty principle can be arrived considering particle nature of
waves.

It is worth mentioning that the lower limit of for x p is rearely
2
attained; more usually x p or even x p h.
Another form of the uncertainty principle is sometimes useful. Let en-
ergy emitted E be measured during the time interval t in an atomic process.
The limited time available imposes restriction on the accuracy with which we
can determine the frequency of the waves.
The uncertainty in our frequency measurement is
1
.
t
Because the minimum uncertainty in the number of waves we count in
a wave group is one wave and to get uncertainty , it is divided by the time
inverval.
The corresponding energy uncertainty is
E = h
h
and so E or E t h.
t
A more precise calculation changes this result to

E t .
2
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 15

SOLVED EXAMPLES
SOLVED
EXAMPLE 11: Calculate the smallest possible uncertainty in the position of an
electron moving with velocity 3 107 m/s.

SOLUTION: (x)min (p)max = h

2
(p)max = p (momentum of the electron)
m0 v
mv =
(1 v 2 c 2 )

h 1 v2 c2
(x)min =
2 m0 v
h
= 1.05 1034 J.s., v = 3 107 m/s, m0 = 9 1031 kg, c = 3 108 m/s
2
(3 107 )2
1.05 10 34 1
(3 108 )2
(x)min =
9 10 31 3 107
= 3.8 1012 m = 0.038 .

EXAMPLE 12: An electron is confined to a box of length 108 meter; calculate the
minimum uncertainty in its velocity. Given m = 9 1031 kg; = 1.05 1034 joule
second.
SOLUTION: (x)max = 108 meter

1.05 10 34
(p)min = kg-m/s
( x )max 10 8
= 1.05 1026 kg-m/s
(p)min = m(v)min = 1.05 1026
1.05 10 26 1.05 10 26
(v)min = = 1.17 104 m/s.
m 9 10 31

EXAMPLE 13: Find the uncertainty in the momentum of a particle when its
position is determined within 0.01 cm. Find also the uncertainty in the velocity of
an electron and an -particle respectively when they are located within 5 108 cm.
SOLUTION: According to uncertainty principle
h
(x) (p) =
2
h
or p =
2 x
16 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

h
= 1.05 1034 J.s x = 0.01 102 meter
2
1.05 10 34
p = = 1.05 1030 kg m/s
0.01 102
p = mv
h
v = .
2m x
Uncertainty in the velocity of electron
m = 9 1031 kg
x = 5 1010 m
1.05 10 34
v =
9 1031 5 10 10
= 2.33 105 m/sec.
Uncertainty in the velocity of -particle, mass of -particle = 4 mass of
proton
= 4 1.67 1027 = 6.68 1027 kg
x = 5 1010 m
1.05 10 34
v =
6.68 1027 5 10 10
= 31.4 m/sec.
EXAMPLE 14: An electron has a speed 4 105 m/s within the accuracy of 0.01
per cent. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of the electron. Given h = 6.625
1034 J.s. Mass of electron = 9.11 1031 kg.

SOLUTION: Uncertainty in velocity = 0.01 4 105 = 40 m/s

100
h
(x) (p) =
2
h 1.055 10 34
(x) =
2 ( p) m v
1.055 10 34
= = 2.895 106 m.
9.11 10 31 40

EXAMPLE 15: An excited atom has an average lifetime of 108 sec. That is during
this period it emits a photon and returns to the ground state. What is the minimum
uncertainty in the frequency of this photon?
h
SOLUTION: E t
2
E = h
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 17
or E = h
h
h t
2
1
or
2 t
t = 108 sec
1
= 15.92 106 sec1.
2 3.14 10 8
EXAMPLE 16: If an excited state of hydrogen atom has a lifetime of 2.5 1014
sec. What is the minimum error with which the energy of this state can be measured?
SOLUTION: The uncertainty in the energy of the photon is equal to the
uncertainty in the energy of the excited state of the atom due to energy
conservation.
According to uncertainty principle
h
E t
2
h 6.63 10 34
E = 4.22 1021 J
2 t 2 3.14 (2.5 10 14 )

4.22 10 21
= = 0.026 eV.
1.6 1019

EXAMPLE 17: Using the uncertainty relation E.t = h , calculate the time
2
required for the atomic system to retain rotation energy for a line of wavelength 6000
and width 10 4 .

SOLUTION: We know that E = h = hc

hc
E =
2
where is the width of the spectral lines. Here = 10 4 1010 m.
Using uncertainty relation
h
E . t = , we have
2
h h 2
t =
2 E hc 2 c
2 2

(6 107 )2
Putting the value we get t =
2 3.14 3 108 1014
= 1.9 10 8 second.
18 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

EXAMPLE 18: A nucleon is confined to a nucleus of diameter 5 1014 m.

Calculate the minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the nucleon. Also calculate
the minimum kinetic energy of the nucleon.
SOLUTION: We have the relation
h
(p)min (x)max =
2
h 6.626 1034
(p)min =
2(x)max 5 10 14 2 3.14
= 0.21 1020 kg m/sec.
Since p cannot be less than (p)min

( Pmin )2
Emin =
2m
Putting the values of
Pmin = 0.21 1020 kg . m/sec and m = 1.675 1027 kg.

(0.21 1020 )2
Emin = = 0.063 1013 J
2 1.675 1027

0.063 10 13
= = 0.039 MeV.
1.6 10 19

EXAMPLE 19: An electron is confined to a box of length 1.1 108 m. Calculate

h
the minimum uncertainty in its velocity. Given m = 9.1 1031 kg and = 1.05
2
1034 J.s.
SOLUTION: We know from uncertainty principle that
h h
x . p p =
2 2 x
Let v be the uncertainty in the velocity of a particle of mass m, so we
have
p
p = mv or v =
m
h
x = 1.1 108 m, = 1.05 1034 J.s. and m = 9.1 1031 kg
2
h 1.05 1034
v =
2 m x 9.1 10 31 1.1 10 8
= 1.06 104 m/sec.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 19
EXAMPLE 20(a): What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency of a photon
whose life time is about 108 sec?
SOLUTION: From uncertainty principle, we have
h
E t But E = h or E = h
2
h 1
h t or
2 2 t
1
Putting t = 108 sec, = = 15.92 106/sec.
2 3.14 108
EXAMPLE 20(b): A typical atomic nucleus is about 5 1015 m in radius. Use
the uncertainty principle to place a lower limit on the energy an electron must have
if it is to be part of a nucleus.
SOLUTION: Let x = 5 1015 m

1.054 10 34
p
2x 2 5 10 15
1.1 1020 kg . m/s
If this is the uncertainty in a nuclear electrons momentum, the momen-
tum p itself must be at least comparable in magnitude. An electron with such
a momentum has kinetic energy many times greater than its rest energy m0c2.
Thus we have E = pc
E = pc (1.1 1020) (3 108)
3.3 1012 J
Since 1 eV = 1.6 1019 J, the energy of an electron must exceed 20 MeV
if it is to be on nuclear constituent. Experiments indicate that even the elec-
trons associated with unstable atoms never have more than a fraction of this
energy and we conclude that electrons are not present within nuclear.

1.8 WAVE FUNCTION AND WA

WAVE VE EQU
WAVE ATION
EQUA
The quantity with which quantum mechanics is concerned is the wave func-
tion of a body. The square of its absolute magnitude | |2 evaluated at a
particular place at a particular time is proportional to the probability of
finding the body there at that time. The momentum, angular momentum and
energy of the body are other quantities that can be established from . In
quantum mechanics we determine for a body when its freedom of motions
is limited by the action of external forces.
If the wave function is complex with both real and imaginary parts, the
probability density | |2 is written as *. Where * is complex conjugate of
. A complex wave function can be written in the form
= A + iB where A and B are real functions
* = A iB
* = A2 + B2 [i2 = 1].
20 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Thus * is always a positive real quantity. The condition for an accept-

able wave function is that the integral of | |2 over all space must be finite,
if | |2 is equal to P, then it must be true that


PdV
2
dV = 1 since =1

is the mathematical statement that the particle exists somewhere at all times.
A wave function that obeys above equation is said to be normalised. Every
acceptable wave function can be normalised by multiplying by an appropri-
ate constant.
Besides being normalisable, must be single valued, since P can have
only one value at a particular place and time and continuous. Momentum

considerations require that the partial derivatives, , be finite con-
x y z
tinuous and single valued. The wave functions with all these properties can
yield physically meaningful results when used in calculations.
For a particle restricted to motion in the x direction, the probability of
finding it between x1 and x2 is given by
x2

2
Probability = dx
x1

Schrdingers equation which is the fundamental equation of quantum

mechanics is a wave equation in the variable .

1.9 SC HR
SCHR DINGERS EQU
HRDINGERS ATION: TIME-DEPENDENT
EQUA
The wave function of a freely moving particle moving in x direction can be
represented by a wave function as
i t
x

= Ae ...(1.15)
Replacing in the above formula by 2 and v = , we get
= Ae2i(t x/) ...(1.16)
Which is convenient since we know in terms of the total energy E and
momentum p of the particle being described by .
h 2
Since E = h = 2 and =
p p
we have = Ae(i/)(Et px). ...(1.17)
Equation (1.17) is a mathematical description of the wave equivalent of
an unrestricted particle of total energy E and momentum p moving in the
+ x direction. The expression for the wave function given by eqn. (1.17) is
correct only for freely moving particles.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 21
Schrdingers equation which is the fundamental equation of quantum
mechanics is a wave equation in the variable . Differentiating eqn. (1.17)
twice with respect to x, we get

2 p2
= ...(1.18)
x 2 2
and differentiating eqn. (1.17) once w.r.t. t, we get
iE
= . ...(1.19)
x
At speeds small compared with that of light, the total energy E of a
particle is the sum of its kinetic energy p2/2m and its potential energy V,
where V is in general a function of position x and time t.

p2
E = V. ...(1.20)
2m
Multiplying both sides of eqn. (6) by the wave function gives
p2
E = V . ...(1.21)
2m
From eqns. (1.18) and (1.19), we see that

E =
i t
2
and p2 = 2 ...(1.22)
x 2
Substituting these expressions for E and p2 into eqn. (1.21), we get
2 2
i = V . ...(1.23)
t 2m x 2
Equation (1.23) is the time dependent form of Schrdingers equation.
In three dimensions the time-dependent form of Schrdingers equa-
tion is

2 2 2 2
i = V . ...(1.24)
t 2m x 2 y 2 z 2
Where the particles potential energy V is some function of x, y, z
and t.
The restrictions on particles motion affect the potential energy funciton
V. Once V is known Schrdingers equation may be solved for the wave
function of particle from which its probability density | |2 may be deter-
mined for a specified x, y, z, t. The extension of Schrdingers equation from
the special case of freely moving particle (V = constant) to the general case
of a particle subject to arbitrary forces that vary in time and space [V = V(x,
y, z, t)] is entirely plausible.
22 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Thus, Schrdingers equation is postulated, solve it for a variety of physi-

cal situations and compare the results of the calculations with the results of
experiments. If they agree, the postulate is valid and if disagree it may
be discarded and some other approach would have to be explored.
Equation (1.24) can be used for non-relativistic problems and in practice it
has turned out to be accurate in predicting the results of experiments.

1.10 SC HR
SCHR DINGERS EQU
HRDINGERS ATION: STEAD
EQUA Y-ST
STEADY ATE
-STA
FORM
It has been observed that in many situations, the potential energy of a par-
ticle does not depend on time and vary with the position of the particle only.
When this is true, Schrdingers equation may be simplified by removing
time.
The one-dimensional wave function of an unrestricted particles may be
written as
= Ae(i/)(Et px) = Ae(iE/)t e+(ip/)x ...(1.25)
(iE/)t
Thus, is the product of a time-dependent function e and a posi-
tion dependent function . ( = Ae(ip/)x)
Substituting the of eqn. (1.25) into the time-dependent form of
Schrdingers equation, we obtain
2 (iE/ )t
2
E e(iE/)t = e V e (iE/ )t
2m x 2

Dividing throughout by the common exponential factor

2 2m
2 (E V ) = 0. ...(1.26)
x 2
Equation (1.26) is the steady-state form of Schrdingers equation. In
three-dimensions it is
2 2 2 2m
2 2 2 (E V ) = 0. ...(1.27)
x 2 y z
Schrdingers steady-state can be solved only for certain values of the
energy E. To solve Schrdingers equation we obtain a wave function which
fulfils the requirements for an acceptable wave function, i.e., its derivatives
be continuous, finite and single valued. If there is no such wave function, the
system cannot exist in a steady-state.
The energy quantisation in wave mechanics is a natural element of the
theory and is a characteristic of all stable systems.

Particle in a Box
The simplest quantum-mechanical problem is that of a particle trapped in a
box with infinitely hard walls. We may specify the particles motion along the
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 23
x-axis between x = 0 and x = L. A particle does not lose energy when collides
with infinitely hard walls so that its total energy remains constant. From the
formal point of view of quantum mechanics, the potential energy V of the
particle is infinite on both sides of the box while V is constant say 0 for
convenience on the inside. The particle cannot have infinite amount of en-
ergy. So, the wave function is zero for x 0 and x L. Thus, our aim is to
find between x = 0 and x = L (Fig. 1.6).
Schrdingers equation for the condition specified (x = 0 and x = L)
becomes
2 2m
2 E = 0 [V = 0] ...(1.28)
x 2
Equation (1.28) has the solution
2mE 2mE
= A sin x B cos x

where A and B are constants to be evaluated.
Applying the boundary conditions that
= 0 for x = 0 and for x = L. Since cos =
1, the second term cannot describe the par- Fig. 1.6. Potential well which
ticle because it does not vanish at x = 0. corresponds to a box with
infinitely hard walls
Hence, B = 0. Since sin = 0, the sine term
always yields = 0 at x = 0 but will be 0 at x = L only when
2mE
L = n, n = 1, 2, 3 ... ...(1.29)

This is true because the sines of the angles , 2, 3, ... are all 0.
From eqn. (1.29) it is clear that the energy of the particle can have only
certain values known as eigenvalues. These eigenvalues constituting the energy
levels of the system are
n2 2 2
En = where n = 1, 2, 3 ...(1.30)
2mL2
The wave function of a particle in a box whose energy is En is
2mEn
n = A sin x ...(1.31)

Substituting eqn. (1.30) for En, we get
nx
n = A sin . ...(1.32)
L
where n is the eigenfunctions corresponding to the energy eigenvalues En.
It can be verified that these eigenfunctions meet all the requirements. For
each quantum number n, n is a single valued function of x and n and n/
x are continuous. The integral of | n |2 over all space is finite. By integrating
| n |2 dx from x = 0 and x = L.
24 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

L L
nx

2 2
n dx = n dx A2 sin 2 dx
0 0 L
L
= A2
. ...(1.33)
2
2
To normalise we assign a value of A such that | n | dx is equal to the
probability P dx of finding the particle between x and x + dx, rather than
merely proportional to P. If | n |2 dx is equal to P dx, then it must be true that


2
n dx = 1 since P dx = 1. ...(1.34)

is the mathematical way of stating that the particle exists somewhere at all
times. Comparing eqns. (1.33) and (1.34), we find that the wave function of
a particle in a box are normalised if
L 2
A2 = 1, A = .
2 L
The normalised wave functions of the particle are therefore
2 nx
n = sin n = 1, 2, 3.
L L
The normalised wave functions 1, 2 and 3 together with the probabil-
ity densities | 1 |2, | 2 |2 and | 3 |2 are plotted in Fig. 1.6(a). While n may
be negative as well as positive, | n |2 is always positive and, since n is
normalised, its value at a given x is equal to the probability density P of
finding the particle there. In every case | n |2 = 0 at x = 0 and x = L, the
boundaries of the box.

Fig. 1.6(a). Wave functions and probability densities of a particle

confined to a box with rigid walls
At a particular place in the box the probability of the particle being
present may be very different for different quantum numbers. For instance
| 1 |2 has its maximum value of 2/L in the middle of the box while | 2 |2 =
0. A particle in the lowest energy level of n = 1 is most likely to be in the
middle of the box, while a particle in the next higher state of n = 2 is never
there. Classical physics suggests the same probability for the particle being
anywhere in the box.
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 25

SOLVED EXAMPLES
SOLVED
EXAMPLE 21: Show that (x) = eicx where c is some finite constant is acceptable
eigenfunctions. Also normalise it over the region a x a.
SOLUTION: The wave function (x) can be written as
(x) = eicx = cos cx + i sin cx.
Its derivative is given by
d ( x )
= ic eicx = ic (cos cx + i sin cx)
dx
= c sin cx + ic cos cx.
The following points may be observed:
(i) sin cx and cos cx are periodic functions with maximum value 1 and
d
c is finite constant. Thus (x) and ( x) are finite for all values of
dx
x.
d
(ii) The function (x) and ( x) are single-valued because cos cx and
dx
sin cx are also continuous for all values of x.
Hence (x) is an acceptable form of the eigenfunction. To normalise, the
wave function we may write (x) as
(x) = Aeicx.
Now we have to determine the value of A and we may write
a
a
* ( x )( x ) dx = 1

a
A2 a
e icx e icx dx = 1

a
A2 x a = 1

A2(2a) = 1 or A= .
2a
Hence normalised wave function is
icx
(x) = e .
2a
EXAMPLE 22: A particle is moving in one-dimensional potential box (of infinite
height) of width 25 . Calculate the probability of finding the particle within an
interval of 5 at the centres of the box when it is in its state of least energy.
SOLUTION: The wave function of the particle can be written as
2 nx
(x) = sin
a a
26 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

For the particle in the least energy state n = 1 and hence

(x) = 2 sin x

a a
a
At the centre of the box x = , the probability of finding the particle in
2
the interval x is given as
P = | (x) |2 x
2
2 ( a 2) 2 2 2
| (x) |2 =
a
sin
a a sin 2 a

2 2 5 10 10
P = x
a 25 10 10

a 25
= 0.4
x 5
EXAMPLE 23: A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and x = a with
zero potential energy. At points for which x < 0 and x > a, the potential energy is
infinite. The wave function for the particle in the nth state is given by
nx
n = A sin
.
a
Find the expression for the normalised wave funciton.
SOLUTION: The probability of the particle between x and x + dx for the nth
state is given as
nx
| n(x) |2 dx = A2 sin 2
dx.
a
Since the particle is found in the region x = 0 and x = a for all times, we
have
a

2
n dx = 1
0
a nx
0
A2 sin 2
a
dx = 1
a
1 2nx
A2 0
1 cos
2 a
dx = 1
a
A2 a 2nx
x sin = 1
2 2n a 0
A2 2
a = 1 or A= .
2 a
Now the normalised wave funciton is
2 nx
n(x) = sin .
a a
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 27
EXAMPLE 24: Find the energy of an electron moving in one dimension in an
infinitely high potential box of width 1 , given mass of the electron 9.11 1031
kg and h = 6.63 1034 Js.
n2 h 2
SOLUTION: Since we know that E = (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
8ma2
For least energy of the particle n = 1.
h2 (6.63 10 34 )2
Now = joules
8ma 2
8 9.11 10 31 (10 10 )2
= 9.1 1019 joules
9.1 10 19
= eV = 5.68 eV.
1.602 10 19

EXAMPLE 25: Show that = eit is a wave function of a stationary state.

SOLUTION: If is the wave functions of a stationary state, then the value
2 2
of at each point must be constant, independent of time. To find ,
we first take the complex conjugate of = eit which is * = * e+it. Then
2
= * = (* e+it) ( eit)
2
= * e0 =
2
where is not a function of time, so is also independent of time. Now,
2 2 2
it has been shown that = , so is independent of time and
it
= e is a wave function of a stationary state.

EXAMPLE 26: Find the probability that a particle trapped in a box L wide can
be found between 0.45 L and 0.55 L for the ground and first excited states.
SOLUTION: This part of the box is one tenth of the boxs width and is
centered on the middle of the box. Classically, we could expect the particle
to be in this region 10 per cent of the time. The quantum mechanics gives
quite different predictions that depend on the quantum number of the particles
state. The probability of finding the particle between x1 and x2 when it is in
the nth state is
x2 x2 nx

2 2
P = n dx sin 2 dx
x1 L x1 L
x
x 1 2nx 2
= sin
L 2n L x1
x1 = 0.45 L and x2 = 0.55 L
For ground state which corresponds to n = 1,
we have P = 0.198 = 19.8%
28 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

For the first excited state n = 2

P = 0.0065 = 065%
2
This low figure is consistent with the probability density of n = 0 at
x = 0.50 L.
EXAMPLE 27: (a) Show that y = Ax + B where A and B are constants, is a
solution to the Schrdinger equation for an E = 0 energy level of a particle in a box.
(b) Show, however, that the probability of finding a particle with this wave
function is zero.
SOLUTION: (a) The Schrdinger equation for a particle in a box is
d2 2m
2
E = 0
dx 2
d2
Differentiating = Ax + B twice with respect to x gives = 0 for
dx 2
the left side of the Schrdinger equation. Also E = 0 gives zero of the
right side. Since 0 = 0, = Ax + B is a solution to this Schrdinger
equation for E = 0.
(b) The wave function equals zero outside the box (x < 0 and x > L). In
order that = Ax + B may be continuous at x = 0, it must be true that
y = 0 at x = 0. So A(0) + B = 0 or B = 0.
Similarly, in order that may be continuous at x = L, it must be true
that = 0 at x = L, so A (L) + 0 = 0 or A = 0. With both A and B equal
to zero, = Ax + B = 0. Thus the wave function equals zero inside
the box as well as outside the box and the probability of finding the
particle anywhere with this wave function is zero.

EXER CISES
EXERCISES
1. Discuss the dual nature of matter and waves.
2. Find de Broglie wavelength of an electron of energy MeV.
3. What are de Broglie matter waves?
4. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving
with a velocity equal to 1/20 velocity of light.
5. Derive time dependent and time-independent Schrdinger wave
equation.
6. What is uncertainty principle? Apply this to prove the non-existence
of the electron in the nucleus.
7. Calculate the smallest possible uncertainty in the position of electron
moving with velocity 3 107 m/sec. [Ans. 0.038 ]
8. An electron has a speed of 1.05 104 m/sec within the accuracy of
0.01 per cent. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of the electron.
[Ans. 1.104 m]
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 29
9. Show that the de Broglie wavelength for a material particle of rest
mass m0 and charge q, accelerated from rest through a potential dif-
ference of V volts relativistically is given by = h/{2m0qV [1 + qV/
2m0c2]}1/2.
10. Find the uncertainty in the momentum of a particle when its position
is determined within 0.01 cm. Find also the uncertainty in the veloc-
ity of an electron and -particle respectively when they are located
within 5 108 cm.
[Ans. 1.05 1030 kg m/s, 2.33 105 m/s, 31.4 m/s]
11. An electron is confined to a box of length 1.1 108 meter. Calculate
the minimum uncertainty in its velocity. Given m = 9.1 1031 kg,
= 1.05 1034 J. sec. [Ans. 1.06 104 m/s]
12. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron if the wavelength of elec-
tron equals the yellow line of Sodium. [Ans. 4.34 106 eV]
13. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of neutron of energy 28.8 eV.
Given h = 6.62 1034 J.sec, m = 1.67 1027 kg. [Ans. 5.3 102 ]
14. Derive the formula for de Broglie wavelength of particle in terms of
kinetic energy and its rest energy m0c2.
15. Describe Davisson-Germer experiment to demonstrate the wave na-
ture of particle.
16. Deduce an expression for de Broglie wavelength of helium atom
having energy at temperature TK.
17. What are de Broglie waves and how do they help in the interpreta-
tion of the Bohrs quantisation rule?
18. Show that the phase velocity of de Broglie wave is greater than the
velocity of light; but the group velocity is equal to the velocity of the
particle with which the waves are associated.
19. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with nitrogen at 3.0 at-
mospheric pressure and 27C temperature.
20. Can a photon and an electron of the same momentum have the same
wavelength? Compare their wavelengths if the two have the same
energy.
21. X-rays of wavelength 0.91 fall on a metal plate having work func-
tion 2.0 eV. Find the wavelength associated with the emitted photo-
electrons. [Ans. 8.7 ]
22. Calculate kinetic energy of a neutron having de Broglie wavelength
1 . [Ans. 8.13 102 eV]
23. What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency of a photon whose
lifetime is about 108 sec? [Ans. 15.92 106 per sec.]
24. A certain excited state of hydrogen atom is known to have a lifetime
of 2.5 104 sec. What is the minimum error, with which energy of
the excited state can be measured. [Ans. 0.026 eV]
30 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

25. What is de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated from rest

through a potential difference of 100 volts. [Ans. 1.23 ]
26. Find the expression for the energy state of a particle in one-dimen-
sional box.

OBJECTIVE QUES
QUESTT IONS
1. A particle possesses a kinetic energy E and mass m, then its de Broglie
wavelength is
h
(a) (b) h 2mE
2mE
2mE 1
(c) (d)
h h 2mE
2. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V volts.
The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is
12.27 12.27
(a) (b)
V V
(c) 12.27 V (d) 12.27 V
3. Read the statements (A and B) and choose the answer:
(A) The de Broglie wavelength of a moving particle is inversely
proportional to its momentum
(B) Only a charged particle in motion is associated with matter waves
(a) A and B are correct
(b) A and B are wrong
(c) A is wrong and B is correct
(d) A is correct and B is wrong
4. If the momentum of a particle is doubled then its de Broglie wave-
length
(a) halves (b) doubles
(c) quadruples (d) remains the same
5. The masses of neutron and electron are mn and me respectively. If they
have the same de Broglie wavelength, then their velocities should be
in the ratio
me
(a) 1 : 1 (b)
mn
mn me2
(c) (d)
me mn2
6. An -particle has a mass 4 mp and a proton mp. If they possess the
same kinetic energy, then the ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths is
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 31
(a) 1:4 (b) 4 : 1
(c) 2:1 (d) 1 : 2
7. The characteristic of wave function are
(a) real function, finite and discontinuous
(b) complex, single valued, finite and continuous function
(c) complex, infinite and discontinuous function
(d) complex single valued and infinite
8. The wave function for the motion of a particle in a potential well of
nx
width a is given as n = B sin , then B is
a

1 1
(a) (b)
a a
2 a
(c) (d)
a 2
9. When the wave function is normalized then
(a) * = 1 (b) * dx = 1
1 a

(c) * dx 1 (d) * d
a
x 1
1

10. Increasing the potential difference between anode and filament in

Davisson-Germer experiment
(a) causes an increase in the wavelength of the electron-waves
(b) causes a decrease in the wave velocity
(c) causes a decrease in the wavelength of the electron-waves
(d) causes a decrease in the momentum of the electron
11. For a particle of mass m confined to a cubical box of side L, the
allowed values of energy E are given as

n2 h 2 n2 h2
(a) , n = 1, 2, 3 (b) , n = 1, 2, 3
2 mL2 8mL2

h 2 L2 n2 h2
(c) , n = 1, 2, 3 (d) , n = 1, 2, 3
2mn 2 mL
12. An electron is confined to a potential box of infinite height and width
10 . The probability of finding the particle in a small interval x at
the centre of the box for the energy state immediately above the
ground state is
(a) zero (b) 0.5
(c) 0.9 (d) 1
32 LASER SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

13. If a charged particle of mass m is accelerated through a potential

difference of V volts, the de Broglie wavelength is proportional to
1
(a) V2 (b) V
1

(c) V 2 (d) V2
14. The de Broglie hypothesis is associated with
(a) wave nature of -particles only
(b) wave nature of radiations
(c) wave nature of electrons only
(d) wave nature of all material particles
15. Which of the following phenomena cannot be expressed by wave
nature of light?
(a) Interference (b) Diffraction
(c) Polarization (d) Photoelectric effect
16. Matter waves
(a) are latitudinal (b) show diffraction
(c) are electromagnetic (d) always travel with speed of light
17. Of the following moving with the same velocity, the one which has
largest wavelength is
(a) a photon (b) an electron
(c) an -particle (d) a neutron
18. The uncertainty principle holds for
(a) macroscopic particles only
(b) microscopic particles only
(c) macroscopic and microscopic particles both
(d) neither macroscopic nor microscopic particles
19. The uncertainty principle cannot hold for the following pairs:
(a) Energy and time
(b) Position and momentum
(c) Angular momentum and angle
(d) Linear momentum and angle
20. Matter waves were first experimentally observed by
(a) Frank-Hertz (b) Davisson and Germer
(c) Ster-Gerlach (d) de Broglie
21. If the momentum of a particle is increased to four times, then the de
Broglie wavelength will become
(a) half (b) four times
(c) twice (d) one-fourth
22. The Schrdinger time independent wave equation for free particle is
2 2 2 2
(a) (E v ) 0 (b) ( v E) 0
2m 2m
ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 33

2 2 2 2
(c) E 0 (d) E 0
2m 2m
23. Schrdinger time dependent wave equation for free particle is
2 2 2 2
(a) i (b) i
2m x 2 t 2m x 2 t
2m 2
i 2m 2
(c) (d) 2 i
x 2
2
t x 2
t
24. An -particle and a proton have the same kinetic energy. The ratio of
their wavelength is (m = 4mp)
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1
(c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1
25. In Davisson-Germer experiment, nickel crystal acts as
(a) perfect absorber
(b) perfect reflector
(c) two dimensional grating
(d) three dimensional diffraction grating
26. Momentum of a photon of energy h is
(a) h (b) hc
(c) h/c (d) has no momentum

ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (d)
26. (c)