3000 Diesel Engine Series Install (Tablas de Trabajo FMCE) PDF
3000 Diesel Engine Series Install (Tablas de Trabajo FMCE) PDF
3000 Diesel Engine Series Install (Tablas de Trabajo FMCE) PDF
LEBH0149
INSTALLATION MANUAL
Materials and specifications are
LEBH0149 subject to change without notice. PRINTED IN U.S.A.
2
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Installation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Cold Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Back Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
P.T.O. Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Mounting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Induction System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Lubricating Oil System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Instrumentation and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Appraisal and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
3
4
SECTION 1
Introduction
5
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The Caterpillar Installation manual has been compiled by Caterpillar Engineering Department to provide practical
advice and technical information for installers of all types of Caterpillar engines, except marine. A separate manual
entitled the Caterpillar Installation Manual for Marine Engines is also available.
Practical know-how and considerable experience of the most common faults occurring with the installation of small
high speed diesel engines form the basis of this manual which will enable installers to avoid many of the pitfalls.
This manual is divided into fifteen sections on specific topics with cross-references as required to cover technical
specifications, practical recommendations and design features contributing to the overall success of an installation.
The Technical Data Section, Section 16 is available separately as a supplement to the manual.
Although a comprehensive source of data, the Installation Manual is not a catalog; information on engine selection, spec-
ification options, available accessories, etc., is contained in the appropriate Standard Option Scheme catalog. In addition
attention is drawn to the Service Manuals which deal with engine operation, maintenance and overhaul procedures.
The Installation Appraisal Data Sheets used by Caterpillar engineers when recording details of an O.E.M. customers
engine installation reflect the standards laid down in the Installation Manual. It is strongly recommended that the
same information is recorded by all Caterpillar engine dealers and distributors when inspecting their customers
installations. Foreign language versions of the sheets are available from Caterpillar Sales Companies. A copy of the
Data Sheets forms part of Section 15, (Appraisal and Testing).
The opportunity has been taken to correct errors which appeared in the second edition of the General Installation Manual;
to clarify wording where this has been found to be necessary; and to up-date material in the light of the latest infor-
mation and experience.
Care has been taken to ensure that the information in this Installation Manual is correct at the time of issue. Due
to the continuing process of development and changing world-wide legislative requirements however, this is sub-
ject to modification without prior notice and no responsibility can be accepted for alterations, errors or omissions.
Prepared by:
Technical Standards & Information Section
Engineering Department
Caterpillar Inc.
Peterborough PE1 5NA England
6
SECTION 2
Installation Considerations
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Air Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Atmospheric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Installation Angle and Gradients of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Dusty Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Explosive Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
ACCESSIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Lubrication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Induction System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Other Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
7
INTRODUCTION where Q = Fuel delivery, cu. mm/stroke
In any application, the engine must be capable of meeting V = Cylinder volume, liters
the demands of the particular machine in the conditions in To = Observed temp., C
which it will have to operate. The engine must therefore be Ts = Reference temp., C
matched and coupled to the driven load, securely mounted
in the frame, protected from the elements, supplied with Low air temperatures will reduce the ability of the engine to
clean fuel, lubricating oil and air, maintained within the rec- start, but by changing the specifications, e.g. fitting heavy duty
ommended operating temperature range and with the cor- starter motor and batteries, and using a starting aid, satis-
rect degree of engine throttle control. factory starting can be achieved at much lower temperatures.
8
loaded radiator cap to raise the pressure in the system, and
hence the boiling point of the water.
Effects relative to BS 649 conditions (29.4C and 99.9 kPa [749 mm Hg]) will
be similar.
9
The required reduced fuel delivery rate necessary for oper- combine with high temperature to justify more than a 6%
ating at a particular altitude can be obtained from Caterpillar derating for humidity.
Engines, providing that the information specified below, is
submitted. The accompanying curves show the reduction in power due
to humidity at various ambient temperatures.
As a general guide, the following table indicates the approx-
imate amount of defuelling which may be applied to naturally
aspirated engines, on a percentage basis, where specific
figures for a particular engine rating are not available.
10
It must be stressed that this can be little more than a guide
and machines may sometimes be required to work at angles
more severe than normally expected of them, e.g. pavers
on a banked track. This must be taken into account during
the selection of engine specifications.
Sumps
Standard road vehicle sumps are suitable for operation on
gradients of up to 1 in 4 (14 from the horizontal). Industrial and
construction machinery are often required to work on extremely
steep gradients and it is essential that a suitable engine lubri-
cating oil sump is fitted for the intended operation.
Air Cleaners
Most oil bath type air cleaners can be used on gradients of
up to 15, but some are available which are satisfactory for
operation at up to 30. If an oil bath air cleaner is to be used
* NOTE: When estimating the percentage reduction in power due to humidity, the rela- at a gradient exceeding 15, it must be confirmed from
tive humidity must be coupled with the ATMOSPHERIC AIR TEMPERATURE,
and not the inlet air temperature which might be locally heated. The effect of inlet Caterpillar Engines that it is suitable.
air temperature on power output must be considered separately using dia-
gram 3952.
Where humidity is expressed in terms of water vapor pressure, the percentage
reduction in power can be read directly from the chart.
Dusty Conditions
Machines expected to work in a dust-laden atmosphere,
DIAGRAM FOR ESTIMATING EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON POWER OUTPUT either due to the natural surroundings, e.g. dirt road, sandy
RELATIVE TO BS 5514 REFERENCE CONDITIONS conditions, etc., or due to the operation, e.g. stone crushers,
(27C and 60% RH)
earth movers, etc., must use heavy duty air filters to pre-
Effect relative to BS 649 conditions (29.4C and 15 mm Hg VP) will be similar.
vent the entry of dust into the intake system of the engine.
(Curve No. 3953)
Accessories
A dust proof alternator and starter motor may be considered
Machine necessary, and attention must be given to the suitability of other
driven equipment for operating in dust laden atmospheres.
11
POWER, RATING STANDARDS The table shows a comparison of the most common engine
AND GOVERNING Rating Standards and Test Codes. Assuming a naturally aspi-
rated and a turbocharged engine both rated at 100 bhp to
Engine Selection BS AU 141a: 1971, the table shows what the rating would
The most fundamental requirement for an engine installa- be under other rating conditions with a common fuel set-
tion is that the engine can provide sufficient power for all ting using BS AU 141a: 1971 correction method.
conditions likely to be met during the intended operation.
Fuel temperature is assumed constant. There are other
It must be understood that the engine power specified on minor differences between rating methods, but the above
power curves is usually gross and deductions must be made factors are the main influences on power output.
to obtain the net condition, i.e. power at the flywheel.
Likewise, the power specified on a power curve is to a par- The significance of the effect of ambient conditions and
ticular rating standard, i.e. at specified ambient conditions quoted tolerance on declared gross power output must be
and within a certain tolerance band. The power may have appreciated. Engine output should always be qualified by
to be corrected to allow for actual ambient conditions. (See reference to the appropriate atmospheric conditions, ancil-
SECTION 2.) lary equipment and duty.
12
COMPARISON OF MOST COMMON ENGINE RATING
STANDARDS AND TEST CODES
(Common fuel setting assumed; gross output expressed as
percentage of equivalent BS AU 141 a gross rating)
Total
Performance Air barometric Gross power
tolerance inlet pressure output
Standard or quoted by temp. kPa Nat. Turbo-
Test Code Caterpillar C (F) (mm/in Hg) Asp. charged Comments
Overload
+5 0%
29.4 (85)
29.4 (85)
99.9
(749/29.5)
99.9
(749/29.5)
84.5%
93%
86.5%
Continuous
Overload
+5 5%
+0 5%
27 (80.6)
27 (80.6)
29.4 (85)
100.0
(750/29.53)
100.0
(750/29.53)
99.5
89%
98%
97.5%
91%
100%
100%
} See Notes 3, 8
See Note 4
(746/29.38)
SAE J1349 4.2.4 +0 5% 25 (77) 100.0 98.5% 100%
(750/29.53)
DIN 6270A
}
Continuous +5 0% 20 (68) 98.1 84.5% 86.5%
(736/29.0)
Overload +5 0% 20 (68) 98.1 93% 95%
See Notes 5, 8
(736/29.0)
DIN 6270B
Intermittent +0 5% 20 (68) 98.1 98% 100%
(736/29.0)
}
DIN 6271
Continuous +5 5% 27 (80.6) 100.0 89% 91%
(750/29.53)
Overload +5 5% 27 (80.6) 100.0 98% 100% See Note B
(750/29.53)
Intermittent +0 5% 27 (80.6) 100.0 98% 100%
(750/29.53)
ISO 1585 1982 +5 5% 25 (77) 100.0 97.5%* 98.5%* See Notes 6, 8
(750/29.53)
ISO 2288 1979 +5 5% 25 (77) 100.0 97.5%* 98.5%* See Notes 7, 8
(750/29.53)
80/1269/EEC +5 5% 25 (77) 100.0 96.5% 100% See Note 8
(750/29.53)
NOTES:
1. BS AU 141a: 1971 includes a smoke limitation, and minimum power/weight ratio for engine/vehicle.
2. BS 649: 1958 used for generator sets and similar applications. Published as gross power by Caterpillar. Now superseded by BS 5514.
3. BS 5514 part 1: 1982 derived from, and identical to, ISO 3046. Published as gross power by Caterpillar.
4. SAE J270 1.3.4. now superseded by SAE J1349 4.2.4.
5. DIN 6270A/B now superseded by DIN 6271.
6. ISO 1585 1982 is intended for road vehicle applications.
7. ISO 2288 1979 is intended for agricultural tractors and machines.
8. Losses must be deducted to give final net rating.
* Correction factors shown are average values determined by method defined in ISO 1585/2288;
exact values dependent on fuel delivery and turbocharger pressure ratio characteristics.
13
Enquiries about Mines Certification and specialist equipment Mechanical governors which allow only small speed change
must be directed to Caterpillar Application Engineering for between full load and no load (tight governing) may be sub-
the latest approved ratings and engine specification for a ject to some instability.
particular requirement.
A governor is said to be stable if, after a speed change, the
new speed is achieved quickly and there is negligible varia-
Transmission Losses tion of this speed during steady running.
These obviously vary considerably, but as a guide, losses in
transmission can be: Any governor requires a definite period of time to act and a
governor with poor stability continues to oscillate above and
Vehicle transmission Average Loss 15% below the required speed, or else take an excessive time
Bevel gear drives Average Loss 12% to cease oscillations.
Spur gear drives Average Loss 7%
Vee-belt drives Average Loss 5% When a governor continues to oscillate without settling
Flat-belt drives Average Loss 10% down at all, this is usually called surge.
Chain drives Average Loss 5%
Caterpillar Governing Categories
Governing Caterpillar has three governing categories:
V (vehicle) Suitable for automotive applications.
The degree of control provided by the governor is depend-
Maximum governing 14%.
ent upon the governor specification. For a given position
S (standard) General purpose governing, suitable
of the control lever, there is a power/speed relationship
for the majority of agricultural and
(at steady load intervals) which is termed governor regulation.
industrial applications. Maximum gov-
erning 10%.
Percentage Governing T (tight) Suitable for applications which require
If the value of 100% is arbitrary assumed for an engine minimum speed variation; generator
speed when running at normal rated load, releasing this load sets, combine harvesters etc. Maxi-
will permit a high idle or settled no-load speed may be, mum governing 5%.
say, 4.5% above the rated full load speed.
To ensure consistency in production, and to avoid pre-gov-
erning, engines are set to the maximum no-load speed for
the appropriated governing category.
Close Governing
Small changes in governed speed with a direct current (D.C.)
electrical generator, do not have the serious effect which
occur with alternating current (A.C.) generators. If the engine
speed is varied on a D.C. set then the voltage will change in
direct proportion, but this can be compensated for over a
limited range by the voltage regulator.
14
(Note: This has now superseded the previous standard ELECTRICALLY OPERATED
SOLENOID OR
BS 649: 1958.) PRESSURE FLUID
SUPPLY 15100 lbf/in2
ENGINE GENERATOR OUTPUT
LINKAGE TO MAKERS
CLASS Ao Highest requirements of governing accuracy. RECOMMENDATIONS
(Note: Class A usually refers to the single speed type of TYPICAL REMOTE GOVERNOR SET-UP
governor.)
The actuator is triggered electrically and uses fluid power
from the engine lubricating system or an electrically operated
Unlike BS 649, BS 5514 does not currently give examples of
solenoid to change the fuel pump setting via a mechani-
the types of installation for which the Class A categories of
cal linkage.
governing are most relevant. However, it can be stated that
an external governor will be required for CLASS Ao and par-
allel operation. Tailshaft Governors
A vehicle with a mechanical transmission has the engine
Customer requirements for CLASS A1 governing should be and the vehicle road wheels directly connected, so that, as
discussed with Caterpillar Application Engineering. soon as the vehicle changes speed, so also does the engine,
and consequently, the drive to the governor. The governor
CLASSES A2, B1 and B2 should generally be met with stan- therefore immediately senses any reduction or increase in
dard fuel pump specifications which have been devel- vehicle speed, and responds accordingly.
oped to suit the particular applications requiring this degree
of control. In the case of a hydraulic transmission however, there can
be an appreciable time lag between a change of vehicle road
For further details reference should be made to BS 5514: wheel speed and a corresponding change to engine speed
Part 4: 1979. (and therefore to the governor drive).
15
Automotive (g) When the prototype installation is passed at satisfac-
Power Requirements tory, it must be ensured that all its essential engineer-
ing features are retained on all future installations on
Due to the large number of factors to be considered in
the same model.
choosing an engine for a vehicle, no hard and fast rules can
be given. (h) In the case of vehicles likely to be exported, the limit-
ing ambient operating temperatures for the vehicles
Probably the most important factor is Gross Vehicle Weight,
cooling system must be made known.
or Gross Combined Weight if semi trailers and/or trailers are
to be used. Other points to be considered are: maximum
desired road speed; nature of terrain, i.e. gradients and con- Air Compressors
dition of road surface; frontal area of vehicle and body work; Power Requirement
altitude of operation if over 1500 meters (5000 ft). As compressors are used in many parts of the world, account
The majority of factors mentioned will also govern the gear- should be taken of the different operating condition at alti-
box and axle ratios selected. tude. It is necessary to have a reserve of engine power at
sea level, because at altitude engine power is lost at greater
Allowance must also be made for any engine driven auxiliary rate than the compressor power-consumption reduces.
equipment required in addition to the standard fan, genera-
tor and exhauster/compressor. Altitude above Reduction in Reduction in
In some countries, legislation specifies the minimum speed sea level power required power from
at which the fully laden vehicle must be capable of climbing meters feet by compressor diesel engine
a particular gradient, also power/weight limits. 1000 3300 04% Up to 9%
2000 6600 10% Up to 19%
For advice on vehicle performance prediction, i.e. maximum
speed and maximum gradeability, for a given vehicle weight, It is also worth bearing in mind the decrease in power which
frontal area, gear ratios, etc., with a specific engine, contact occurs with increase in air inlet temperature (see AIR TEM-
Application Engineering Department, Peterborough. PERATURE in this section).
As a guide, the power/weight ratio will be in the order of:
Generally, if an engine has a reserve of power at its rated
bhp/ton kW/tonne speed there will be no problems regarding the power output
at lower speeds.
Cars and light vans: at least 20 15
Heavy vans and
medium trucks: 10 to 12 7 to 9
Heavy trucks: 6 to 8 4.5 to 6
Installation Requirements
To ensure a satisfactory installation from an operating and
service viewpoint, the following general points in addition
to the cooling, induction, exhaust system, cold starting etc.,
should be checked:
(b) Parts requiring routine checking and servicing must be DIAGRAMMATIC CURVE OF ENGINE POWER
readily accessible. This includes dipstick, oil filter, sump AND COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS
drain plug, injectors, fuel pump, air cleaner, fuel and
lubricating oil filters, etc. The engine power curve flattens off from maximum torque
speed upwards, but the power absorption of the air end at
(c) The engine must not foul any part of the body or chas- full load usually increases fairly linearly with speed, giving a
sis under full stall condition in forward and reverse gears. greater reserve of engine power as engine speed reduces
down to maximum torque speed. This power reserve is use-
(d) It must be checked that the steering and suspension units
ful when accelerating the engine from idle to rated speed
clear the engine in all positions of full bump and full lock.
when there is a demand for air.
(e) The engine sump and exhaust pipe must have sufficient
ground clearance to meet all the required operating Certain engines, especially when turbocharged, have steeper
conditions. power curves which follow more closely the straight line of
the compressor power absorption curve. If the reserve at
(f) Vibrations transmitted through the floor and through rated speed is marginal, there can be problems when load is
controls must be satisfactory at idling and throughout put on the engine at idling speed. However, adjustment of
the engine speed range. the compressor control system can reduce most problems.
16
POWER REQUIREMENT PER FREE AIR DELIVERY
including Nominal Altitude Allowance
TYPE kW/m3/min (b.h.p./ft3/min)
Receiver Pressure kN/m2 600 700 800
(atmospheres) (6) (7) (8)
Single stage rotary vane 7,38 to 8,70 7,9 to 9,23 8,44 to 9,75
(0,28 to 0,33) (0,30 to 0,35) (0,32 to 0,37)
a) Screw
b)
c)
2-stage
rotary vane
Reciprocating
} 6,33 to 7,65
(0,24 to 0,29)
6,59 to 7,91
(0,25 to 0,30)
6,86 to 8,17
(0,26 to 0,31)
The table above gives an assessment of power for the dif- 2) Particular attention should be paid to exhaust and inlet
ferent types of compressor. systems. Maximum benefit can be obtained from a
silencer of fixed volume by making the length and diam-
Efficiencies of compressors vary considerably and thus the eter as equal as possible. If the exhaust outlet is aimed
power requirement will vary. Power consumption tests towards the ground in order to reduce noise, be sure
should be conducted to determine this. that any dust from the ground is not drawn into the
compressor or engine inlets. If air inlets are mounted
under the canopy, there must be sufficient ventilation
Installation Requirements to ensure there is no appreciable pressure drop when
the machine is working hard, otherwise air starvation
A satisfactory engine installation does not rely merely on will result.
matching the horsepower to the compressor air end require-
ment. The following points should also be noted: Inlet air must be as cool as possible and trunking from
air filters to engine and compressor should not have
1) Six-cylinder engines have good balance and can gener- sharp bends. Keep joints in trunking to a minimum
ally be solidly mounted into the chassis. It is sometimes because these may leak and introduce dust. Dry-type
necessary, however, to mount three and four cylinder air filters have proved to be very superior to oil bath
engines on rubber. Naturally, if the air end is directly types under bad conditions; maintenance is reduced
coupled to such an engine, this item must also be rub- and such filters will work even if the machine is on a
ber mounted. steep gradient.
COMPRESSOR SET
17
3) Cold-starting devices must be fitted in the recom- Power to Raise Water
mended manner. (See SECTION 3, COLD STARTING.) Flow (liter/min) 100
kW = 2 Head (meter) 2
4) Linkage between throttle and governor should be as Pump efficiency
6139
simple as possible, with as few joints as possible. As
each joint wears there is some lost motion, and the total
Flow (U.K. gal/min)
effect can be considerable if the system has too many. 100
hp = 2 Head (feet) 2
Pump efficiency
5) Low-pressure fuel lines must be carefully positioned to 3300
reduce joints to minimum. One loose connection can
introduce air which may stop the engine. Flow (U.S. gal/min) 100
hp = 2 Head (feet) 2
6) Make the machine easy to service. Position fuel, air and Pump efficiency
3960
oil filters where they are easily accessible.
18
(b) Alternating current Torsional Vibration
A.C. generators (alternators) are rated in kilo-volt
To avoid resonance, the natural frequency of oscillation of
amps (kVA).
the rotating system when the generator is connected to the
Power required to drive an alternator (kW)
electrical system, must not approach the frequency of any
Alternator rating (kVA) 2 Power Factor
= engine impulses of significant magnitude.
Alternator efficiency
Unless stated otherwise, Power Factor is usually taken Caterpillar provides a service to ensure engine and genera-
as 0.8. tor compatibility, but before a torsional analysis is carried
If alternator efficiency is not known, a figure of 90% is out, certain information must be provided.
usually taken.
This is listed in P.T.O., SECTION 5.
Installation Requirements
Most countries have standards to which engines intended Couplings
for electrical generation work have to comply. The appro- The engine should be coupled to the generator through a
priate British Standard is now BS 5514 for electrical gener- suitable coupling which is of adequate capacity for the
ating purposes. Normal requirements should be met with engine. The parallel and angular alignment must be within
standard fuel pump governor specifications which have been the allowed limits of the coupling.
developed for this purpose.
However, for very fine governor regulation, e.g. BS 5514: The generator should be flange mounted to the flywheel
Part 4: 1979 Class Ao an external governor should be fitted. housing where possible to ensure correct alignment. Two
bearing generators are self supporting but a single bearing
See also SECTION 2 on GOVERNING. generator must have the armature shaft located in the fly-
wheel pilot bearing.
Cyclic Irregularity
The current British Standard BS 5514 contains no recom- Mounting
mendations regarding cyclic irregularity.
Generator set engines are usually pedestal mounted on a
However, the flywheel must be of sufficient inertia to ensure bed frame with rigid pedestal feet, preferably made of cast
that the cyclic irregularity of a direct-coupled engine and gen- iron. The bed plate must be provided with four-point machined
erator is within the limits previously specified in BS.649: mounting pads so that the alignment of engine and gener-
1958. See BACK ENDS, SECTION 4. ator can be ensured with the use of shims.
19
Instrumentation When specifying engine speeds for material handling equip-
Caterpillar minimum requirements are for a water tempera- ment, it is necessary to determine the customers interpre-
ture gauge and an oil pressure warning light. However, an tation of maximum rated speed.
hour-meter should also be used to help determine servicing
On this type of application it is impossible to absorb full load
intervals. If the set is to be left unattended, an engine pro-
at maximum speed during normal operation, and hence the
tection device should be provided to close down the engine
full load governed speed cannot be checked. The installed
when water temperature becomes excessive or the oil pres-
high idle speed which provides satisfactory lift and travel is
sure drops to a dangerous level. Automatic shut down
therefore used for pass-off purposes.
devices must be of the type that operate directly on the fuel
pump stop lever. Parasitic loads of up to 20% of the full power requirement
can result from drag in the hydraulic and mechanical sys-
Filters tems. These can cause a reduction in the high idle speed of
up to approximately 100 rev./min. (See illustration.)
A water trap of adequate capacity should be positioned in
the fuel system between the fuel tank and the lift pump
where it can be easily seen and serviced. Similarly, the lubri-
cating oil filter should be placed in a convenient and acces-
sible position.
Back end To fit the engine into a small space, the design
or flywheel and housing must be kept as compact as pos-
sible. Forklift trucks are frequently fitted with a torque con-
verter and, having determined the make, it can be checked
whether it is wet or dry. With a wet back end, the
starter is exposed to oil from the oil-cooled clutch or torque
converter, and an oil-sealed starter must be specified.
20
is often reversed and pulled from the engine, and pushed Fuel systems For most material handling equipment a
out through the radiator and aperture in the truck counter- sedimenter type filter is required before the fuel lift pump,
weight. It must be ensured that: with non-agglomerator fuel filter generally mounted on the
air has free access to the engine compartment. engine after the lift pump.
the aperture in the counterweight is sufficiently large.
the fan is located at the center of the radiator core Rough terrain equipment used in the construction industry
and does not sweep over the top or bottom tanks. should always have adequate agglomerator type filters.
the fan is shrouded.
Most forklift truck builders in Europe and North America
Power take-off Power take-off hydraulic pumps can be comply with the standards of safety published by the
gear driven and mounted on the timing case, or belt driven Underwriters Laboratories Inc. These preclude the use
from the crankshaft pulley. The maximum P.T.O. limits for of plastic fuel piping and glass bowl filters, as well as
each engine type are specified in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL specifying certain other safety features for the fuel and
DATA. It must be ensured that these limits are not exceeded exhaust systems.
as timing gear failure can occur if the hydraulic pump pres-
sures are increased beyond Caterpillar recommendations
for timing case mounted pumps. Agricultural Wheeled Tractors
Likewise, a hydraulic pump driven from the crankshaft pul- Power Requirement
ley can impose excessive bending on the crankshaft, and
details listed in P.T.O. FACILITIES, SECTION 5 should be Agricultural tractors normally require good torque back-up
submitted to Caterpillar for approval. (see illustration) to provide lugging power without the
engine stalling when running into a clay bed or stones etc.
Vibration dampers Torsional vibration dampers are during ploughing.
offered with 6 and 8 cylinder engines. These are normally
required if the engine is fitted with a crankshaft front end Many farm duties are carried out at a maximum engine
power take-off. Before specifying this expensive item how- speed, for example, ploughing, rotary cultivating, chisel
ever, it is advisable to submit details to Caterpillar Application ploughing etc. The power available to drive the tractor is lim-
Engineering who will check if it is necessary. ited by the adhesion characteristics at the wheels.
LOW PROFILE
SMALL RADIATOR
LOW FAN
HINGED
COUNTERWEIGHT TOP
APERTURE CANOPY
AIR
FILTER
MUFFLER
STEER AXLE
SUMP PROFILE FRONT MOUNTING PUMP DRIVE RIGID BACK END DRIVE AXLE
FORKLIFT TRUCK
21
Installation Requirements The speed of the drum is closely controlled to operate
Fuel system In view of the adverse operating and storage around optimum efficiency, ideally when using about 70%
conditions under which agricultural machines have to work, of available engine power.
a heavy duty fuel system with adequate water separation
capability must be used. To achieve this, the governor run-out speed is limited to 5%
maximum and, with the engine operating on the governor
curve, the engine speed variation is minimal.
22
POWER REQUIREMENT FOR CRAWLER DOZERS
23
TRACTOR SHOVEL
Earth Moving/Construction Machinery The power selection charts illustrate typical ranges of rela-
tionships between flywheel power and machine size for two
Power Requirements
particular types of construction machine. Similar charts are
Accurate prediction of the actual power requirements for available for other machine types. Such charts can however
individual machine types is impossible as many variables only be used as a guide, as power requirements can vary
have to be taken into account. These include: considerably for any particular machine type and size.
Type of transmission clutch/torque converter/
hydro-static
Type of torque converter, efficiency, and matching Installation Requirements
to engine For reasonable acceleration and performance a medium iner-
Type and efficiency of machine hydraulics system tia flywheel will be required according to the type of clutch,
Machine target cycle time fluid coupling, or torque converter. A solid drive line of inte-
Size of bucket or blade gral construction should be provided wherever possible to
Digging depth and force withstand possible twisting and bending stresses when trav-
Total machine weight elling over rough terrain. The sump should be provided with
Required road speed a rear flange to form a rigid connection with the flywheel
housing.
Engine ratings suitable for earth moving and construction
machinery are available in both General and Heavy Operating gradients As earth moving and construction
Duty categories, the choice being dependent upon machinery are operated at extreme angles of inclination, a
machine type and duty. Caterpillar should be consulted higher gradient sump is essential.
to ensure selection of the most suitable rating for a particu-
lar installation. This sump should be so desired that the engine can operate
with fore-and-aft and side-to-side inclinations without loss
In order to establish the net power and torque actually avail- of oil pressure, which will occur if the engine oil strainer is
able at the engine flywheel, a deduction should be made uncovered. Air cleaners must also be capable of operation
from the ratings shown on the gross power curves to com- at extreme angles.
pensate for the ancillary losses on the engine, i.e. fan, alter-
nator, hydraulic pumps etc. (These losses are typically of the Lubricating oil temperatures Operation at high inclina-
order of 5% 8%, depending upon engine size.) tion can lead to increased oil temperatures. The oil temper-
ature should be checked during the cooling test carried out
A check should also be made on the engine flywheel torque in actual operating conditions. On engines without an inte-
characteristics, to ensure that adequate torque back-up is gral oil cooler, it may be necessary to introduce a water
available to cater for hydraulic system loadings on the engine cooled engine oil cooler if the oil temperature is likely to
when the machine is fully loading the engine. exceed 121C (250F).
24
The transmission may also require an oil cooler, and an air Filler Cap
cooled oil cooler placed in front of the radiator or an oil cooler
This must be located where it can be easily removed and
arrangement in the bottom tank of the radiator should be
water level checked and topped up.
considered.
Fuel oil Earth moving and construction machinery may Lubrication System
have to use fuel from stocks stored on site. The likelihood
of excessive water in the fuel is high and the water trap on Sump
this type of machine should be of large capacity, and should It is an advantage if there is sufficient clearance in the instal-
be placed where it can be easily seen and serviced. lation for the sump to be removed without having to remove
the engine.
Air cleaners Earth moving and construction machinery
are normally exposed to extremely dusty conditions, and There must be sufficient space to remove the drain plug and
heavy duty dry element air cleaners should be fitted. These collect the used oil, although in some cases it may be nec-
cleaners should be positioned where they can take in clean essary to use flexible tubes.
air. A position remote from the engine, outside the engine
compartment, will also facilitate servicing. On earth moving and construction machinery, the area round
the engine sump should be checked periodically to ensure
The engine breather pipe can be fitted with an expan- that mud packing is not preventing an adequate air flow, and
sion chamber when the machine is used in dust laden therefore dissipation of heat from the engine sump.
atmospheres.
Oil Filler
ACCESSIBILITY
The oil filler must be in a position where a suitable pourer can
General Comments be used.
Engines are frequently installed in as small a space as
possible resulting in poor accessibility for the servicing of Dipstick
vital components.
This should be on the same side of the engine as the oil
Although the points referred to in this section appear later filler, in a position where it can be easily seen, and can be
in the book under their specific topics, they have been removed without risk of touching the hot exhaust.
brought together here due to their importance.
Induction System
Poor accessibility of a component, e.g. the dipstick, may result
in it being neglected, which can lead to serious engine dam- Air Filter
age in what might otherwise have been a good installation. There must be sufficient space to remove and change
the element without the risk of tipping dust and dirt into
If it is necessary on loaders, etc. to start the engine in order the engine.
to raise the loader arms before access can be gained to
check water, engine oil, etc., the changes are that these
items will not be checked, because once in the seat the Air Restriction Indicator
driver often stays there! This must be located so that it can easily be seen if it is a
visual unit, or where it can be heard if an audible unit.
While the accessibility of components requiring regular
maintenance such as air filters, filter elements, etc., is cov-
ered in Installation Appraisal Data Sheets, further checks Induction Piping
should be completed to ensure that there is accessibility This must not be concealed, making regular inspection dif-
to any components which may require replacing or long ficult. Cases have been known of engine damage due to
term servicing. dust entering the induction manifold through loose connec-
tions and/or broken piping which have been difficult to detect
Cooling System due to the pipe layout. All hoses must be checked periodi-
cally for deterioration.
Fan Belt
Space must be provided to allow tensioning or replacement The hose clips must be checked for tightness to ensure that
of a worn belt. relaxation of the hoses is not allowing dirt ingress.
25
Fuel System Where a service retorque of the cylinder head is spec-
ified for a particular engine type, this is very likely to be
Fuel Injection Equipment
ignored, to the subsequent detriment of the engine,
There must be sufficient space to allow equipment to be unless adequate access is provided in the original
easily maintained, e.g. removal of injectors, bleeding of air design of the installation.
from system, etc.
(b) It is essential that the engine compartment sides or All exhaust piping must be shielded or lagged where it
over-head plates do not need removing for accessibility is a potential hazard.
to the dipstick or oil filler. A hinged plate is usually suf-
ficient. It must be possible to remove the cylinder head/
cover without displacing major parts of the application.
Legislation Affecting Operation
Specific legislation for each country cannot be detailed in
(c) The installation must permit the engine to be easily this book, due to the complexity and the continual changes
removed. taking place.
(d) It is important that no part of the engine fouls another However, the topics that are most likely to affect legisla-
part of the installation. This must be checked in both tion are:
the static and working conditions, e.g. due to engine
movement on flexible mountings, or due to operation of noise
the machine.
emissions
(e) Hydraulic and transmission systems must be easily
accessible for service. operating in explosive atmospheres or areas containing
inflammable material
(f) It is important that the installation permits servicing, fit-
ting of replacement parts, etc. with the minimum man- operating where ventilation is limited, or hygiene is
hour involvement, especially: important, e.g. in the food industry
Replacement of fan belts, coolant hoses and electrical available power, e.g. bhp/ton, etc.
equipment; carrying out injector changes; tappet clear-
ance checks, etc.
26
SECTION 3
Cold Starting
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
27
INTRODUCTION a sheltered building, even if un-heated, may not have such
Diesel engines are more demanding than spark ignition severe starting conditions as an ungaraged mobile machine
engines when starting at low ambient temperatures because working nearby.
ignition of the fuel relies on the compression of the air.
Special care must be taken with machinery which is liable to
Satisfactory starting is the ability of the engine to fire and pick be transported and worked at widely spaced locations.
up speed without damage or abuse to the engine, starting
equipment or driven machinery. For this it is necessary to: High altitude operation, e.g. at 1500 m (5000 ft) or above,
should be treated as a special case. Details listed in INSTAL-
(a) have starting equipment and engine specifications suit- LATION CONSIDERATION, SECTION 2 should be submit-
able for the type of engine and intended operation, ted to Caterpillar Application Engineering for advice.
(b) use the correct engine fuel and lubricating oil;
Unaided Starting
(c) ensure that the starting equipment will be operated and
maintained correctly. Unaided starting limits are given in SECTION 16, TECHNI-
CAL DATA, and it will be seen that the limiting minimum
Particular care must be taken in selecting and installing the ambient temperatures vary according to engine specifica-
relevant equipment, and the necessary information must be tions, electric starting equipment and the engine lubricating
provided for the machine operator. oil viscosity. Indirect injection (pre-combustion chamber)
engines generally have higher unaided limiting starting tem-
peratures than direct injection.
COLD STARTING REQUIREMENTS
The starting performance of different diesel engine models
An engine must never be released into service without a
varies due to individual design features, the performance of
starting aid unless it is certain that it will not be required to
the batteries and starter motor, the viscosity of the lubri-
start at below the indicated limiting temperature.
cating oil, the inertia of the flywheel, and whether or not a
cold starting aid is used.
If no aid is fitted, the tapped fuelled starting aid boss in the
Cold starting performance data for the Caterpillar range of induction manifold must be suitably plugged to prevent the
engines is tabulated in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA. It drawing in of unfiltered air.
is based on controlled cold chamber testing of each engine
type with various starting equipment of known performance.
Cranking Speeds
The temperatures achieved are for engines fitted to manual
gearboxes (with the clutch depressed if this increases crank- The minimum engine cranking speed necessary for satis-
ing speed). Torque converter transmissions worsen cold factory starting, varies according to the engine design fea-
starting performance by approximately 4C (8F). tures and starting aid. If the required speed is not reached,
starting is unlikely to be achieved.
Where specific conditions have not been tabulated, Caterpillar
Application Engineering should be consulted. Indirect injection engines generally require higher cranking
speeds than direct injection types. Where a combustion
Operating Territory heater starting aid is employed, the minimum speed require-
The anticipated operating temperature must be known in ment is lower for a particular engine than with unaided start-
order that the correct starting equipment can be selected. ing, and ether fluid assisted starting is achieved at a still
This is particularly important where machines are likely to lower speed.
be exported. Reference can be made to official meteoro-
logical data published for this purpose, but as a guide, the Drag Effects
following are considered to be the lowest ambient temper-
atures for starting purposes in different areas. The cranking equipment recommendations are usually based
on tests either on a bare engine, or on one fitted with a typ-
European Continent ical manually operated gearbox and clutch. If driven equip-
(Temperate zone) minus 15C (plus 5F) ment is fitted which imposes extra loading during cranking,
this drag effect must be compensated for by the use of
European Continent heavier duty starter motor/battery etc.
(Cold zone) minus 21C (minus 5F)
Caterpillar will be pleased to advise where necessary.
North America (General) minus 29C (minus 20F)
28
Torque Converters More comprehensive specifications against the Caterpillar
The use of a torque converter drive with automatic or semi- battery codes, and recommendations regarding individual
automatic transmissions nearly always causes a significant battery makes and models, can be supplied on request.
drop in starting efficiency against a bare engine, due to the
oil drag effect. This imposes a penalty of up to 5C (9F) on If special batteries such as Nickel-Cadmium and Alkaline
the starting limit compared to the bare engine. The deterio- type are used, the makers advice should be sought regard-
ration in starting may be offset by using more powerful ing suitability for a particular starting duty.
cranking equipment.
If is sometimes found in installations, particularly conver-
sions from gasoline, that battery space is limited. This must
Hydrostatic Transmissions
not result in any sacrifice of performance, and if no suitable
These may give fairly high drag, depending on the design battery will fit in the original position, then the battery loca-
characteristics. If direct coupled hydraulic equipment is fit- tion must be changed.
ted to the engine, specification of a heavy duty starter motor
will be essential for low temperature applications. Besides giving poor starting, in terms of the limiting ambi-
ent temperature, the use of a low performance battery can
In the case of hydrostatic pumps, a fluid by-pass relief cir- result in cranking motor problems, due to motor overheat-
culation arrangement helps to reduce drag. ing under some circumstances after prolonged cranking.
Driven Machinery
Starter Leads
All equipment which has to be motored over together with
the engine during cranking will provide some drag effect. The starter leads are an important part of the cranking
equipment, and installations having perfectly adequate
This may be particularly significant with machinery of the starter motors and batteries may be rendered totally unsat-
reciprocating piston type, those incorporating oil pumps, and isfactory by poor leads.
other hydraulic/hydrostatic devices.
Details of the maximum resistance values, and other rele-
If a centrifugally operated clutch is used, which isolates the vant information, are given in SECTION 12, ELECTRICAL
machine from the engine when cranking, it must be made SYSTEMS. It should be remembered that these are maxi-
certain, when starting at low temperatures, that the cold mum values, and every effort should be made to make the
engine is capable of turning the machinery over without total circuit resistance as low as possible this becomes
stalling when the clutch cuts in. vitally important on high-drag applications.
29
Non-Electric Starters in providing satisfactory fuel injection, and reduces the
Non-electric starters may be used for various reasons, for chances of premature ignition where advanced timings
example: in flame-proof environments; as a secondary are used.
cranking system; to prevent battery theft; or as a low-cost
Even though the mean (average) cranking speed may be the
alternative.
same using flywheels of different inertia, the cyclic speed
variation can be quite different (see illustrations).
Various types of non-electric cranking systems can be spec-
ified. Caterpillar does not normally supply these, but can be HIGH INERTIA FLYWHEEL
contacted for advice concerning the proposed use of par-
ticular equipment. (small speed variation)
Impulse Action
The most common type of impulse starter is the spring
starter, with pinion engagement on the flywheel starter ring.
The units are self-contained, and are wound up using a crank-
ing handle. Space must therefore be allowed in the instal-
lation for operating the handle.
A certain minimum rotating inertia is necessary to ensure As the number of teeth on the flywheel starter ring gear will
sufficient speed while the piston is near T.D.C. This assists vary according to the flywheel design, it will be necessary to
30
ensure that the starter motor pinion has the correct number The mixture continues to burn as long as the heater coil is
of teeth to give the required ratio. energized and fuel is flowing. When the fuelled starting aid
is switched off, the incoming air quickly cools the valve body
and the fuel supply valve closes.
Lubricating Oil
The lubricating oil has a major effect on starting perform-
ance and requires as much care in its choice as does the
starter motor and battery. Guidance on the selection of oil
viscosity grades is given in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
Position
Oil used in equipment which is driven when the engine is The fuelled starting aid is fitted in the induction manifold, air
cranked is equally important, and equipment manufacturers intake connection or adapter. It must be fitted within 20 up
should be encouraged to specify oil viscosities which are or down of the horizontal, and located in an optimum posi-
realistic in relation to ambient operating temperature. tion and depth to satisfactorily heat the air during cranking
and ensure an even distribution to each cylinder. It also has
to be arranged so that there is low restriction to the engine
STARTING AIDS air supply during normal running. Any arrangement which is
not a Caterpillar standard position should be submitted
Diesel engines require an aid to combustion to start satis- for approval.
factorily below certain ambient temperatures.
Insulated Return
Various types of starting aids can be used with Caterpillar
The insulated return system is the wiring technique
engines depending on conditions.
wherein two separate cables are used to a piece of electri-
cal equipment, as opposed to the earth return system,
See SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA. where the machine chassis acts as a common return.
31
On 24 volt installations the required 12 volts is obtained either: The nozzle should be arranged so that the starting fluid is
mixed as thoroughly as possible with the incoming air, and
a) by use of a dropping resistor wired in series with the it is therefore usual practice to spray against the direction
fuelled starting aid. This must be of an approved type of air flow. There is usually an arrow or other indication on
which will not burn out in service. Note that dropping the nozzle to enable correct positioning, and the system
resistors dissipate considerable heat and should be posi- makers usually provide instructions for the fitment of the
tioned accordingly. complete system.
or
Ether Starting
When low temperatures dictate the need for an ether type
starting aid, a permanently fitted, controlled-flow type, approved
by Caterpillar for that particular engine, should be used.
TYPICAL STARTING FLUID NOZZLE ARRANGEMENT
System approval includes: branded start fluid mixture, pres-
surized supply device or hand pump make and model num- Locating the nozzle in the wrong position in the induction
ber, nozzle type including spray orifice arrangement, fluid manifold can cause backward firing of the engine and pro-
storage container or capsule capacity size and supply pipe duce high loading on the starter motor, with consequent
work bore. damage. Therefore, spraying close to an inlet port must be
avoided, and if the normal fuelled starting aid position in
Ether starting fluid aid systems must only be which the nozzle is sometimes fitted is not suitable, the noz-
used while the engine is cranked (i.e. no pre- zle should be fitted as far upstream (away from engine) in the
application). The only exception to this is where induction system as possible, even in the air cleaner exten-
non-electric starting is being used, in which case it is sion if necessary.
advisable to dispense a small amount of ether before
cranking. Also, ether must not be used in conjunction
with any form of engine combustion aid.
Glow Plugs
The use of hand carried aerosol spray cans as a consistent
aid to starting is not recommended, due to the danger of Combustion chamber glow plugs are used only in certain
over-application. smaller engines. They are fitted with the necessary precise
tip protrusion into each combustion chamber, to enable the
When selecting a particular system, it must be ensured that sprayed fuel to be properly ignited during cranking, without
the correct fluid supply will be available in the operating causing a significant drop of combustion efficiency during
area. Each system has to be arranged to supply fluid in the engine running.
correct quantity, and hence mixture strength, as it is partic-
ularly important to avoid over-application which may lead to
engine damage due to the creation of excessively high cylin- Glow plugs, due to their high tip temperature when acti-
der pressures. vated, give satisfactory starting at ambient temperature-bot-
tom limits approaching that of other starting-fluid aids,
Approved fluid mixtures contain the correct proportions of providing the engine cranking speed is sufficiently high, and
neat diethyl ether, and also a cylinder lubricant and other any driven machinery drag does not prevent engine speed
necessary additives. pick-up after firing commences.
32
advance or retard respectively the timing of the fuel injection
during cranking, compared with the pumps normal operation
injection timings.
INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
Engine Compartment
The engine compartment should be enclosed as far as is
practicable by the blocking of all un-necessary apertures.
Some shielding may be an advantage under the sump.
Battery Location
The battery must be positioned as close to the starter motor
TYPICAL GLOW PLUG ARRANGEMENT
as possible, to minimize the length and resistance of the leads.
On no account must glow plugs be used in con-
It must be protected from the cold, as battery performance
junction with ether.
deteriorates with decrease of electrolyte temperature (see
illustration).
Port Heaters
Port heaters are electrical devices which heat the air enter-
ing the inlet ports. They can give starting down to very low
temperatures, but are less effective in high-drag applications,
and need careful positioning near the inlet ports. The main
advantage is that no is pre-heat is required. Port heaters are
also helpful in giving rapid smoke-free run-up after starting.
When a remote actuating arrangement is fitted, due to inac- Note: The use of radiator shutters may increase the noise
cessibility of the device in the installation, care must be taken emission from the installation.
that this will not result in excessive loads being applied at the
fuel pump. See also COOLING SYSTEMS, SECTION 7.
33
During the majority of operating time in very cold climate during the pre-warming period, and could suffer from cool-
areas the engine will be overcooled using a conventional ing problems during working.
fan/radiator system. However, it is not recommended prac-
tice to run without a fan. For ambients below 40C the appropriate anti-freeze man-
ufacturer should be consulted regarding the use of a suit-
See also COOLING SYSTEMS, SECTION 7. able methanol base anti-freeze for diesel engine operation.
34
Most modern batteries are reluctant to accept a significant the oil in the sump if this is sheltered from the wind. How-
charge if the battery itself is at low temperature. If the battery ever, the necessary pre-warming time will be longer than if
is remote from any other source of heat, a self-energized both block and sump heaters are used.
battery heater, combined with good insulation would
be advantageous. (For further information see BATTERY In extreme cases, where the overnight air temperature
WARMING.) approaches 40C, heating may be required continually
when the engine is not running.
Alternator All adaptations made to the engine must be carefully exam-
This must be of sufficient output to cover any extra demands ined to make sure that no coolant will leak in service.
made on the electrical system due to the use of engine heat-
ing systems, additional cab heater fans, lighting systems,
Electrical, Sump, and Cylinder Block Heaters
de-icers, etc.
These are sheathed elements operated at mains voltages,
mounted in either the sump or in the block, and supplied
Lubricating Oils from an external supply source. Their use is limited to main-
Particular attention must be given to the oils used in the taining the engine temperature while the machine is sta-
engine, transmission and hydraulic systems. No lubricant tionary and, with moving machines, they are connected by
having a higher viscosity than OW should be used in the a plug which should be designed to automatically discon-
moving parts which are in operation during cranking, unless nect if the machine is driven away without disconnecting.
advised otherwise by the equipment supplier. In extreme
cases it may be necessary to add a small quantity of fuel These heaters are common in extreme cold climates and
oil (10% to 20%) to the lubricant to allow the engine to with standby vehicles such as fire engines, which must
be cranked. rapidly achieve working temperature.
Starting with Engine Heating Some larger engine oil sumps have tapped bosses in them
for fitting the heater element, but in most cases, it will be
Where engine heating is available, starting should not be a
necessary for the engine installer to adapt the sump. One
problem, provided that the heating is rated to suit the low-
method is to utilize a spare drain plug boss. If necessary the
est required temperature and is operated for the correct
sump side wall will have to be suitably bossed and tapped.
time. Heating times of less than two hours are unlikely to
be fully effective, and it may be more appropriate to leave In some cases, it may be found practical to use a proprietary
the heat switched on overnight. The use of radiator shutters sump external heater pad arrangement instead of an immer-
and side screens is essential where engine heating is used. sion heater.
The type of heating system used will depend to a great
extent on the facilities available. It is preferable to use one Cylinder Block Heater (Electrical)
working directly on an AC electrical supply if this is available Many liquid cooled engines have a suitable tapping or
at the garaging location. Otherwise, fuel burning combustion reamed core plug position in the side of the cylinder block
heater systems give good results, particularly under severe near the center, with adjacent space in the block coolant
weather conditions. Any system used must be thermostat- passage for the fitting of an electrical heater element.
ically controlled to prevent coolant overheating occurring.
The heater manufacturer will advise on the correct heater
For air temperatures down to not lower than 34C (30F), type. One heater is usually adequate for in-line engines of up
the use of an effective electrical cylinder block heater alone to about 7 liters (430 in3) swept volume, and two for larger
will be adequate, and will give sufficient heat soak to warm in-line engines and all Vee engines.
35
Combustion Heater Device Subject to meeting any applicable insurance requirements,
This type of device heats up the engine coolant by the burn- the use of suitable nylon pipe material in a well engineered
ing of diesel fuel, kerosene, or possibly butane or propane, system may be of advantage due to its thermal insula-
according to the design. tion property. The fuel return pipe to the tank can be run
directly alongside the fuel feed pipe where practicable to
The systems operation is often battery powered and circu- conserve warmth.
lates engine coolant liquid around the burner system to the
engine, and also if required through cab heaters, jacketed It may be found necessary to lag the fuel pipelines, either
battery container etc. along the whole run from tank to engine lift pump and return
(including connections to cater for very severe conditions),
The hot liquid is fed into the cylinder block electric heater or in any particular area exposed to the weather elements.
position, or the water pump suction inlet connection, and Electrical heating tape which is energized during the engine
out of the cylinder head through a suitable point such as pre-heating period is a very effective method.
the rear cover. A dual circuit should be used for Vee
engines, so that a separate feed is taken through each bank Sedimenter or Water Trap
simultaneously. This should be or large capacity and located in a sheltered
but accessible and visible position as close to the fuel tank
If the lubricating oil is to be heated, the hot liquid should be as is practicable.
fed through the heat exchanger in the sump before passing
to the cylinder block.
Fuel Filters
All connections should be capable of being quickly discon- These must be fitted onto, or very close to the engine, so
nected and should provide leak proof sealing. as to receive warmth from the engine during pre-heating
and machine operation.
Battery Warming Preferably, the filters should not be situated close to the
Batteries must be relatively warm for cranking, and provi- engine fan or directly in the air flow.
sion may be required to heat them when the engine is not
running. Whether electric or liquid heating is used, exces- Fuel filters heaters are available, and may be essential in
sive heat at any particular point must be avoided. some countries.
The battery manufacturers should be consulted for their Fuel Lift Pump
recommendations.
Due to the increased fuel viscosity at low temperature it
may be necessary, where there is a particularly long fuel
For machine operation in air temperatures approaching
pipe run, to fit an electrically operated booster pump at the
40C (40F), it may be necessary to warm the batteries
fuel tank.
while the machine is working to enable possible engine
restarting. This can be arranged by passing the hot engine
exhaust gas through a battery container made of suitable TEST PROCEDURES
anti-corrosion material. The exhaust back pressure must be Some Original Equipment Manufacturers (O.E.M.) have cold
within the recommended limits, (see EXHAUST SYSTEMS, chamber facilities and conduct their own cold starting tests.
SECTION 9) and with drain provision for the exhaust gas
fluid content. Caterpillar, upon request, will be pleased to provide details
of the engine cold test procedure. This will cover such fea-
However, the battery must not be allowed to become too tures as the preparation of the engine before placing the
hot, as its condition may deteriorate if its temperature machine in the cold chamber, battery conditioning, test pro-
reaches about 50C (125F approx.). cedures with various types of starting aid, and presentation
of the test data.
Fuel System This should ensure that test work carried out by the cus-
Refer to SECTION 10, FUEL SYSTEMS, for standard rec- tomer can be compared with similar work on the same
ommendations which generally apply. engine type at Caterpillar.
36
SECTION 4
Back Ends
FLYWHEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Calculation of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Flywheel Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Design and Manufacturing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Starter Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Fitting Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
CLUTCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Over-Center Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Automotive Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Centrifugal Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Wet Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
TRANSMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Vehicle Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Overdrive Gearboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Fluid Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Torque Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Hydrostatic Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Transmission Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
37
FLYWHEELS To these values may be added the inertias of any parts
directly coupled to the flywheel, e.g. clutch assembly, etc.
The flywheel stores the energy produced during the power
stroke and returns it during the rest of the cycle, thereby
Minimum flywheel inertias for each engine type at specified
reducing the cyclic speed variation in the crankshaft and
cold starting conditions are tabulated in SECTION 16, TECH-
transmission. (See SECTION 4, TORQUE FLUCTUATIONS.)
NICAL DATA.
It is particularly important to have adequate flywheel inertia
to give satisfactory starting at low temperatures.
Calculation of Inertia
(See also COLD STARTING, SECTION 3.) Moment of Inertia = mass 2 (radius of gyration)2 = (mk2)
38
Dimensions S.I. Units Imperial Units
Material Density
Conversion factors:
The moment of inertia may also be expressed in absolute The standard Caterpillar starter rings are a shrink fit on the
units of: flywheel. It is therefore essential that the spigot diameter
of the flywheel on which the ring is located is machined in
accordance with tolerances specified by Caterpillar.
FORCE. LENGTH. TIME2
To achieve the expansion required to enable rings to be fit-
1 lb in2 = 0.00259 lbf in s2 ted, a maximum temperature of 250C (482F) may be
1 kg m2 = 10,194 kgf cm s2 applied. If this temperature is exceeded, the heat treatment
1 kg m2 = 1,00 Nm s2 of the ring will be affected.
or PD2
Flywheel run-out, etc., must be within the specified limits.
Sometimes this flywheel effect is referred to as moment of
inertia, but this can lead to confusion as the flywheel effect If solvent is used to remove preservative from the crank
is four times greater than the correct mathematical definition palm, care must be taken to prevent the solvent coming into
of moment of inertia. contact with crankshaft rear lip seal.
39
As the crankshaft rotates, this instantaneous torque varies Additional Inertia
about the mean value, causing the crank to increase and
The rotating mass of any parts directly coupled to the flywheel,
decrease its speed with respect to the mean speed. It is
for example the armature of an electric generator, a torque
this change of angular velocity effect which is known as
converter, etc., can be included in the total inertia value, with
Cyclic Irregularity. A guide to the ratio of maximum to
the flywheel inertia for cyclic irregularity purposes.
mean indicated torque for a diesel engine is as follows:
The starter ring gear will add about 0.176 kg. m 2 (GD 2),
Number of Ratio Maximum 150 lbf in2 (mk2) to the inertia of the flywheel.
Cylinders to Mean
Three 5.0:1
Four 3.5:1
Six 2.6:1
Calculation Example
Eight 2.2:1 A 3.86 liter (236 in3) four cylinder engine with a heavy fly-
wheel of 6200 lb in2 moment of inertia which was designed
for the Holset 0.12 flexible coupling and driving an alterna-
tor with a typical inertia of 3000 lb in2.
Definition of Cyclic Irregularity
The inertia of the engine has been ignored as this is very
Cyclic irregularity was defined in Clause 2 of BS 649: 1958 small when compared with the inertia of the flywheel and
as the ratio of the total variation in speed (instantaneous alternator.
angular velocity) at the flywheel during one engine cycle to
the mean speed when the engine is running at any load up System total inertia = flywheel + alternator inertia
to and including rated load and rated speed. = 6200 + 3000 lb in2
= 9200 lb in2
This is conveniently expressed as: CYCLIC IRREGULARITY CURVE
= 20 = 1
1500 75
2250 = 37.5 impulses per second for three cylinders Cyclic Irregularity curves for each engine are available from
60 Application Engineering, Caterpillar Engines Ltd.
40
FLYWHEEL HOUSINGS
Flywheel Housing Design
On some applications the flywheel housing carries the rear
mounting feet and therefore supports part of the weight of
the engine plus most of the weight of the gearbox. It must
be strong enough to withstand all the loading due to the
machines operation.
Permissible
Flywheel Eccentricity Back Plates Spigot Dia. Y
Housings and Squareness Up to and
SAE Dia. X Tolerance T.I.R. Above Including
Number Inch mm Inch mm Inch mm Inch mm
4 14.250 362.0 0.004 0.10 0.000 0.0 14.250 362.0
3 16.125 409.6
2 17.625 447.7 0.005 0.13 14.250 362.0 20.125 511.2
1 20.125 511.2
41
DIAMETERS AND TAPPED HOLES FOR BELL HOUSING
MOUNTINGS ON FLYWHEEL HOUSINGS
DESIGN DATA FOR FLYWHEEL HOUSINGS, BACK PLATES AND ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS
Drive Line Vibration Vibration tests should be applied to all new installations at
the prototype stage.
Vibratory loads induced by the rotation of the engine, gear-
box or drive shaft cause stresses in the flywheel housing
and gearbox which are usually too small to be damaging. By attaching an accelerometer to the end of the gearbox,
the resonant drive line frequency and the maximum g lev-
However, a resonant condition may occur within the engine els which are likely to be experienced in service may be
operating speed range, where the natural frequency in bend- determined. If these g levels are excessive (say above
ing of the complete engine/housing/gearbox/propshaft 6g), attempts should be made to increase the stiffness of
assembly coincides with the rotational speed of the engine the drive line. In extreme cases of drive line vibration, stiffen-
or the propshaft. The resulting resonance can increase the ing and modifications may have to be made to the flywheel
bending load on the flywheel housing so that, in extreme housing. This may have to be bolted to the sump rear flange
cases, failure can occur. These critical conditions are nor- or bottom brackets used to tie the housing to the engine.
mally associated with vehicles having high propshaft speeds,
particularly when an overdrive gearbox is used (see SEC- There are other modes of vibration that can occur, having
TION 4, OVERDRIVE GEARBOXES), but it has also been more than 3 nodes, but the natural frequency of such nodes
known to occur with a stationary vehicle. is usually well above the maximum propshaft speed.
42
Over-Center Clutches
Over-center clutches are normally operated by hand and the
clutch remains in either the engaged or the disengaged
position by the action of over-center toggles.
Centrifugal Clutches
The centrifugal clutch consists of a driving hub secured to
the engine flywheel and carrying flyweights lined with fric-
tion material, working inside a drum fitted to the driven
machinery.
43
This clutch is suitable for medium or high speed applica- It is necessary to ensure that the selected transmission will
tions, where the starting torque or acceleration characteris- have a sufficient number of gears suitable spaced to enable
tics of the load are too great for the engine at low speed. the vehicle to start under load at the designed gradient, and
Some electric generating sets, air compressors, water accelerate through the gears to the maximum designed
pumps and similar applications requiring an automatic fea- speed. For road vehicles, the gears are spaced so that gear
ture of engaging the load can be satisfactorily driven through changes are completed without reducing the engine speed
a centrifugal clutch coupling. below engine peak torque when full power is required. If a
gear change is made at low engine rev/min, sufficient power
The matching of a centrifugal clutch to the engine and driven may not be available at the given vehicle speed and load to
machinery is a complex matter, and the recommendations allow for acceleration.
of the clutch manufacturer should always be followed.
For buses, pick-ups and lightly loaded vehicles, gear changes
Wet Clutches below the peak torque will possibly be satisfactory, but
These are automotive type clutches with special clutch fac- the gradeability characteristics of the application must
ings which operate in a constant stream of lubricating oil be checked.
usually provided from an external reservoir by an engine
driven hydraulic pump. The oil improves the wearing prop- Little attention is usually paid to the engine over-run speed,
erties of the clutch plates, and plate life is substantially which is a factor that can seriously affect engine life. It is
increased due to more effective heat dissipation by the cir- known that low axle ratios (high numerically) will produce
culating oil. extremely high over-running engine speeds, particularly on
motorway down gradients when vehicles are heavily laden.
Overdrive Gearboxes
Generally overdrive transmissions are not recommended for fit-
ting to the Caterpillar range of engines, due to the increase in
drive shaft speeds. Our experience has proved that high shaft
speeds result in propeller shaft and coupling failures, leading
to flywheel and clutch housing breakage, particularly in respect
of vehicles subjected to sustained high speed operation.
Fluid Couplings
Fluid couplings are used with conveyors, cranes, winches,
pumps, etc., to absorb shock loads and prevent engine
stalling. They also allow engine starting and acceleration
TYPICAL WET CLUTCH BACK END against high inertia loads and they reduce the effect of tor-
sional vibration. Fluid couplings usually result in poor cold
Wet clutches are used on mobile machinery which experi- starting compared with the mechanical clutch due to the
ence high clutch usage, and avoids the continual replace- effects of oil/drag.
ment of clutch plates, or the use of an expensive fluid coupling.
TRANSMISSIONS
Vehicle Gearing
When considering engine and transmission matching,
emphasis is generally paid to the vehicle gradeability and
designed maximum road speed. FLUID COUPLING
44
The torque is transmitted hydraulically by the action of oil Matching the torque converter characteristics to those of
moving from the impeller on the input shaft to the turbine the engine and the intended duty is critical, and reference
on the output shaft. A fluid coupling always operates with must be made to the manufacturers and Caterpillar for
some slip which means that, when a load is being trans- advice, to obtain the best operating results.
mitted, the output turbine is running slower than the engine
driven impeller.
Torque Converters
A torque converter is an automatic hydraulic transmission
which performs a function similar to that of a gearbox; it
increases the torque while decreasing the output speed. In a
gearbox there are a number of stepped ratios, while a torque
converter provides a continuously variable torque ratio up to
a maximum of about 3:1 for a single stage torque converter.
Cold Starting
The use of a torque converter drive with automatic or semi-
automatic transmission nearly always causes a significant
drop in starting efficiency against a bare engine, due to the
oil drag effect. This imposes a penalty of up to 5C (9F) on
the starting limit compared with the bare engine.
Hydrostatic Transmissions
The hydrostatic transmission consists of an engine-driven,
variable delivery pump which provides hydraulic fluid to drive
one, or several, fixed displacement hydraulic motors. The
motors can therefore be mounted remotely from the pump,
45
the hydraulic fluid being transmitted through flexible pipes.
This allows great flexibility when designing the transmis-
sion layout.
Transmission Noise
See NOISE CONTROL, SECTION 13.
46
SECTION 5
P.T.O. Facilities
P.T.O. POSITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
47
P.T.O. POSITIONS Tightening Torque If the crankshaft pulley type is
Accessories such as compressors, steering pumps, etc., changed, it must be ensured that the correct tightening
can be driven from various P.T.O. positions on the engine. torque for that pulley is applied.
These positions will vary, depending on engine type, but
The tightening torque values are specified in the Workshop
generally accessories can be:
Manual for each engine type.
a) mounted on the engine, and belt driven from a P.T.O.
groove on the crankshaft pulley. If the accessory is Belt Tension
mounted remotely from the engine, provision must be The correct tension must be applied to any P.T.O. belt driv-
made for engine movement, e.g. by use of a spring ing arrangement, as insufficient installation tension could
loaded jockey pulley. cause belt slippage at high powers and high speeds, reduc-
ing belt life etc.
b) mounted on the front or back of the timing case, and
gear driven from the timing gears. Excessive installation tension in the water pump drive belt
may damage the water pump or generator bearings.
c) mounted on the engine frame, and driven axially
through a coupling from the front of the crankshaft. With a P.T.O. drive from the crankshaft, excessive belt ten-
sion will result in higher side loadings than necessary, which
d) driven directly off other equipment.
could result in crankshaft failure.
BELT DRIVEN P.T.O. A practical way of estimating the fan belt tension is by apply-
ing pressure in the center of the longest run of belt between
Crankshaft Pulley any two pulleys, and adjusting the tension until the belt
The amount of power available from the crankshaft pulley deflects by a given amount (see illustration).
depends on the distance of the P.T.O. pulley from the face
of the cylinder block, and the direction of the resultant loads
acting on the pulley.
48
A suitable spring loaded pulley is preferable to one that is P.T.O. Support Bearings
adjusted and clamped, as it can enable the correct installa- In those installations where it is necessary to transmit large
tion tension to be used. This is increasingly more important powers, or numerous belt drives are required, the P.T.O.
with larger P.T.O. values, as more installations tension is shafts must be supported by pedestal bearings or an out-
required to avoid slippage, resulting in a higher side load- rigger bearing.
ing/bending moment on the crankshaft.
e) the method of tensioning the belt(s), for example, ARRANGEMENT OF DRIVE WITH DIAPHRAGM PLATE
adjustable fixed pulley, spring loaded jockey pul-
ley, etc., The outrigger bearing is designed to prevent an excessive
bending moment from the P.T.O. shaft being transmitted
f) the maximum and continuous power requirements to the engine crankshaft. The best arrangements are the
of the equipment. diaphragm plate drive or the splined drive.
49
The flexible diaphragm plate prevents excessive bending Water Cooling of Compressors
moments being transmitted to the engine. The plate is Water cooled compressors require an adequate water flow
bolted to the flywheel face, and is centralized in the flywheel rate at engine idling speed to ensure efficient cooling under
by means of a spigot or dowels. all operating conditions, i.e. the air outlet temperature is kept
below 200C.
The drive shaft should be as short and stiff as possible.
Air Cooling of Compressors Sharp bends and restrictions will increase the compressor
working pressure, resulting in a rise in operating temperature.
Compressors should be situated in a cooling air stream to
provide good air flow over the cylinder head when the vehi- This can lead to oil carry over and carbon deposits on the
cle is both stationary and moving. It should if possible be delivery pipe until failure of the compressor occurs due to
positioned where it will not be substantially affected by radi- overheating.
ated heat from the engine exhaust system.
Any installation which has suffered from overheating prob-
If insufficient air flow is available, a water cooled compres- lems due to the formation of carbon must have the delivery
sor should be used. pipes and components between compressor and reservoir
50
stripped and cleaned internally. Failure to carry out this oper- AXIAL DRIVEN P.T.O.
ation could result in overheating of the serviced or replace-
ment compressor. Crankshaft End Thrust
If anything is fitted to the engine that imposes an end load-
ing on the crankshaft, e.g. an automotive type clutch, torque
Hydraulic Pumps converter, etc., it must be ensured that the end loading of
A wide variety of hydraulic pumps are available for use with the crankshaft does not exceed the maximum allowable
Caterpillar engines, with various types of flange fittings and values for the particular engine type. These are specified in
drive shaft connection. SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
Hydraulic pumps are generally supplied to and fitted by the The manufacturer should be contacted for details of the
customer, who must consider the following points for sat- operating end thrust of their equipment when this informa-
isfactory performance: tion is not known.
The pump must not foul any part of the installation under
operating conditions, i.e. with a fully equipped engine
installed in chassis.
AXIAL MISALIGNMENT
d) Cooling
e) Oil leakage
51
Drive Shafts should not be less than 1. This allows the needles to
If a petrol engine is being replaced by a diesel engine of sim- roll slightly and prevents the highly stressed contact
ilar power, stronger drive line components (clutch, gearbox, area being in the same position at all times. Where no
universal joints, drive shafts differentials, etc.) could be joint angle is allowed, the roller may, under high torque
required in order to accommodate the higher cyclic torque. conditions, bed into the races and journals.
However, if a Caterpillar diesel engine is to be fitted in a If these requirements are not observed, and if operating
petrol engined vehicle which already offers a diesel engine standard joints through off-set angles both in plan and ele-
of similar power as an option, the drive line should be sat- vation, difficulty may be experienced in the correct phasing
isfactory, having been designed to cover the higher cyclic of the joints. Due to changes in velocity, excessive noise,
torque of the diesel. vibration and rapid wear of the bearings and sliding spline
may result.
Universal Joints
In some layouts, it may be necessary for the engine to be
TORSIONAL VIBRATION
installed at a different angle to the driven unit, or parallel but Introduction
with a different axis. The diesel engine, plus its driven equipment (driven from
either front or rear) is made up of rotating masses connected
In these cases, universal joints are required. by a series of shafts. This forms a torsional mass-elastic sys-
tem, which will vibrate at its own natural frequency when
acted upon by an exciting torque.
(c) Operating angles of universal joints vary with joint size Vibration Dampers
and speed. These have the effect of reducing the amplitude of vibration
and the resultant stresses in the crankshaft. They are used
(d) If angles in more than one plane are involved, then the
where a resonant condition is likely to occur in the operat-
manufacturers advice must be obtained.
ing speed range, and are therefore particularly suited to vari-
(e) When universally jointed shafts are manufactured, they able speed applications. They may however not be required
are assembled such that the yokes on the intermediate on constant speed applications such as generating sets,
shaft are in-line. The alignment is then marked with arrows which operate at one synchronous speed.
at the sliding spline assembly. This alignment must be
The two types of vibration damper in general use are:
maintained in order to obtain constant velocity.
Rubber tuned damper
(f) It is always preferable to have a small operating angle
on a needle roller bearing universal joint. This angle Viscous untuned damper
52
Rubber Tuned Dampers or axially driven equipment can constitute a new vibratory
system which may require analyzing for critical conditions.
This type of damper is suitable for the vast majority of appli-
cations requiring a damped pulley, and is almost always used
for automotive engines. The pulleys are tuned to be most Calculations can be carried out to check the possibility of
effective at high engine speeds, but are also suitable for use torsional vibration problems on particular installations if full
where torsional vibration analysis indicates that a damped details are given of the inertias, stiffnesses and minimum
pulley is required for a low speed application. shaft diameters between inertias for the driven system.
Alternatively, detailed drawings of the driven system should
be supplied.
The disadvantages of rubber damped pulleys are that they
are attacked by oil (especially fuel oil) and high temperature.
In addition, all bolted on Caterpillar parts used in the drive
system (flywheel, crankshaft pulley, etc.) should be identi-
Viscous Untuned Dampers fied by part number.
The viscous damper pulley is suitable for engines used in
hot, oily environments such as are found in marine applica- Typical information required for an engine/generating set
tions. They are generally unsuitable for vehicle applications analysis is indicated on the next page.
due to the overspeed requirements involved.
The next paragraph shows a quick and simple method for
They are more expensive than rubber dampers, and they calculation of the critical speed of gensets having flexible
must be handled carefully as they are easily damaged. rubber couplings between the engine and the generator. The
method is not however applicable to other engine/genset
arrangements.
Torsional Vibration Analysis
It is difficult to detect the amount of torsional vibration pres- Generator Set Critical Speed Calculations
ent in a system without the use of special equipment.
Excessive vibration will show itself eventually in the form of The calculation procedure described below is applicable only
noisy gear trains, damaged flexible couplings or mountings, or to generator sets having a flexible rubber coupling between
failure of the engine or driven shafting. Any change of engine the engine and the generator.
53
Item Polar Moment Minimum Diameter
(As Diagram) of Inertia Stiffness of Shaft (Inches or mm)
A. Crankshaft pulley or damper Yes No No
B. Flywheel and starter ring Yes No No
C. Coupling Yes Yes No
D. Section of Shaft No Yes Yes
E. Fan Yes No No
F. Section of shaft No Yes Yes
G. Section of shaft No Yes Yes
H. Rotor Yes No No
I. Section of shaft No Yes Yes
J. Section of shaft No Yes Yes
K. Exciter Yes No No
JE = Mass-polar moment of inertia (engine). (Includes all 1 lb in2 (mk2 or GD2) = 0.000259 lbf in s2
engine parts that turn with the crankshaft, including
the effect of con rods and pistons and the parts of (b) The following values apply for N in 4 stroke engines.
the coupling that can be associated with the engine.)
54
TO DETERMINE CRANKSHAFT
SIDE LOADING
Side Loading Calculation
O.E.M.s are invited to contact their nearest Caterpillar Area
Operations Office for the maximum allowable crankshaft
side loadings for a particular engine type and specification.
The face of the cylinder block is used as the datum point for
bending moments, both front and rear.
TYPICAL V8 CONFIGURATION
55
Tension Difference
T1 T2 = kW 2 1000
(Newtons) V
where kW = power take-off
or
hp 2 33,000
T1 T2 (lbf) =
C
where hp = power take-off
Tension Ratio
e u cosec }
For an application having several belt drives, the operating T1
=
requirements of the machine will indicate which combina- T2
tions of belt drives may be used simultaneously. These com- where e = 2.718
binations can then be checked to establish whether any coefficient } = 0.16 for vee belts
critical conditions could occur.
of friction, = 0.22 for raw edge vee belts
= 0.30 for flat belts
EXAMPLE:
56
2) by using the cosine formula
R2 = T12 + T22 2.T1.T2. COS (180 u)
NOTE:
COS (180 u) is equal to COSu
Therefore;
R2 = T12 + T22 + 2. T1. T2.COSu
57
The y values can be added together:
=y (e.g. + 2000 Nm)
Resultant R = =++++++++++++++++++++
x + y2 2
e.g. R = =++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
5000 + 2000 2 2
Resultant R = 5385 Nm
M1 M2 and M3
THE DIRECTIONS OF RESULTANT BENDING MOMENT
M1: x1 = M1 Sin u
y1 = M1 Cos u 5000
TAN = = 2.5
2000
M2: x2 = M2 Sin
= 68 B.T.D.C.
y2 = M2 Cos
M3: x3 = M3 Sin } The reference datum is usually taken as T.D.C. for in-line
y3 = M3 Cos } engines, or the cylinder block vertical center line for
Vee engines.
To ensure that the values are vectorially correct, i.e. that
moments acting in opposite directions cancel each other EXAMPLE OF A CRANKSHAFT SIDE
out, it is essential that signs are correct. LOADING CALCULATION
FAN BELT
P.T.O. BELT
2500
rev/min
125 mm
CYLINDER BLOCK
75 mm
RADIUS RADIUS
DRIVER
DRIVEN 85 mm
400 mm 110 mm
58
Angle of lap at crankshaft pulley Resultant load on crankshaft pulley
COSINE FORMULA:
SIN = = 0.125
R2 = T12 + T22 2 2 T1 2 T2 2 Cos 165
= 7 12'
= 7872 + 1752 2 2 787 2 175 2 Cos 165
u = 180 2
R = 957 N
u = 165 36' = 2.89 radian
Belt speed V =
2D2N
60,000
=
2 150 2 2500
60,000
V = 19.6 m/s
= e1.5
If line of action of T2 slack side belt acts at 10 above cen-
T1 = 4.49 (2) ter line, resultant will act at 12 10 = 2 below center line
T2 i.e., 92 after cylinder block vertical center line.
Form (2) T1 = 4.49 T2
Bending moment
Substitute in (1) 4.49 T2 T2 = 612 N
The resulting load = 957 N
3.49 T2 = 612 N Distance of pulley to face of block = 110 mm
Resultant Bending Moment = 957 2 0.11 = 105 Nm
T2 = 175 N
Resultant bending moment = 105 Nm acting at 92 after
Form (2) T1 = 787 N vertical center line
These are the minimum tensions required to avoid belt slippage. This is with the minimum installation tension of 481 N, nec-
essary to avoid belt slippage.
Off-load, the tensions are distributed equally.
i.e. T1 = T2
Known installation tension
T1 + T2 = 787 + 175 = 962 If a known installation tension of, say 600 N, is applied to
the belt, the side load is calculated as follows:
Therefore minimum installation tension required to avoid
belt slippage. Off-load T1 = T2 = 600 N
59
Using previous example:
Tension Difference
12 2 1000
T1 T2 = = 612 N (1)
19.6
T2 = 294 N
60
SECTION 6
Mounting Systems
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Method of Calculating Back End Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Relationship Between Configuration and Properties
of Vertical Mounting Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Relationship Between Configuration and Properties
of Inclined Mounting Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
61
INTRODUCTION Table 1 summarizes the balance characteristics inherent in
the various engine configurations of the Caterpillar range.
Reciprocating machines, including the majority of internal
combustion engines, are inherent sources of vibration due
to the nature of their piston and connecting rod motions. These unbalanced forces and couples would, if unrestrained,
While this inherent vibration can be minimized by careful produce translational (i.e. linear) and rotational vibratory
design and manufacture, some will nevertheless remain due movements along and around the principal axes of inertia
to imbalance, the nature and magnitude of which will depend of the power unit assembly. The six basic modes of vibration,
upon engine configuration. or Degrees of Freedom, are illustrated. It is a major function
of the engine mounting system to resist and control these
movements with minimum transmission of disturbance to
This vibration can cause failure of components in the
the supporting structure.
remainder of the installation, as well as significant operator
discomfort. It is therefore important that the engine should
be mounted in such a way as to reduce to an acceptable It is particularly important to ensure that an adequate mount-
level the transmission of engine vibration to the support- ing system is provided for 4-cylinder engines not fitted with
ing structure. secondary harmonious balancers, especially if the mass of
the machines in which they are installed is not substantial.
Thus, for a conventional 4-cylinder in-line engine, most of Flexible mountings enable the supporting structure to be
the significant external out-of-balance effects cancel out, isolated from engine vibration, the forces generated by the
and only a vertical secondary force remains, i.e. a force hav- engine being counteracted by allowing the engine itself to
ing a frequency twice that of engine speed. move bodily.
On the other hand, for a 3-cylinder in-line engine, all the Solid mountings are used where the movement of a flexibly-
external forces are balanced, but primary and secondary cou- mounted engine is not acceptable, or where the engine itself
ples are unbalanced, i.e. couples having frequencies equal is an integral part of the machine structure (e.g. as in many
to both engine speed and twice engine speed. agricultural tractors).
TABLE 1
Inherent balance characteristics of 4-stroke reciprocating engines
Cylinder Arrangement
3-Cylinder 4-Cylinder 6-Cylinder 8-Cylinder
in-line in-line in-line 90 Vee
Crank diagram
(arrow indicates
direction of
rotation)
62
BASIC MODES OF POWER UNIT VIBRATORY MOTION
Is some cases, a combination of solid and flexible mount- SOLID MOUNTING SYSTEMS
ings may be used. The four main arrangements for mount-
ing of a total installation are: Solid mounting is not generally recommended, but may
sometimes be considered necessary for the reasons given
a) Engine and machine rigidly connected; complete in TYPES OF MOUNTING SYSTEMS.
assembly flexibility mounted.
b) Complete machine solidly mounted on a sub-frame In any solid mounting arrangement, the following consider-
which is itself flexibly mounted onto a solid base. ations should be taken into account:
c) Engine flexibly mounted, independently of machine; a) Mounting brackets and fixings and mounting frame or
engine and machine coupled by means of a drive shaft. base, must be as rigid as possible.
63
d) For mobile applications, dynamic shock loadings on the
mountings must be considered. This subject is dealt
with in detail in GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS.
TIME
b) For a successful installation the mountings must be
able to withstand, without excessive deflection, the
static loadings due to the weight of the system DECAY OF DAMPED VIBRATION
being supported.
Forced Vibration
c) The mountings, must, under all working conditions, con- When a vibration input is applied to a mass-spring system,
trol to within acceptable limits the movement of the the system itself will also be caused to vibrate. The nature
engine in all linear and rotational directions. of this resultant vibration will be a function of:
e) The mountings should protect the engine from any the natural frequency of the mass-spring system
stresses caused by distortion of the frame on which
they are located. the damping properties of the system
Basic Theory of Flexible Mounting System a) A mass flexibly supported on a base (which is assumed
to be rigid and immovable), the mass being subjected
1. Free Vibration to a periodic force of known magnitude and frequency.
This represents the situation where an engine is flexi-
A simple flexible mounting system can in theory be repre- bly mounted on a rigid frame or base, and the disturb-
sented by a mass and a spring. If the mass is displaced ing force originates from the engine itself. In the case
linearly from its equilibrium position and then released, vibratory force is transmitted through the mounts to
the system will vibrate freely at its natural frequency. the base.
64
b) A mass flexibly supported on a base which is itself sub-
jected to a vibration input of known magnitude and fre-
quency. This is the situation on a mobile application
subject for example to road surface excitation in this
case the vibration transmitted through the mounts
results in oscillation of the engine.
Typical vibration output: input response characteristics c) High damping is primarily required when it is necessary
of forced vibration systems are illustrated in terms of to operate at a frequency close to resonance, or if tran-
Transmissibility. Transmissibility can be defined, in Case sition through the resonance conditions takes place very
(a) as the ratio of the transmitted force to the imposed force, slowly, with the consequent risk of larger than normal
amplitude to the imposed amplitude. These two ratios are vibration amplitudes.
the same.
If however the frequency ratio is favorable (i.e. not less
than 2), and resonance conditions are passed through
Thus transmissibility represents a measure of the effec- relatively quickly, then low damping is to be preferred,
tiveness or otherwise of a flexible mounting system as a since damping represents energy loss. Excessive damp-
means of vibration isolation. ing causes a build up of heat in the rubber, resulting in
65
a reduction in its capacity to absorb energy as well as the centers of gravity of the engine and bolted-on equip-
a need for cooling in order to prevent degradation of ment is illustrated below.
the rubber.
COMBINED CENTER
Also, high damping tends to make the rubber less OF GRAVITY
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
SINGLE
MOUNT
Where a choice is available, however, the mountings should Vertical mounts are widely used in both mobile and station-
ideally be symmetrically arranged about the combined cen- ary installations where a considerable degree of stiffness is
ter of gravity of the engine and bolted-in equipment. This required. Inclined mounts are mainly used in automotive and
reduces the excitation of other modes of vibration when the similar installations where isolation may be required against
system is vibrating in one particular direction. vertical, lateral and torsional excitation.
An example of the method of calculating the longitudinal The particular properties of these arrangements are dis-
location of the combined center of gravity in the relation to cussed more fully in the following paragraphs.
66
Vertical Mounting Systems An important feature of any inclined mounting system is the
elastic center, which is always located at a point above the
For a simple symmetrical system, the stiffness of the com- mount, but below the geometrical intersection of their com-
bined system are as follows: pression axes. Its precise position can be determined math-
ematically from knowledge of the mounting configuration
Total vertical stiffness = 2Ky and of the axial and shear stiffness of the individual mounts
(expressed in units of (see APPENDIX 6, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONFIGU-
force deflection) RATION AND PROPERTIES OF INCLINED MOUNTING
ARRANGEMENTS.
Total lateral stiffness = 2Kx
The properties of the elastic center are such that a linear
Torsional stiffness = 2Ky 2 d2
force applied in any direction passing through the elastic
center will cause translation (i.e. linear movement) but no
rotation of the supported mass. Similarly, a couple applied
about this center will cause no linear movement of the sup-
ported mass. The principal modes of vibration through and
about the elastic center are therefore decoupled.
67
1. Two equal mounts, symmetrically located and orien- the special property that the effective stiffness at their elastic
tated (as in Figure 1). center is the same in any direction in the plane of the
mounts. This may sometimes be advantageous.
2. Two equal mounts, symmetrically located and orien-
tated, and with their major stiffness principal axes per-
pendicular to each other (Figure 2). Mathematical expressions relating the stiffness properties
and the location of the elastic centers for each of these
3. Two equal mounts, not necessarily symmetrically located mounting arrangements are given in APPENDIX 6, RELA-
or orientated, but having their major stiffness principal TIONSHIP BETWEEN CONFIGURATION AND PROPERTIES
axes perpendicular to each other (Figure 3). OF INCLINED MOUNTING ARRANGEMENTS.
FIG. 1 FIG. 2
FIG. 3 FIG. 4
68
(a) and (b) are simple mounts of metal/rubber/metal sand-
wich construction, while (c) has a metal insert to give
increased stiffness. These types may be used either in pure
compression or, more commonly, inclined to the vertical in
pairs in order to give the required directional stiffness char-
acteristics by means of a combination of their compression
and shear properties.
69
FLEXIBLE MOUNTING SELECTION differences in mass also influence the natural frequency of
the mass-spring system.
Choice of Mountings
Although the required mounting properties for a particular In practice, a fair estimate of the required mount stiffness
installation can be determined by purely theoretical meth- properties required for a given installation can be obtained
ods, the practical selection of suitable flexible mountings to from mounting manufacturers charts, a typical example of
give these properties is an extremely specialized subject. which is illustrated. It should be noted that in this context
This is particularly true if an optimized system is required deflection refers to static deflection in the vertical plane
which not only minimizes transmission of engine noise and of the mounts in their installed position, while vibra-
vibration to the vehicle or machine structure, but also con- tion refers to vibration in the vertical mode only.
trols bodily vibration of the complete power unit and
bolted-on driven equipment. Consideration must also be N.B. For detailed information on the properties of specific
given to minimization of excitation to bolted-on auxiliary mounts the manufacturers should always be consulted.
equipment e.g. filters, coolers, etc.
70
a) Vehicle and related installations: Connections of services and controls between
engine and chassis are sufficiently flexible to give
Since vibration in vehicles is particularly likely to give good isolation.
rise to criticism and dissatisfaction, the following points
should be particularly noted: Some form of overload control may be necessary
in order to withstand the effects of external loads
The engine should be controlled to oscillate about (e.g. control forces, clutch operation, etc.)
the roll axis, by ensuring that the elastic centers of
In practice, the most effective vehicle engine mounting sys-
the mounts lie on the roll axis (see APPENDIX 6,
tems are of the 3-point type (for small 4-cylinder engines in
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONFIGURATION
passenger cars and light vans) and 4-point type for larger
AND PROPERTIES OF VERTICAL MOUNTING
vehicles. In both cases, inclined front mountings are rec-
ARRANGEMENTS).
ommended, as illustrated.
The mounting layout should give flexibility in the b) Earthmoving and construction machinery:
bounce and roll modes.
Mounting arrangements may be of the 4, 5, or 6 point
There is adequate flexibility to ensure that the nat- types, depending upon the bulk of the transmission and
ural frequency is below the running range. other bolted-on equipment.
71
In the normal 4-point system, the required characteris- e) Other mobile or portable equipment:
tics can usually be obtained by means of cone-type
mounts located in pairs at the front of the engine and 4-point cone-type mounting systems are adequate for
at the flywheel housing. In 6-point systems, an addi- most requirements. In the case of portable equipment
tional pair of cone-type mounts is located at the rear which may be towed, provision should be made for lon-
end of the supported assembly. The 5-point system is gitudinal restraint to allow for breaking loads.
similar except that the rear support is provided by a
single compression mount. Provision should be made f) Stationary equipment:
where necessary for rebound control.
Flexible mounting of the 4-point cone-type is often
advisable in order to isolate the machine from its sur-
As previously stated, extreme care should be taken
roundings. It may also be used to compensate for small
on 5 and 6 point arrangements to ensure correct mount
irregularities in foundations, but great care must be
alignment.
taken to avoid undue stressing of mounts.
c) Forklift trucks:
General Considerations
It is common practice for the rear (i.e. flywheel) end of and Recommendations
the engine to be bolted rigidly to the transmission and 1. It should be noted that calculated stiffnesses assume:
drive axle, the front of the engine being flexibly mounted
by means of cone-type mounts. These provide some a) Stiff mounting brackets, cross members, etc.
degree of isolation, while being sufficiently stiff to with- The weight of the chassis or frame should also be
stand the torque reaction from the drive axle. With substantially greater than that of the engine.
this type of arrangement it is very important that the If these requirements are not met, then the vibra-
engine/transmission line should be very rigid, and for tion characteristics of the installation may be com-
this reason sumps and flywheel housings are often pletely changed.
tied together.
b) No restraint from exhaust pipes, hoses, linkages,
In cases where the engine and transmission are con- etc., although in practice, this cannot be entirely
nected to the drive axle through a universal joint or car- eliminated. Care, however, should be taken to min-
dan shaft, the engine should be 4-point mounted by imize their effects as paths for transmission of
means of cone-type mountings at front and rear. noise and vibration.
72
hardness, but may be as high as 3:1 for natural rubber 5. The use of a large quantity of soft rubber is preferable
with high damping, and even 8 or 9:1 for some syn- to a smaller quantity of hard rubber, as the harder grades
thetic grades. contain non-elastic additives which have an adverse
effect on their mechanical properties. However, exces-
3. Estimates of dynamic deflection should, where appli- sively soft rubbers should also be avoided as these can
cable, allow both for full torque wind-up and for maxi- lead to bonding problems during manufacture.
mum bump conditions. These can produce vertical
accelerations of up to 6g, depending upon application 6. Natural rubber compounds are generally recommended
type, i.e. the dynamic forces due to vertical accelera- for their good overall mechanical properties over a fairly
tion of an engine assembly can be up to six times the wide temperature range (20 to +70C) although syn-
magnitude of the force due to its static mass. Typical thetic rubbers may be preferable in some instances for
values of vertical dynamic loads are indicated in the table. oil-resistance or high temperature conditions.
Where high dynamic loads can be expected, it is advis- NOTE: Arrangements using a stiffened cylinder block and
able to fit overload rebound washers, or to incorporate tied sump can tolerate higher bending moments. For
a built-in snubber to limit excessive deflections. advice on these installations, contact the Caterpillar
Applications Engineering Department.
On mobile and portable equipment, allowance should
also be made for cornering, which can give high lateral 9. Having determined the required properties of a mount-
horizontal loads, and for braking which can give up to 1g ing system, it should be realized that, due to manufac-
in the forward direction. turing difficulties with rubber components, production
variations in their mechanical properties may be of the
4. The whole of the rubber in a mount should be stressed order of 15%.
as uniformly as possible, to ensure the highest possible
ratio between resilience and the weight of rubber 10. Provision must be made where necessary for protec-
employed. Stress concentrations should be avoided as tion of rubber mounts from oil contamination and exces-
these could lead to early local failure. sive heat, e.g. by means of suitable shielding.
73
SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURE
FOR FLEXIBLE MOUNTINGS
The following notes are included primarily as a check-list to
assist in ensuring that all necessary considerations are covered
at the design stage. Wherever possible, however, the mount-
ing design procedure should be carried out in collaboration
with the mounting manufacturer, in order to ensure optimum
matching of mounting properties with design requirements.
Bending Moment
The static mounting reactions R1 and R2 can be determined
from the above information.
}
Both these values
will be about their
Wt = total weight of respective centers P and Q are the principal (compression and shear) axes
transmission of gravity. of the mounts,
74
L and R are suffices defining left-hand and right- Combined lateral stiffness
hand mounts.
= KpL Cos2 u + KqL Sin2 u + KpR Cos2 + KqR Sin2
Kp and Kq are combined and shear stiffnesses respec-
tively. Combined roll stiffness
B(B + D) KpL KqL
Kx and Ky are combined lateral and vertical stiffnesses =
KpL Cos2 u + KqL Sin2 u
respectively.
= (also)
KpR
Then = B D(B + D) KpR KqR
KpL D
KpR Cos2 + KqR Sin2
and Ky = KpL + KpR
b) Two equal mounts, symmetrically located and
For a given system, B, D and the required value of Ky are orientated
already defined. Kp and Kq can therefore be calculated.
b) Symmetrical system
In this case,
B = D, kpL = KpR (Kp) and KqL = KqR (=Kq)
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
c) Two equal mounts on the same horizontal axis, per-
ELASTIC
CENTER pendicular to each other
75
If the horizontal distance between the mount centers is
2R ( = B + D), and the elastic center is at a distance 2
from the mid-point of the mount center line.
= Kp + Kq
= 2R (R X) Kp
76
SECTION 7
Cooling Systems
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
77
RADIATOR SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Radiator Selection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Application Type and Operating Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Ambient Temperature Clearance Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Total Heat Dissipation Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Torque Converter Heat Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Engine Coolant Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Cooling System Pressure Drop (Waterside) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Cooling System Air Flow, Power Requirement and Noise Emission . . . . . . .90
Radiator heat Dissipation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Radiator Selection Using Specific Dissipation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . .91
78
INTRODUCTION COOLING SYSTEM OPERATING PARAMETERS
The heat energy released by the combustion of fuel in a
diesel engine is distributed approximately in the proportions Coolant Temperature
shown below.
The curves below show the boiling point of water against
altitude, for an unpressurized system and for systems using
27.6 kN/m2 (4 lbf in2) (0.3 bar) and 48.3 kN/m2 (7 lbf in2)
(0.5 bar) pressure caps.
NOTE: For V8.640 engine, all above temperatures must be reduced by 8C.
79
Pressure Cap Setting Filling
The maximum pressure cap value approved by Caterpillar It is of primary importance that the system should be designed
for the determination of cooling system clearance is to ensure that complete filling of the engine, radiator and
48.3 kN/m2 (7 lbf in2) (0.5 bar). associated pipework can be carried out without air being
trapped at any point in the system. Trapped air will result in
If higher pressure cap settings are used, the additional pres-
the possibility of local overheating, and also in excessive coolant
sure may not be used in calculating cooling clearance, and
loss due to expansion of the air at working temperature.
experience has shown that settings higher than 103 kN/m2
(15 lbf in2) (1 bar) should not be used, due to the possibility
of leakage at seals, gaskets, hoses, etc. Auxiliary circuits (e.g. cab heaters) should be designed to fill
during routine filling of the total cooling system. This is
helped by spacing the connections to the main system as far
apart as possible, and avoiding undulations in pipe runs.
Lubricating Oil Temperature
The normal maximum permissible lubricating oil tempera-
ture, measured in the main oil pressure rail, or at the oil filter
head, is 121C. It may however be considered necessary for De-Aeration
the maximum oil temperatures to be measured prior to the In addition to meeting the requirement for satisfactory filling
oil cooler in heavy duty construction machinery applications. as detailed, it is desirable that features should be included
in the cooling system design which will permit continuous
If the engine never operates at its maximum speed for more
de-aeration, i.e. removal of entrained air, from the coolant
than one hour at a time, the maximum permissible oil tem-
while running.
perature may be increased to 132C.
Examples of such applications are: NOTE: In the case of the V8.640 engine, it is essential that
the cooling system should be of a positive de-aerating type.
Goods and passenger vehicles operating in territories This is necessary in order to ensure the high standard of
which do not have motorways or similar high speed, cooling system reliability and performance required for this
limited access roads. premium, long life engine.
Forklift trucks
For applications such as combine harvesters and 360 exca- 3. It is possible for combustion gases to become entrained
vators, where application approval is based respectively on in the coolant in the event of faulty cylinder head gas-
tests at 75% load on the governor curve and 80% power ket sealing.
at rated speed, the lower oil temperature of 121C applies.
If tested at 100% engine power on a dynamometer or test
rig, the higher value of 132C is permitted. Effects of Aeration
NOTE: In the case of all field tests carried out on excava- Aeration of the coolant is likely to result in the following:
tors and combine harvesters, the lower oil temperature limit
of 121C applies. 1. Possibility of local boiling, and high metal temperatures.
80
Acceptance Requirements, Coolant Loss Venting: Vent valve (jiggle pin) or notch in ther-
on Hot Shut Down and Aeration Level mostat/thermostat housing.
OR THERMOSTAT HOUSING
BASIC ARRANGEMENT
81
(a) Top of Radiator above Engine Water Outlet
Venting: Vent valve (jiggle pin) or notch in ther- De-Aeration: Incorporates positive de-aerating capa-
mostat/thermostat housing, and bility. Air carried with bleed from top
bleed from top of radiator to auxil- of radiator settles out in non-turbu-
iary tank. lent conditions of auxiliary tank.
Venting: Vent valve (jiggle pin) or notch in ther- De-Aeration: Incorporates positive de-aerating capa-
mostat/thermostat housing, and bleed bility. Air carried with bleed settles
to auxiliary tank from highest point in out in non-turbulent conditions of aux-
system on radiator side of thermostat. iliary tank.
82
De-Aerating Radiator Top Tank Design
(1)
The diagram shows a twin inlet design, suitable for use with Alternative de-aerating top tank arrangements are possible,
Vee form engines. The single inlet design remains the same, but in all cases, effectiveness with regard to de-aerating per-
except for the deletion of one of the connections. formance can only be assessed by testing in the particular
application. See SECTION 15, APPRAISAL AND TESTING.
An alternative design where increased de-aerating ability is
required is shown below. This utilizes a fully sealed baffle
and an external filling/return line.
(2)
83
Radiator Top Tank/Auxiliary Header of the radiator tubes, or level with the top of the baffle, in the
Tank Capacity case of a baffled radiator design.
It is essential that the radiator top tank/auxiliary header tank In the case of an auxiliary header tank system, coolant level
should be of adequate capacity, in order to ensure that a sat- should not fall below 32 mm (1 1 4 in) above the base of
isfactory coolant level will be maintained under all conditions. the tank.
After allowance for expansion loss, and loss on hot shut The illustration below shows diagrammatically the header
down, coolant level after cooling down to ambient temper- tank volume allowance which must be made for expansion
ature should not be less than 32 mm (114 in) above the top loss, hot shut down loss, and working volume respectively.
Cross-Flow Design
Radiators installed where there is a severe height restric-
tion may be of cross-flow design with transverse tubes and CROSS FLOW RADIATOR
tanks at each side. Filling, venting, and de-aerating tend to
be difficult and a remote header tank similar to the auxiliary COOLANT SYSTEM LAYOUT
tanks shown on earlier pages will generally be required.
Cooling Air Flow General Considerations
The installation of V8 engines with twin water outlets is par- It is important to appreciate that in addition to the restric-
ticularly difficult. The shape and size of the remote header tion incurred across the radiator core, the total cooling sys-
tank needed may make this impracticable to locate in a suit- tem resistance as seen by the cooling fan includes any
able position. Cross flow radiators are not generally recom- additional restriction to flow imposed either up stream or
mended therefore for V8 installations. down stream of the fan. It is important, in order to minimize
84
cooling system power loss and noise emission, that restric- b) For certain applications, e.g., earth moving and con-
tion should be kept to a minimum, and attention should be struction machinery, operating in high sand/dust
given to the following: environments, the use of a puller fan is not nor-
mally suitable, due to the likelihood of radiator plug-
1. Radiator grilles ging and sand blasting.
If the radiator grille is fitted, the total open area should c) In a number of applications a puller fan is not suit-
be at least equal to that of the radiator core, and should able, since due to the layout of the machine, the
preferably be 10 to 20% greater. operator would be subjected to high temperatures
due to the warm air leaving the radiator.
2. Outlet area
d) In rear engined applications with significant forward
It is important that adequate area should be allowed for speed, the ram effect due to forward motion
the cooling flow outlet. This should be at least equal to tends to oppose the flow of cooling air from a
the total inlet area, and in order to allow for the puller fan (if the engine faces towards the rear),
increased cooling air volume due to rise in temperature and careful ducting of the cooling air flow is nec-
through the radiator, the exit area should ideally be at essary in order to prevent possible adverse effects.
least 20% greater than the inlet area.
Abrupt changes in flow area section and direction The use of an efficient cowl will, in many cases, make it pos-
should be avoided as far as possible. sible to use a lower cooling air flow rate, while still achiev-
ing satisfactory cooling, and so reduce the cooling fan power
requirement and noise emission.
Direction of Air Flow
Cooling air flow may be in either direction through the radi- The various types of fan cowl are illustrated.
ator core, depending on the type of cooling fan used. It is
important however that consideration should be given to the Type 1
following factors when deciding on the most suitable flow
direction for a particular installation: This is the simplest, and least expensive type of cowl, and
is suitable for general use in installations where the system
1. When possible, the direction of flow should be such restriction (and hence fan working pressure) is relatively low.
that air temperature at entry to the radiator is as close
as possible to ambient temperature. Normally, this will apply to installations where radiator pres-
sure drop is low, due to the use of a low number of tube
In general, this requirement will be met most satisfac- rows, and moderate cooling air flow rate.
torily by the use of a puller i.e. suction type fan, since
the case of a pusher (pressure) type fan, preheating Type 2 and 3
of the cooling air will take place due to passage over In cases where the system pressure drop is higher, as in
the engine surfaces. installations using radiator cores with a higher number of
tube rows, and possibly also close fin spacing, greater effi-
2. In mobile applications with significant forward velocity, ciency will be achieved by the incorporation of a fan ring
the flow direction should be chosen to take advantage on the cowl, as shown. This assists in the prevention of air
of the resulting ram effect. leakage at the fan tip, and allows the fan to build up the
required working pressure. The width of the ring should be
3. Cooling fan efficiency and noise output is greatly equal to approximately half the projected fan blade width.
affected by flow conditions at the fan inlet. In general,
less obstructed flow conditions and improved inlet con- In general, optimum results will be obtained with the
ditions will be achieved with a puller type fan, since this shaped cowl design (3) due to the improved flow distri-
is not subjected to the obstruction imposed by the bution over the radiator core, but this type is more expensive
engine in the case of a pusher fan installation. to produce.
4. Although the use of a puller (suction) fan will in general
result in a more efficient cooling system, the following Type 4
factors should be taken into account: In installations where there is considerable relative move-
ment between the fan and radiator cowl, as in the case of
a) In the case of enclosed installations, under bonnet/ some flexibly mounted engines, the arrangement shown
engine enclosure air temperature will be rela- may be used, in order that fan tip clearance may be kept to
tively high. a minimum (see COOLING FAN TIP CLEARANCE).
85
TYPICAL FAN COWL TYPES
1 2
3 4
SHAPED COWL ENGINE-MOUNTED FAN RING
WITH FLEXIBLE GAITER
86
Fan/Cowl Relationship clearance, and in such cases, for optimum results the
The position of the cooling fan relative to the cowl has a con- engine-mounted fan ring arrangement. Type 4 (reference
siderable effect on efficiency. In many cases, the optimum FAN COWLS) should be used.
position will be established by adjustment during cooling This allows relative movement between the engine and radi-
tests, but in general, the relationships shown in the diagrams ator, without affecting tip clearance.
below have been found to give satisfactory results.
COOLING FAN/COWL RELATIONSHIP Cooling Fan/Radiator Core Location
The cooling fan should be located centrally with the radiator
core, and it must be ensured that the fan does not overlap
the sides of the radiator core, or the top and bottom tanks.
This condition imposes fluctuating loadings on the fan blades,
and can result in fatigue failure. For the same reason, care
must be taken to ensure that support bracketry, hosework,
etc., is not located within the sweep of the fan blades.
In general, within the limitations of the space available, the
radiator should be located as far forward as possible from
the fan. This enables the best distribution of cooling air over
the radiator core.
If, due to lack of space, the fan/core clearance must be min-
imized, the fan must not be positioned closer than 25 mm
(1 in) from the core. This dimension must of course be
increased if the movement of the engine and/or radiator on
their individual flexible mountings will result in a reduction in
clearance under operating conditions.
BAFFLE/DUCTING ARRANGEMENTS
TO PREVENT COOLING AIR RECIRCULATION
87
extend over the whole of the front of the enclosure, in order arrangement drawing. It is important that only the specified
to avoid turbulent air conditions inside the canopy at the points should be used.
cooling air exit from the radiator.
Hoses should be suitably secured to prevent the possibility
The lower illustration shows an arrangement which suits of damage. Where the heater is positioned at a higher level
both puller and pusher fan installations. This arrangement is than the rest of the system, a vent valve or plug must be
recommended for vehicle applications, as the inlet duct fitted at the highest point in order to allow air to be expelled
will maximize the ram effect due to the forward motion during filling.
of the vehicle.
RADIATOR CONSTRUCTION AND MOUNTING
Cooling System Pipework Hoses Radiator Construction
Hoses used in the cooling system must be of adequate duty Radiator construction must be adequate to withstand the
to meet working conditions with respect to temperature, loadings and conditions that will be met in service. Special
pressure, and resistance to anti-freeze and contamination requirements also apply for machines operating in environ-
by fuel and lubricating oils. ments where there is a high sand or dust contamination of
the cooling air, e.g. earth moving equipment.
Only plain bore hose should be used. The internally convo-
luted flexible type of hose should not be used, since this is Typical methods of radiator core construction are illustrated.
highly restrictive, and may result in excessive pressure drop.
The use of plain bore hose with internal coil spring inser- Pack Type Core
tions to provide a degree of flexibility, and to prevent local This Pack type of construction has relatively low mechan-
closure of the hose, is not approved, since experience has ical strength, and is susceptible to plugging, i.e. choking
shown that service problems are likely due to the spring of the core, where any significant contamination of the cool-
insert moving out of position. ing air is present.
Hose runs should be kept as short as possible, and should be In general, this form of construction is suitable only for appli-
suitably supported/secured if necessary to prevent chafing. cations where shock loading and vibration are low, and
All radiator connections, remote header tank connections, where there is no appreciable dust or other contamination
oil cooler connections (waterside), and any other connec- of the cooling air. Typical usage is in light duty automotive
tions used in conjunction with hoses, should have beaded applications.
ends, for improved sealing and security.
Fin and Tube Type Core
Heater Connections and Pipework This type of construction has greater mechanical strength,
and is suitable for all application types.
Tappings are provided on all engine types to take cab heater
feed and return connections the position of these is Important restrictions apply however with regard to the max-
shown in the appropriate engine handbook or general imum density of fin spacing (i.e. closeness of fin pitch) which
88
should be used to avoid plugging, in various application Radiator Mounting Arrangement
types. In general, fin spacing should not be closer than that
shown below, for the various application types. In order to avoid possible failure of the radiator core, it is impor-
tant to protect the radiator from excessive vibration and/or
Application Type Fin Spacing
shock loading.
Fin Pitch Fins/inch
(mm)
Typical flexible mounting arrangements are shown below.
Light duty Automotive 1.7 15 These are used in conjunction with rubber bushed fixings
Commercial Vehicle at the side and/or flexible mounted stays at the top of
(on-highway) 2.0 12 the radiator.
General Industrial
General Agricultural
Vehicle (off-highway)
} 3.0 9
TYPICAL RADIATOR MOUNTING ARRANGEMENTS
89
RADIATOR SELECTION load must be based on an estimate of the mean torque con-
verter efficiency over the duty cycle. Allowance must be
Introduction made for an additional heat dissipation requirement equiva-
In most cases, the selection of a suitable radiator will be car- lent to the power lost in the transmission.
ried out in conjunction with, the radiator manufacturer, who
will have available information on stock radiator sizes and types,
and the applicable radiator dissipation characteristics, etc. Engine Coolant Flow Rate
Coolant flow rates for the current engine range, with a fully
It is important however to appreciate that: open thermostat and typical system pressure drop, (see
COOLING SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP (WATERSIDE), are
1. The correct choice of cooling system package can included in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
have a considerable effect on noise emission and cool-
ing system power requirement.
Cooling System Pressure Drop (Waterside)
2. In all cases, due to the effects of features of the cooling Pressure drop incurred by the coolant in flowing through the
system layout, air flow conditions, duty cycle, etc., the total external cooling system, i.e. radiator, pipework, in-
actual cooling system clearance (i.e. the maximum line oil cooler if fitted (see WATER/OIL TYPE and OIL
ambient temperature for which the cooling system is COOLER RESTRICTION), should not exceed 35 kN/m 2
suitable) can only be established by full cooling tests, as ( 5 lbf/in2) at maximum rating.
detailed in SECTION 15, APPRAISAL AND TESTING.
This is an essential requirement in order to maintain ade-
Radiator Selection Procedure quate flow rate through the engine, end to prevent cavitation
taking place at the water pump inlet. (See CAVITATION.)
The following items must be considered during the selection
procedure:
Cavitation
1. Application type and operating environment. Cavitation will occur if the pressure at the water pump inlet
2. Ambient temperature clearance requirement. is reduced to the point when local boiling can take place,
and will result in the following detrimental effects:
3. Total heat dissipation requirement.
a) Reduction in coolant flow rate. This in turn will lead to
4. Engine coolant flow rate. a higher coolant temperature, and further aggravate
the situation.
5. Space availability for radiator.
b) Damage to the water pump impeller and casing, and
6. Radiator heat dissipation characteristics. possibly also to the coolant passages in the engine
water jacket.
Application Type and Operating Environment
the application type and operating environment will deter- Cooling System Air Flow, Power Requirement
mine the most suitable form of radiator core construction, and Noise Emission
and the maximum acceptable fin density and number of tube
It is important, when deciding the most suitable radiator and
rows, in order to avoid the possibility of core plugging
cooling fan specification to meet a given heat dissipation
(See RADIATOR CONSTRUCTION AND MOUNTING).
requirement, to appreciate the following relationships:
Ambient Temperature Clearance Requirement Cooling Air Power Requirement is proportional to Cooling
Caterpillar ambient temperature clearance requirements Air Flow 2 Air Pressure Developed Across System.
related to operating territory are shown in SECTION 15,
Cooling System Noise Emission is proportional to Cooling
APPRAISAL AND TESTING.
Air Flow Rate 2 Pressure2.
Total Heat Dissipation Requirement These relationships indicate the following requirements in
Full load heat to coolant values for the current engine range, order to minimize cooling system power loss and noise
at the ratings applicable to the various application categories, emission:
are included in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
1. Cooling air flow volume should be kept to a minimum,
To these values must be added any additional heat input to compatible with achieving the required cooling clearance.
the cooling system, rejected from the transmission, hydraulic
system, braking system, water cooled exhaust manifolds, 2. Pressure developed, i.e. restriction incurred, across the
air conditioning systems etc., depending on the design system should be kept to a minimum.
details of the particular application type.
3. In order to minimize the cooling air flow rate, and also
reduce the pressure developed across the system, the
Torque Converter Heat Load heat dissipation efficiency of the radiator should be as
Where heat is rejected to the cooling system from a torque high as possible, within the limitations set by the appli-
converter transmission, determination of the additional heat cation type, operating environment and cost.
90
Radiator Heat Dissipation Characteristics air pressure drop across the core against cooling air veloc-
The specific heat dissipation characteristics of a radiator core ity through the core again for a range of fin spacings.
are dependent on the following:
Radiator Selection Using Specific
a) Type of construction and material of core
Dissipation Characteristics
b) Type of finning and fin density
It is stressed that the successful selection of a radiator and
c) Core thickness (number of tube rows) cooling fan combination to give a particular ambient tem-
perature clearance is a matter demanding considerable expe-
d) Coolant flow rate
rience and knowledge of previous similar installations. This
e) Velocity of cooling air flow through core is particularly the case in applications working on variable
The characteristics of a particular core type are normally pre- duty load and speed cycles, and in many cases, the final
sented by the radiator manufacturer in graphical form as specification will be developed ultimately as a result of mod-
illustrated. Typical characteristics are shown for two row and ifications made as a result of a number of cooling tests.
five row core thickness. As a guide however, the procedure is as follows:
It should be noted that in order for the dissipation rates 1. Establish frontal area of radiator core
shown to apply, waterside (i.e. coolant) flow rate must be
equal to or greater than the minimum value quoted on the As a general rule, the largest possible core area
curve of characteristics. should be specified, consistent with the installation
space available.
The diagrams show the heat dissipation performance per
square meter of core area, against cooling air velocity This allows the cooling air flow volume for a given heat
through the core, based on a temperature differential of 50C dissipation requirement to be minimized, and so
between the mean coolant temperature in the core and the reduces noise emission and power loss.
temperature of the cooling air venting the radiator.
NOTE: It is essential, in order to make full use of the
The characteristic curves show specific dissipation for a available core area, that an efficient fan cowl should be
range of fin spacings; and also, in the lower diagrams, static fitted (see FAN COWLS).
91
MATRIX RESISTANCE
2. Establish most suitable fin spacing air takes place before entering the core, or may be
substantially above this, as in the case of an enclosed
The closest possible fin spacing should be specified, pusher fan installation.
compatible with the application type and operating envi-
ronment (see SECTION 7, RADIATOR CONSTRUCTION Finally, Specific Heat Dissipation
AND MOUNTING). = Total heat dissipation requirement/
This will result in an increased specific heat dissipation minute (kW) 2 40 2 SF
for the radiator core, and will again assist in reducing Mean temperature difference (C) 2 core
the cooling air flow requirement. frontal area (m)
3. Establish specific dissipation requirement and apply
to characteristic curves System Factor (SF)
The radiator specific heat dissipation characteristics are
In practice, it is necessary to apply the factor shown,
quoted in the curves in the following units:
SF, to take into account the degree of uniformity of cool-
Specific Heat Dissipation = ing air flow distribution over the radiator core. This is
kW/square meter/50C M.T.D. dependent on a number of factors, including cooling
system layout, flow direction, i.e. puller or pusher fan,
M.T.D. = Mean Temperature Difference = Difference and the type of fan cowl fitted (see SECTION 7, COOL-
in temperature between mean coolant temperature in ING SYSTEM LAYOUT).
radiator core and air temperature entering radiator
core (C). The factor varied from unity (1) for optimum flow
Mean Coolant Temperature conditions, to 1.3 approximately for a poor combination
of conditions.
For limiting conditions, i.e. when engine coolant outlet
temperature is at the maximum permissible value The specific heat dissipation requirement as calculated
related to the pressure cap in use, and for a normal from this expression may now be applied to the char-
coolant temperature differential through the radiator of acteristics, which will indicate the following:
5/6C, then
1. Number of tube rows required.
Mean Coolant Temperature =
Maximum permissible engine outlet temperature 2. Required air face velocity.
3C (Approx).
Air temperature entering radiator core 3. Required cooling air volume flow (equal to air face
velocity 2 core frontal area).
This may be equivalent to the required ambient tem-
perature clearance if little or no pre-heating of the 4. Static air pressure drop across radiator matrix.
92
COOLING FAN SELECTION In addition to reduced noise emission, the lower fan speed
available with these drives will, in many cases, allow better
Introduction coverage of the radiator core, since a larger diameter fan
may be used. This is a particularly valuable feature in
In all stationary applications, and in mobile applications machines using large radiator cores, and where limited space
where there is not significant ram air assistance due to restricts the depth of the fan cowl, which would make effec-
forward motion, the cooling fan must deliver the total tive use of the core difficult with a smaller diameter fan.
required air flow volume, as determined from the radiator
dissipation characteristics. This requirement also applies in
the case of many commercial vehicles, where there will be Earth moving machinery
a demand under certain conditions for full engine output
while operating in a low gear ratio, e.g. when climbing fully The reduced air velocity through the core when a large low
laden in mountainous terrain. speed fan is used is particularly desirable in the case of
machines working in high dust/sand environments, in order
to reduce sand blasting of the core, and sand disturbance
Exceptions to this are some light vehicle applications, e.g. cars
by the cooling air flow.
and light vans. The extent of ram air assistance in these
cases is however very dependent on the frontal design of the
vehicle, i.e. flow conditions at the radiator inlet, and in gen-
eral can only be assessed during cooling tests under oper- Fan Speed Limitations
ating conditions. Fan selection in this section is based on the
full cooling flow requirement being provided by the fan only. When using a fan which was not specified by Caterpillar for
the particular application and operating speed range, it is
necessary to obtain the manufacturers approval to avoid the
possibility of failure.
Fan Speed
In many cases, fan speed will be decided by the application
design, which will influence the fan drive ration, i.e. whether Fan Diameter
the fan must be water pump, crankshaft or remotely mounted.
In general, in order to achieve the best coverage of the radi-
ator core, the fan diameter should match the dimensions of
In order to reduce noise emission, when a choice of fan drive
the core as closely as possible.
ratio is available, the lowest practicable fan speed should be
used, compatible with air flow volume requirement and sys-
tem restriction. Care should be taken that the fan does not overlap the sides
of the core, or the top and bottom tanks, in order to avoid fluc-
tuating loading of the fan blades, which may lead to failure.
93
Fan Selection Using Fan Performance Curves Stall line
Typical fan performance curves are illustrated. For a given fan speed, if the fan working pressure is increased,
due to increased system restriction, beyond the point on the
FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES fan characteristic denoted by the stall line, severe disturbance
in flow conditions at the fan will occur, resulting in a major
reduction in air flow and an increase in noise emission.
94
ENGINE OIL COOLERS Enclosed applications
Introduction If possible, the location of the cooling air inlet/outlet
Maximum acceptable lubricating oil operating temperature apertures should be such that part of the cooling air
related to the application type and duty is detailed in LUBRI- path is over the engine sump.
CATING OIL TEMPERATURE.
2. Engine Speed
In the case of engines having integral oil coolers as part of
Heat rejected to the lubricating oil increases rapidly as
the original build, oil temperature will be held within these
engine speed increases. Applications in which the
limits providing the cooling system is adequate to maintain
duty/operating cycle will result in sustained high oper-
coolant temperature within the specified limits.
ating speed, are therefore more likely to require an oil
When an integral oil cooler is not incorporated, it will be nec- cooler, particularly if the installation layout etc. is such
essary in some cases to fit a suitable oil cooler, in order to that heat dissipated from the sump is low.
maintain oil temperature within the specified limits at the
It is emphasized however that, in any particular case,
applicable maximum ambient temperature clearance require-
the necessity for an oil cooler, and the ambient tem-
ment. The principal factors which have an influence on
perature clearance, i.e. maximum safe ambient oper-
engine oil temperature, and which will determine whether
ating temperature, can ultimately only be determined
an oil cooler will be necessary, are as follows:
by full cooling tests, as detailed in SECTION 15,
1. Installation Layout APPRAISAL AND TESTING.
A major proportion of the heat dissipated from the lubri- Oil Cooler Types
cating oil is by radiation from the sump, and this in Two types of oil cooler are in general use:
turn is influenced by the degree or air movement over
the sump. 1. Water/Oil type
If possible, obstructions should be avoided in front of and Each of these cooler types has relative advantages and dis-
below the sump, in order to take advantage of the cool- advantages, and the choice of cooler type must be made to
ing air flow due to the forward motion of the vehicle. suit the particular application type and duty.
95
PLATE TYPE OIL COOLER IN RADIATOR BOTTOM TANK
96
Disadvantages of Water/Oil Type Cooler Advantages of Air/Oil Type Cooler
1. Relatively large size requirement for moderate degree 1. Depending on cooler design, normally very effective in
of cooling. terms of heat dissipation ability for a given cooler size.
2. Relatively high cost. 2. Relatively inexpensive.
Exceptions to this are installations using air/oil type coolers Where oil filters are attached as part of the design, but it is
as below: required to fit larger filters, the advice of Caterpillar Applica-
tion Engineering Department should be obtained.
1. Pusher fan installations with the oil cooler is mounted
at the radiator front.
2. Installations where the oil cooler is mounted remote CHARGE AIR COOLER T6.3544
from the radiator in vehicle applications. This arrange- VEHICLE APPLICATIONS
ment, which relies entirely on ram air movement due All T6.3544 engines in vehicle applications must be fitted
to the forward motion of the vehicle, can give satisfac- with a charge air cooler which meets Caterpillar require-
tory results, particularly in light duty applications where ments with regard to heat dissipation ability and pres-
the heat rejection requirement is relatively low. sure drop.
97
Heat dissipation and boost pressure requirements Design and construction
The charge air cooler must be capable of maintaining the air The Application Engineering Department, Peterborough, will
temperature in the induction manifold, i.e., after the cooler, supply the data required for charge air cooler design purposes.
at a level not greater than that specified on the engine rat-
ing curve. It should be appreciated however that the design of charge
air coolers is a specialized subject, and references should be
Similarly the boost pressure in the induction manifold at max- made to a reputable manufacturer of heat transfer equipment.
imum power output must be not less than that specified on
the engine rating curve. The total pressure drop across the The charge cooler should have the same core dimensions as
charge cooler and connecting pipework must therefore be those of the radiator and should be positioned close to and
such as to enable this boost pressure requirement to be met directly in front of it, the two cores being mounted together
(see SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA). as a composite assembly.
98
In order to avoid excessive restriction to cooling air flow, For more information on use of proprietary additives, see
charge cooler fin spacing should ideally not be closer than USE OF PROPRIETARY ADDITIVES.
3.5 mm pitch (7 fins/in).
Antifreeze Mixture
Charge cooler pipework The only solutions recommended by Caterpillar are those
Turbocharger to charge cooler pipework should be at least manufactured from ethylene glycol (ethanediol).
65 mm ( 2.5 in) I/D, and capable of withstanding pressures
and temperatures of at least 103 kN/m2 (15 lbf/in2) and 160C As a general guide, the physical and chemical properties
respectively. should conform with the following:
It is recommended that steel tube should be used, with hose Specific gravity, 60/15.6C (60F) 1.110-1.145
connections to absorb engine movement. Hose connections Pour point (undiluted) 18C
must be of a suitable material specification to withstand the Boiling point (undiluted) 150C
operating conditions [see SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENT, pH (undiluted) 6-10
PLAIN (UNREINFORCED) HOSES]. Freezing point 50% in distilled water 37C
pH 50 vol. % in distilled water 7.0-8.5
Charge cooler to induction manifold pipework should be at Reserve alkalinity 10
least 65 mm ( 2.5 in) I/D, and capable of withstanding pres-
sures and temperatures of at least 103 kN/m2 (15 lbf/in2) and For information on use of proprietary additives, see USE OF
100C respectively. PROPRIETARY ADDITIVES.
99
Coolant Water Quality
The use of soft water is desirable in order to minimize scale
formation and corrosive effects, and to ensure the best pos-
sible results from additives. The quality of water used should
if possible meet the following requirements:
RADIATOR SHUTTERS
It is possible under extreme conditions, that the engine will
not attain normal working temperature, particularly when
operating on a light load cycle.
100
SECTION 8
Induction System
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
101
AIR FILTER SERVICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
102
INTRODUCTION The main duty categories are shown below, together with
an indication of their usage. It should be appreciated, how-
It is not always appreciated that the induction system is one
ever, that these usage recommendations are given as a
of the most important aspects of an engine installation, since
guide only, and that it may be necessary, due to the partic-
it can have a direct effect on engine output, fuel consump-
ular conditions of operation, etc., which may apply in cer-
tion, exhaust emission and engine life.
tain cases, to specify a filter of a heavier duty classification
than that indicated.
With this in mind, the installed induction system must be
designed to supply clean, dry and cool air to the engine, with
a minimum of restriction. For details of technical specifications, and list of recommended
air filter suppliers, see SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
The system must be designed to withstand the shock load-
ings and working conditions that will be met in service, and
must provide reliable sealing and durability with a minimum
of maintenance. Standard Duty
Normally fitted remotely from the engine and generally with
AIR FILTERS CATERPILLAR APPROVAL an internal or external pre-cleaner.
A full list of approved air filters is held by Application Typical preferred air filters in this category are of the dry ele-
Engineering, Peterborough, and a list of recommended sup- ment type, with an integral centrifugal pre-cleaner stage.
pliers is also included in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
103
Dust Holding Capacity (Dry Type Filters) DRY TYPE AIR FILTERS
Air filter duty classification is closely related to dust holdings
capacity, i.e., the amount of dust that can be retained by the
filter before restriction reaches the point when servicing
must be carried out (see MAXIMUM INDUCTION SYSTEM
RESTRICTION). Specifications for the minimum dust hold-
ing capacity for the various filter duty categories are detailed ENGINE-MOUNTED SINGLE STAGE TYPE
in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
ENGINE-MOUNTED TYPE
104
HEAVY DUTY AIR FILTERS
DONALDSON DONACLONE
105
AIR FILTER ACCESSORIES
Stack Caps
These are fitted to the air filter inlet (or inlet extension, if fit-
ted) to provide protection against the ingress of rain, snow,
leaves, etc.
106
This is a rubber valve, actuated by the pulsating nature of type and rating under consideration. For all engine types,
the induced air flow. published engine rating conditions apply at a maximum
depression, measured at the inlet manifold or turbocharger
NOTE: Vacuator valves are available from the filter manu-
inlet, of 305 mm (12 in) W.G.
facturers in different grades of rubber hardness, in order to
allow matching to suit the engine type and operating speed In order to meet this requirement, and to make allowance for
range. In general, rubber hardness should be reduced as the restriction incurred in the induction system pipework in the
number of engine cylinders is increased, in order to allow case of remote-mounted air filters, the restriction incurred
the valve to respond to the smoother nature of the induced across the air filter with a clean element, or when freshly
air flow. Vacuator valves fitted to air filters included in SEC- serviced in the case of an oil bath filter, should not exceed
TION 16, TECHNICAL DATA, will operate successfully with 203 mm (8 in) W.G. at maximum engine rating.
the engines for which they are recommended.
In the case of specific air filter types detailed in SECTION 16,
If air filters other than these are selected by the customer from TECHNICAL DATA for the various engine types and ratings,
the approved range, the filter manufacturer should be con- this requirement has been taken into account. However
sulted in order to establish the most suitable rubber hardness. when selection of an air filter is made from the general list
of approved proprietary filter types included in Section 16,
Care should be taken in siting the air filter, in order to ensure
reference must be made when deciding the appropriate fil-
that the dust/water ejected from the vacuator will not cause
ter size to the manufacturers filter restriction curves, in con-
damage. Care must also be taken to ensure that there is no
junction with the applicable engine-induced air flow
possibility of water, etc. being drawn into the filter due to
requirement.
the valve becoming immersed.
An aspirator tube (see diagram of Rotopamic filter) is To these values must be added any additional air flow
installed at the exhaust system outlet, the aspirator tube requirement for a compressor, etc., if this is connected to the
being designed to produce a drop in pressure due to a ven- induction system.
turi effect, resulting in evacuation of the dust from the pre-
filter stage.
Care is necessary however in order to ensure satisfactory Maximum Induction System Restriction
installation and operation of this arrangement, and reference Induction system restriction, measured at the induction man-
should be made to Caterpillar Application Engineering ifold or turbocharger inlet, is the total restriction due to:
Department, for advice on the subject.
air filter restriction
AIR FILTER FLOW RATING/ resistance to air flow due to pipe friction
INDUCTION SYSTEM RESTRICTION air velocity effects.
Introduction Air velocity effects are usually relatively low for naturally
It is essential that the air filter should be of adequate capac- aspirated engines, but can be substantial in the case of tur-
ity to suit the induced air flow requirement of the engine bocharged engines.
107
A higher total inlet restriction is therefore allowed for tur- NOTE: For a given system restriction, the restriction reading
bocharged engines, but this does not affect the restriction is dependent on the cross-sectional area of the pipe section
allowable across the air filter alone. in which the measurement is made. In order to register the
restriction as seen by the engine, the pipe section into
The maximum permissible total restriction, at which air fil- which the manometer tapping is made must therefore have
ter servicing must be carried out, differs between engine the same internal diameter/cross-sectional area as that of
types and is shown in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA. the induction manifold or turbocharger inlet.
A manometer, if used, should be capable of reading up to The tapping point should be positioned in a straight parallel
750 mm (30 in) water. In order to eliminate possible errors pipe, as illustrated below.
in measurement introduced by the length/volume of the
manometer tubing, a damping volume should be included The main features of this arrangement are:
in the run of manometer tubing, as illustrated above.
1. The bore of the pipe should be the same as the inter-
nal diameter of the turbocharger air intake. For simplic-
A tapping should be made into the induction system as
ity of connection, the pipe should preferably also be of
shown in the diagram, i.e. in a straight pipe section as close
the same outside diameter as that of the air intake.
as possible to the induction manifold or turbocharger inlet.
2. There should be a smooth transition between the induc-
Where measurement on a bend is unavoidable, the tapping tion trunking and the pipe. Sudden changes of section
should be perpendicular to the plane of the bend, as illus- should be avoided.
trated below.
3. Inlet depression should be measured in the pipe at a
point P, positioned:
INLET DEPRESSION MEASUREMENT In situations where a straight parallel pipe is not available, a
ON BEND OF INDUCTION PIPE tapping may be used in the induction pipework as shown.
108
The type of indicator detailed in Section 16 is shown in the
illustration below, and consists of a resettable plunger which
indicates when restriction has reached the applicable value.
109
AIR FILTER SERVICING For on-highway applications operating in dry and dusty
Air filter servicing should be carried out at the intervals rec- territories, and also depending on the duty, for a number of
ommended in the engine handbook, or more frequently if off-highway applications, the high level intake arrangement
operating conditions are particularly adverse. shown is recommended.
In the case of dry air filter installations equipped with a Industrial Applications
restriction indicator, servicing is only necessary when the
In general, in enclosed applications, air should be drawn from
indicator signals the requirement.
outside the engine enclosure, in order to avoid excessive
Extreme care should be exercised in all cases to ensure that intake temperatures. Exceptions to this are certain applica-
dust ingress into the induction system does not take place tions using pusher-type cooling fans, where, depending on
during filter servicing, and all joints and seals should be enclosure ventilation arrangements, air temperature in the
inspected and renewed if necessary. enclosure may be relatively low close to the ventilation
inlets. Care should however be taken to avoid local high tem-
Oil bath filters should be cleaned and refilled to the correct perature areas close to the exhaust system.
level, with the grade of oil indicated in the engine handbook.
Agricultural Applications
It is important that the specified oil level is not exceeded,
or oil carry-over and possibly dirt ingress into the engine A typical tractor induction system arrangement is shown in
may take place. the preceding diagram. Various arrangements are used how-
ever, and where chaff or similar contaminants are likely to be
encountered, a pre-screener should be fitted (see PRE-
Dry Air Filters
SCREENERS) to prevent ingress into the main filter.
Instructions for servicing certain dry air filter types are
included in the engine handbooks, and these should be
strictly adhered to. In other cases, the filter manufacturers Air Filter Accessibility for Maintenance
servicing instructions should be carefully followed. The filter must be readily accessible for maintenance, with
adequate space provision for removal of the filter oil bowl,
INDUCTION SYSTEM LAYOUT or replacement of the element, in the case of dry-type filters.
Air Inlet Location
The position of the air filter inlet, or of the inlet to the air fil- INDUCTION SYSTEM PIPEWORK
ter extension if fitted, should be such that air is drawn from Introduction
an area: Careful attention must be given to the pipework and asso-
(a) Of the lowest possible dust concentration. ciated fittings used in the induction system, in order to min-
imize restriction, and in order to ensure that reliable sealing
(b) Well clear of water splash in the case of mobile will be maintained under the operating conditions which will
applications. be met in service.
(c) At a temperature as close as possible to the prevailing In order to minimize the restriction incurred in the system,
ambient temperature. pipework length should be as short as possible, and the num-
ber of bends in the system should be kept to a minimum.
Additionally, care should be taken to minimize the possibil-
ity of exhaust fumes being drawn into the induction system, The cross-sectional area of all pipework must not be less
since this will result in a reduction in element life in the case than that of the induction manifold inlet, and in the case of
of a dry type filter. Vee engines using a single air filter and branch pipe arrange-
ment delivering air to both induction manifolds, the cross-
Where some exhaust contamination cannot be avoided,
sectional area of the branch system must not be less than
extended element life will be obtained by using specially
twice that of a single manifold inlet.
treated elements (see TREATED ELEMENTS).
110
ENGINE-MOUNTED AIR FILTER WITH EXTENSION TUBE,
IN VEHICLE INSTALLATION
111
Specification Requirement, Plain Oil Resistance:
(Unreinforced) Hoses Resistant to fuel oil and lubricating oil on both inter-
nal and external surfaces.
Hoses used in the induction system must be of adequate
specification to withstand service conditions. The basic Maximum Working Temperature:
requirements are as follows: 120C
(1) Naturally aspirated engines
Working Pressure:
As for Naturally Aspirated specification.
Hose Material:
Synthetic Rubber.
NOTE: These requirements apply to pipework on the
Oil Resistance: inlet side of the turbocharger only. Only the appropriate
Resistance to fuel oil and lubricating oil on exter- connection, supplied as part of the engine build, may
nal surface. be used for the connection from the turbocharger to
the induction manifold.
Maximum Working Temperature:
105C (3) Turbocharged engines with charge air cooler inlet
side of turbocharger and outlet from charge cooler
Working Pressure: to induction manifold.
Up to 1300 mm ( 50 in) W.G. depression (nega-
tive pressure). Hose Material:
Synthetic Rubber.
(2) Turbocharged engines without charge cooler
Oil Resistance:
Hose Material: Resistant to fuel oil and lubricating oil on internal
Synthetic Rubber and external surfaces.
112
Maximum Working Temperature: Cuff construction Cuffs must be seam-free and of a
105C smooth texture on the inner surface. A neoprene-based
material of 55 to 75 Shore hardness has been found to
Working Pressure: give adequate compressibility to effect a seal providing that
Inlet side of turbocharger: up to 1300 mm ( 50 in) a wall thickness of approximately (nominal diameter 2 1/20)
W.G. depression (negative PRESSURE). is maintained.
Outlet from Charge Cooler to Induction Manifold: The cuff should preferably be bonded on to the trunking or,
103 KN/m2 (15 lbf/in2). if not, be a tight fit with added adhesive, so as to achieve a
leak-free connection. The cuff design should be such that it
Turbocharger to charge air cooler
extends to cover the outside of the trunking as well as the
inner surface so as to produce a smooth clipping surface at
Hose Material:
least equal in length to the connection spigot.
Silicone Rubber.
Working Pressure:
103 KN/m2 (15 lbf/in2).
Flexible Hoses/Trunking
The use of plain bore hoses with internal coil spring inser-
tions to provide flexibility is not approved, as experience has
shown that service problems are likely due to the spring
insert moving out of position, with the consequent possi-
bility of local distortion and closure of the pipe.
113
BRAKING COMPRESSOR AIR SUPPLY
Problems can arise if the compressor air supply is taken from
a point in the induction pipe close to the turbocharger, due
to the high level of depression involved. It is therefore rec-
ommended that, if compressors are supplied from the trunk-
ing between the air filter and the turbocharger, connections
should be made into the largest diameter portion where the
depression is minimal.
114
SECTION 9
Exhaust System
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
SILENCERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Exhaust Silencer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Silencer Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
115
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS three to six times the pipe diameter, downstream from
The exhaust system must be designed to keep the resist- the exhaust manifold outlet flange, at a section free from
ance to gas flow (back pressure) of the exhaust system as bends. The metal tube must be flush to the inside of the
low as possible and within the limits specified for a particu- exhaust pipe.
lar engine type (see BACK PRESSURE).
The back pressure must be recorded after the engine has
The system should also be designed for minimum noise reached its operating temperature, and at the stage where the
emission, while also being as economical as possible. engine is developing its maximum power at the rated speed.
BACK PRESSURE
Exhaust Back Pressure
The exhaust system will produce a certain resistance to flow
for the exhaust gases. This resistance or back pressure must
be kept within specified limits to ensure engines do not inval-
idate legislation applying in certain countries, for example
BS AU 141a: 1971, in U.K.
116
Selection of the most suitable silencing arrangement for a c) Expansion chamber these are used early in the sys-
particular application is, to a certain extent, a matter of expe- tem to dissipate energy quickly, or used as a resonator
rience, taking into account the relevant operating factors towards the back of the system to reduce noise of a
which include: specific frequency.
Space available
Cost
SILENCERS
Exhaust Silencer Types
The most commonly used types are:
117
Silencers should not be mounted in the engine compart- (b) is not drawn back through the radiator by a puller fan
ment, due to the resulting higher under bonnet tempera- installation. This is likely on combines, where exhaust exit
tures and the subsequent loss of cooling performance, and radiator entry are usually both on top of the machine.
particularly if a pusher fan is used.
(c) is directed away from the sight lines of the machine
For recommendations on long exhaust systems, see LONG operator.
EXHAUST SYSTEMS.
118
Mountings
(a) Horizontal
The exhaust down pipe must be securely clamped at
the flywheel housing or gearbox, to avoid any stress
being imposed on the exhaust manifold or flange.
Where the engine is flexibly mounted, the exhaust system
should be isolated from the body-work by means of flexible
mounts, e.g. shear rubber, to ensure that there is flexibility
in the system, and that noise and vibration excitation is not
transmitted to body panels. The attachment points should be
structurally stiff.
(b) Vertical
Silencers can be mounted vertically directly onto the
exhaust manifold on the smaller engines, but a vibration
JOINT OUTSIDE ENGINE COMPARTMENT
check is essential to ensure that the manifold flanges
will not fatigue or exhaust manifold cracking occur.
It is recommended that any joint in exhaust systems, where
When large silencers are fitted vertically, some addi- the silencer is a slide fit onto the engine exhaust pipe, be
tional support brackets will be required independent of located outside the engine compartment.
the engine (e.g. on the hood) to avoid over stressing
the exhaust manifold. This is also very important on all Drainage
turbocharged engines, to ensure that the turbocharger
flange is free from stress. The exhaust pipe can accumulate a considerable amount
of condensed moisture, especially when the pipe is long.
On machines where sight lines are important, an oval To avoid internal corrosion, a condensate trap and drain can
design of silencer is usually used and orientated to pres- be provided at the lowest point in the system.
ent the least restriction to visibility.
With vertical exhaust systems, to prevent entry of rain and
Connections snow, it is recommended either that a flap is fitted to the
end of the exhaust tail pipe (although this is not always
Pipe joints and connections should obviously be free from acceptable due to clatter at low engine speeds), or alter-
leaks, and must be maintained in good condition. natively that the tail pipe end is turned through 90 to give
On machines such as earth moving equipment where the a horizontal outlet.
exhaust silencer is fitted outside the engine compartment,
some manufacturers use a two piece system to give easier A small drain hole can be incorporated in the lowest part of
access to the engine compartment for service maintenance. the exhaust system if the manifold is a downward exit and
a curved pipe is required to redirect the exhaust vertically
These two piece type systems sometimes have a joint on upwards. A drain hole should not be used on applications
the underside of the engine hood, and unless a complete with a pusher fan however, due to possible contamination
seal is obtained at this point, engine overheating problems of the radiator core from the slight exhaust leak.
can occur due to exhaust gases being pushed into the radi-
ator core by the air flow over the engine. This flow of gases Some instances have been found where the life of vertically
into the radiator core causes a carbon build-up on the radia- mounted silencers is greatly reduced because the silencer
tor tubes and fins, thus restricting the air flow which reduces can trap a pool of water externally.
heat dissipation.
119
GUIDE TO EXHAUST PIPE SELECTION
TO USE GUIDE:
(1) FIND INTERSECTION POINT OF POWER
& PIPE LENGTH BEING CONSIDERED
(2) COMPARE THIS POINT WITH THE NEXT
LARGEST PIPE DIAMETER LINE RELATING
TO THE NUMBER OF BENDS IN THE SYSTEM
(3) IF IT IS CLOSER THAN 5 kW (7 hp) TO THIS
LINE, CHOOSE A PIPE DIAMETER WHICH
IS AT LEAST 10 mm (0.4 in) LARGER THAN
THAT INDICATED IN (2).
NOTE: THIS GRAPH IS INTENDED ONLY AS A
GUIDE. IF THERE IS ANY DOUBT ABOUT PIPE
DIAMETER, CHOOSE THE NEXT LARGEST SIZE.
Example: ^
120 kilowatts
30 meters long
5 bends
Too close to 4 in (102 mm) dia. pipe.
Use 4 12 in (114 mm) dia. or nearest
metric size.
Long Exhaust Systems Conversely, if the silencer is positioned close to the engine
the back pressure will be increased due to the high flow of
The following recommendations are applicable to installa-
hot gas, but the noise will be reduced.
tions where the exhaust gas must be discharged at some
considerable distance from the engine. A standby generator
in the basement of a building, with the exhaust outlet on Consideration must be given to the noise transmitted to the
the roof, is a typical example of this arrangement. structure of the building. One solution is an expansion cham-
ber near the engine, and a secondary silencer at the end of
In these systems the back pressure is significantly influ- the pipe.
enced by pipe diameter and the number of bends in the pipe.
The chart assumes the silencer to be close to the engine
The accompanying chart relates pipe diameter to engine and generally relates to the worst conditions for any power
power, pipe length and number of 90 bends. Certain or pipe length.
assumptions have been made relating to exhaust tempera-
ture, heat losses from the pipe, resistance through the
silencer, and general internal smoothness of the pipe. EXHAUST CONDITIONING
Maximum allowable back pressures for the Caterpillar Spark Arresters
engine range are as quoted in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL
DATA. The chart assumes no heat loss from the pipe, but Spark arresters enable diesel engines to operate in areas of
for uninsulated pipes there will be some reduction in actual fire hazard, by reducing the discharge of hot carbon parti-
back pressure due to the cooling of the gas as it passes cles through the exhaust pipe.
down the pipe.
120
Principle of operation of Spark Arrester Spark arresters, exhaust scrubbers and diluters must all be
fitted in accordance with the manufacturers recommenda-
The stainless steel spiral causes the exhaust gases to rotate, tions and Caterpillar approval should be obtained.
throwing the hot carbon particles against the outer casing
and cooling them before discharge (see diagram). This type
of spark arrester is suitable for fork lift trucks, towing trac-
tors, etc.
EXHAUST BRAKES
Exhaust Diluters The simple exhaust brake provides the cheapest form of
additional braking on a road vehicle. It is simply a butterfly
These are designed to mix large quantities of ambient air
valve or gate valve situated in the exhaust down pipe between
with the exhaust gas before releasing it to atmosphere.
the manifold and silencer.
This cools and dilutes the exhaust gas constituents to lev- When the valve is closed, the engine becomes in effect a
els that can be acceptable to the driver and personnel in the compressor driven by the road wheels, through the trans-
vicinity of the vehicle. mission. The pressure built up in the exhaust system retards
the engine through the transmission to slow the vehicle, but
The fine clearance of the nozzle gap may particularly affect is not intended to bring it to a halt.
back pressure in service, and periodic checks should be
made to ensure that back pressure is still within the rec- To increase efficiency of the brake, engine speed should be
ommended limits. increased by engaging a lower gear.
121
Control Systems (see diagram) adequate manifold pressure for effective braking. This pres-
Main control systems are either pneumatic or by actuation sure has proved to be 380 kN/m2 (55 lbf/in2) for both naturally
with electric solenoids. A pneumatic system working from aspirated and turbocharged engines.
the vehicle compressed air supply is generally preferred as
If this pressure is exceeded, exhaust valve float may cause
being simpler, cheaper and more reliable, operated from a
severe air surging in the induction manifold and air cleaners.
hand or foot control valve.
This can cause dust migration in paper air cleaners, and ejec-
Alternatively, operation may be electrical from a solenoid tion of oil from wet type cleaners, particularly if these are
with hand control or a micro-switch on the brake pedal. mounted directly onto the induction manifold. Noise may
also be a problem in certain types of application.
The system must include means for cutting off the fuel sup-
Adequate exhaust manifold to cylinder head face joints must
ply (stop control) at the fuel pump during the time the brake
be made to prevent gas leaks when the brake is operated.
is in operation, and the whole system should be used as the
engine stop control. Caterpillar should be advised when a customer intends to
incorporate an exhaust brake, and all details should be sub-
On some (Bosch) fuel pumps the stop control lever must
mitted for approval.
be fully returned to the ON position when the brake is OFF,
otherwise full fuelling may not be available.
EXHAUST LEGISLATION
This ensures that the valve is operated frequently and pre- Many countries have had some measure of smoke legisla-
vents any tendency for carboning up. tion in the past, but now there is a new emphasis on vehi-
cle exhaust emissions in the context of environmental control,
particularly in Western Europe, U.S.A. and Australia.
Design Features
The exhaust brake valve must be provided with a relief hole
to avoid excessive back pressure. The size of this hole is
a compromise between exhaust valve lift or float, and
122
SECTION 10
Fuel System
FUEL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
INJECTORS/ATOMIZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
123
FUEL SYSTEM Installations subject to low temperatures should comply
The precise nature of the fuel injection components of diesel with the recommended actions outlined in British Standard
engines requires the fuel delivered to them to be clean, free BS 6380: 1983.
from air and water, and at the correct pressure.
Manufacture
All fuel injection system components must be accessible in
The fuel tank, whether for bulk storage or in the mobile or
the installation for servicing. Choice of tank, filters and other
stationary application, should preferably be manufactured
items in the system must be suitable for the duty envisaged
from ferrous metal or suitable reinforced polyester.
and as described in the relevant paragraphs in this section.
Any variation in fuel temperature, specific gravity or viscos- Internally, it should be clean and free from all impurities likely
ity will affect the power and smoke levels, and it is impor- to contaminate the fuel. The fuel tank must not be galva-
tant to arrange the fuel system to minimize these variations. nized internally under any circumstances.
A filter should always be fitted in the draw-off pipe. Where Capacity of tank (UK gallons)
a pump is installed, a spring-loaded check valve must be fit-
= gallons/h 2 number of hours required
ted between the filter and the pump, in order to hold back
the head of fuel in the tank. Metering pumps and flowmeters = 0.062 2 gross engine power (BHP) 2 number of hours
should always be mounted on a concrete base.
NOTE: 1 UK gallon = 1.2 US gallons
Draining the sedimented sludge and water from the bulk
storage tank before a fuel delivery, and allowing a settling Tanks in mobile applications must be designed together with
period after delivery, will tend to reduce contamination of the the supply pipe so that adequate fuel is available under all
vehicle or machine tank. operational gradients.
124
Fuel Tank Pipework Pipe Position
The fuel intake pipe must be above the bottom of the tank All pipes should be located in protected areas, free from
so that it is not sealed by frozen water in cold weather, and possible damage, securely clipped in position to prevent
to ensure that dirt and sediment are not drawn into it. vibration, and, when of metal but NOT of plastic, preferably
in a position where they receive some engine heat.
There should be no gauze filter on the fuel feed pipe in the
tank, as it can be difficult to clear when blocked. The careful selection of pipe runs cannot be over empha-
sized. It is important for the pipe to avoid excessively long
A coarse filter may be fitted to the tank filler, and although
runs and areas subject to cold air blast, i.e., wheel arches,
it will not stop contaminants, it will prevent fuel being
grilles and fan outlet areas.
siphoned out.
The pipe should have the minimum number of connections,
The fuel return pipe is usually connected above the operat-
sharp bends or other features which could lead to air trap-
ing level of the fuel in order to permit venting of air and other
ping or excessive resistance to flow, and possible waxing
gases. However, some fuel injection pump types require the
in cold conditions.
return pipe always to be below the operating fuel level.
Examples of bad and good fuel pipe arrangements, and
Position other fuel system features, are illustrated in the accompany-
The positioning of the fuel tank is an important factor in any ing diagrams.
application.
Pipe Connections
Wherever possible the fuel tank should be positioned to
ensure that: Where low pressure fuel pipes are attached to both the
engine and the machine frame, sufficient lengths of flexible
a) Any difference in height between fuel tank and engine pipe must be used, preferably reinforced with metal braid.
lift pump is kept to a minimum. (See the Fuel System
section of SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA for limits.) Fuel injection pump inlet connection
b) The length of fuel feed pipe is kept to a minimum. Straight-in type connections are normally used (see dia-
gram). This type of connection must however only be used
c) It is away from any excessive heat source. if the fuel filter is mounted higher than the fuel pump, and
where there is a continuous slope of piping downwards to
d) The filling point is accessible and easy to use.
the pump from the filter. This enables venting to be done at
the filter head.
Vent and Filler
A suitable air vent should be provided to allow free entry of
air as the fuel is used. It is recommended that the words
DIESEL FUEL ONLY be printed clearly near the filler cap
or on the filler cap itself. It is important that the air vent and
fuel filler should not allow dust or water to enter the tank
from the atmosphere.
125
BAD DESIGN FEATURES
126
OUTLET PIPE CONNECTION MALE FITTING
127
Fuel Circuits
Typical fuel circuits, applicable to various engine and fuel
pump types, are illustrated in the accompanying diagrams.
FUELLED
STARTING
AID
FUEL FILTER
(DIRTY SIDE RETURN)
LIFT FUEL
PUMP TANK
SEDIMENTER/
DIRTY SIDE NON-RETURN WATER TRAP
VENT 0.5 mm VALVE
RESTRICTOR
N.B. ARROWS INDICATED ON
PRIMING FUEL FILTER ARE:
VENT 3, 2 DIRTY FUEL
1, 4 CLEAN FUEL
FUEL
PUMP
INJECTOR LEAK-OFF
SYSTEM
INJECTORS
LIFT FUEL
PUMP TANK
SEDIMENTER/
WATER TRAP
DIRTY SIDE
VENT 0.5 mm
RESTRICTOR
N.B. ARROWS INDICATED ON
PRIMING FUEL FILTER ARE:
VENT 3, 2 DIRTY FUEL
1, 4 CLEAN FUEL
FUEL
PUMP
INJECTOR LEAK-OFF
SYSTEM
128
SCHEMATIC FUEL SYSTEM WITH DIRECT FEED FUELLED
STARTING AID & IN-LINE PUMP ON TV8.540 & V8.540
FUELLED
STARTING
AID
NON-RETURN CLEAN VENT
VALVE PLUGGED
FILTER
FUEL
INJECTION
PUMP
ATOMIZERS
FUEL
TANK
SEDIMENTER/
WATER TRAP
ATOMIZERS
ATOMIZER
LEAK-OFF SEDIMENTER/
TERMINAL WATER TRAP
FUEL BLOCK
INJECTION
PUMP
LIFT
PUMP FUEL
TANK
FILTER
129
SCHEMATIC FUEL SYSTEM WITH BOSCH VE PUMP
FILTRATION SYSTEM
The basic components of a fuel filtration system are illus-
trated. Their individual functions, and the factors to be con-
sidered in their selection and installation, are described in
the following paragraphs.
130
Sedimenter/Water Trap Satisfactory pipe connections, valves, drain plugs, and
The sedimenter or water trap, located between tank and lift other sealing surfaces to avoid air leaks, which are dif-
pump, is designed to remove the larger dirt particles from ficult to detect on the suction side of the fuel system.
the fuel and to collect water, which should be regularly
Should be fitted in an accessible and visible position to
drained from the bowl. Although a sedimenter is recom-
facilitate servicing, which should be carried out at reg-
mended for all applications, a water trap may be used where
ular intervals as determined by site operating conditions.
the fuel supply is relatively clean.
Locate as close as possible to fuel tank to reduce risk
Diesel engines installed in industrial and construction machines of water freezing in fuel feed pipe.
are often called on to operate in adverse conditions, where
large quantities of water and dirt are present in the fuel tank Special sedimenters, incorporating switches to actuate
due to problems or storage and filling in poor weather con- a warning device when the water capacity is nearly
ditions, as well as to condensation. To guard against damage exhausted, can be used. These are not available in the
to the fuel injection equipment, and also to avoid operational basic engine specification but may be obtained from
delays caused by water stopping the engine, Caterpillar the Caterpillar Power Centers.
advocate a heavy-duty fuel filtration system for all engines
supplied for these applications. The heavy duty system incor- Spillage deflectors should be provided in all cases where
porates a sedimenter of adequate capacity to handle the it is possible for fuel to damage an engine component dur-
water and dirt anticipated, and also twin parallel flow filters ing drainage, (e.g. starter motors and rubber components).
as shown in the preceding circuit diagrams.
The diagram shows a typical sedimenter which is available Fuel Lift Pump
with the engine. In all cases where the engine fuel lift pump is fitted with a
Many types of sedimenter and water trap are marketed for hand operated priming facility, the installation must allow
use with diesel engines. Those which contain filter elements access to this to be maintained.
or fine screens are not recommended for reasons given
Some installations may require that an extension is fitted to
below. Water traps are considered suitable only for clean
the priming lever to enable it to be operated.
environments and should not be used where the fuel sup-
ply is likely to be contaminated with dirt particles.
Where the suction pressure required from the fuel lift pump
exceeds the limits specified in SECTION 16, TECHNICAL
DATA, an additional pump (normally ELECTRIC) should be
fitted near the fuel tank. This should not be a positive dis-
placement type.
Fuel Filters
Filter Selection
TYPICAL SEDIMENTER
No filter element, as this could become choked with The choice of the fuel filter arrangement for a particular
dirt and wax, which tends to be deposited from the fuel installation will depend upon the type of application and the
in cold operating conditions. operating conditions that the engine will experience. Differ-
ent types of fuel filters are available, and may be used singly
A glass bowl should be fitted unless legislation or insur- or in pairs. Where a twin system is to be used, the filters
ance conditions prohibit its use. should be arranged in parallel.
131
TWIN FILTERS, PARALLEL AGGLOMERATOR FLOW
For installations likely to experience dirty fuel, or large fuel STARTING AIDS
flow rates, twin parallel flow filters should be specified as Diesel engines require an aid to combustion to start satis-
this arrangement has the advantage of a longer service life. factorily below certain ambient temperatures.
All filters recommended are of agglomerator flow (see dia-
Various types of starting aid can be used with Caterpillar
gram) i.e. the internal circuit is arranged to separate out
engines, depending on type of engine and conditions.
water from the emulsion of water and fuel which results
when water by-passes the sedimenter. The diagrams (See SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA for cold starting infor-
below show the direction of fuel flow through the filters, mation, and SECTION 3, COLD START for full cold start-
and details of the filter assembly with paper element. ing details.)
The original paper elements supplied with the filters, and
Two systems, Thermostart and Excess Fuel Device, are con-
approved service replacement elements, are to a stringent
nected with the engine fuel system.
specification developed by Caterpillar in conjunction with
the fuel injection equipment manufacturers.
THE FUELLED STARTING AID
Only filter elements meeting Caterpillar requirements of fil-
The fuelled starting aid is a device for raising the tempera-
tering ability must be used.
ture of the air being drawn into the cylinder.
Filter position When the heater coil is energized, the valve body is heated
The filters should preferably be mounted securely to the and expands to allow the ball valve to open and fuel to flow.
engine on vibration-free brackets as close as convenient to The fuel is vaporized and, as the engine is cranked, the
the fuel injection pump. Element type filters should not be fuel/air mixture is ignited, thus raising the temperature of
fitted on the suction side of the lift pump, i.e. between the the air entering the cylinder.
main fuel tank and lift pump, as this can cause restrictions.
Any fuel from the injection pump returned to the filter must
enter on the dirty (inlet) side of the filter, to ensure that dirt
cannot be continuously circulated through the fuel pump.
Spillage deflectors should be provided in all cases where it is The mixture continues to burn as long as the heater coil is
possible for fuel to be spilled on to other engine components. energized and fuel is flowing. When the fuelled starting aid
132
is switched off, the incoming air quickly cools the valve body The three categories of governing provided on Caterpillar
and the fuel supply valve closes. engines are:
The fuel feed is taken from a clean side port or a clean side V (Vehicle)
vent on the filter, via a pipe of suitable size (usually 3.35 mm, Suitable for automotive applications.
0.132 in inside diameter).
S (Standard)
general purpose governing suitable for the majority of agri-
cultural and industrial applications.
T (Tight)
suitable for applications which require minimum speed
variation.
133
The fuel should normally then be drained back into the fuel
tank at a point above the operating fuel level. However, fuel
systems which have the surplus fuel from the injection
pump returned directly to the tank (not through the filter)
should have the return pipe below the operating fuel level
in the tank to prevent drain-back and reduce the possibility
of air getting into the injection pump.
FUEL SPECIFICATION
The fuel oil must have a cloud point below the minimum
ambient operating temperature, and a cetane number of not
less than 45. If the cetane number is below this value, advice
should be obtained from Application Engineering Depart-
ment, Peterborough.
FUEL HEATERS
Fuel heaters are available as a service kit; further information
and advice on these can be obtained from Application Engi-
neering Department, Peterborough.
134
SECTION 11
Lubricating Oil System
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
System Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Lubrication Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
PIPEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Connections and Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
135
INTRODUCTION specifically for use on diesel engines to adequately handle
the flow, temperature and pressure involved, and provide
System Compatibility the required filtration capacity. The use of any filter type
It is extremely important to ensure that the lubrication sys- other than that supplied with the engine should have the
tem is compatible with the particular application and oper- prior approval of Caterpillar.
ating conditions too which the engine will be subjected.
It should be recognized that large oil coolers can hold sig-
Factors which should be taken into consideration include:
nificant quantities of oil which may not be drained and
changed in the course of routine engine oil changes.
Lubricating oil specifications
Lubricating oil temperatures
Oil sump capacity and gradeability
Pressure losses in external system
Protection from dirt contamination By-Pass Filters
Reference should also be made to SECTION 7 in relation to With modern lubricating oils, the use of a by-pass lubricat-
lubricating oil cooling. ing oil filter is not normally necessary.
Dry sump lubrication is used for special applications where When the standard oil filter positions are not accessible in
exceptional gradeability requirements or the need for a very the installation, a remote-mounted filter may be used. In
shallow sump profile precludes the normal arrangement. In these cases, the filter must be mounted securely to give as
these cases, an additional oil pump scavenges the oil as it short a run of pipes as possible. Recommendations given
is returned from the crankcase, transferring it either to a in this section on pipework should be followed closely
compartment of the sump, or to a separate oil tank from to avoid excessive pressure losses, oil drain back and
which the standard oil pressure pump draws its supply for leakage problems. Proximity to a heat source such as the
the pressure lubricating system. exhaust pipe or turbocharger should be avoided, or heat
shields provided.
136
Lubricating oils recommended for use with the engines are Connections and Clamping
capable of higher temperatures without breakdown, but the
specified maximum engine oil temperatures should not be Only pressure tight, screw connections should be used for
exceeded for the reasons given. lubricating oil pipes.
In some applications, and dependent on engine speed and When arranging the pipework, enough flexibility should be
load conditions, a lubricating oil cooler may be needed to allowed to accommodate any relative movement of com-
avoid exceeding the maximum oil temperature. ponents but it is important that the pipe is positioned so
that it cannot be rubbed or damaged during any operat-
ing condition.
Types of Cooler Additional clamping may be used on all pipes except on the
braided part of those pipes with external metal braiding.
Some engines have a build-on lubricating oil cooler, either as
an option, or as part of the base engine. Other engines use
remote-mounted coolers of Air-to-oil or water-to-oil type.
These are described in SECTION 7, COOLING SYSTEM.
EXTREMELY DIRTY ENVIRONMENT
When a remote mounted oil cooler arrangement is used, it General
is important to ensure that the total restriction across the
cooler and pipework does not exceed recommended limits. In extremely dirty or dusty conditions, to prevent contami-
nation of the lubricating oil, a sealed lubricating oil filler
As well as avoiding excessively high oil temperatures, it is cap, dipstick and closed engine breather system should
important not to over cool in cold weather. The type of cooler be used.
selection should therefore not be oversize, and preferably
be controlled by the coolant temperature.
To avoid damage to coolers caused by high pressure when Filler Cap and Dipstick
starting from cold, a by-pass or dump valve is necessary unless
the cooler has been designed to withstand this condition. The sealed dipstick and lubricating oil filler cap are
designed to effect air-tight joints when the engine is oper-
ating and also to prevent dust, etc., dropping into the engine
when service checks are being carried out. The special filler
and dipstick are particularly recommended for construction
PIPEWORK machinery applications.
General
All pipework to be used for carrying the engine oil should
be clean internally. Bore size, pipe run and connections
should be selected to ensure the oil pressure drop is kept to
a minimum. Maximum pressure drop is specified in SEC-
TION 7, COOLING SYSTEM.
Material
The pipes specified for engine lubricating oil should either
be metal or, if flexible pipes are used, these must be of
oil-resistant armored construction, and able to withstand
working conditions with respect to temperature and pres-
sure. Only screw type connections should be used, hose
connections and clips not being approved for lubricating
oil pipes. SEALED DIPSTICK
137
SEALED FILLER AND SCREEN
Breather System
138
A typical system shown below incorporates a valve to con-
trol crankcase pressure, and breather pipes connecting the
valve to the air induction manifold and cylinder head cover.
Labyrinth Seals
The lubricating oil seals on exposed rotary shafts fitted to
engines operating in severely dirty conditions, should be pro-
tected where they are liable to be damaged. The front end
crankshaft seal may be particularly vulnerable, and is there-
fore protected by a labyrinth formed on the timing case boss
and crankshaft pulley hub.
139
APPROVED OILS
It is important to use only lubricating oil that conforms to an
approved specification to suit a particular engine type, SEC-
TION 16, TECHNICAL DATA gives approved oil specifica-
tions and brands which meet the specifications. Information
is also given on viscosity ranges recommended for operation
within ambient temperature ranges.
140
SECTION 12
Electrical Systems
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
141
INTRODUCTION STARTER MOTOR SELECTION
AND INSTALLATION
The primary function of the electrical system in a diesel
powered machine is to provide the energy required for start- Starter Motor Selection
ing the engine. (Refer also to SECTION 3 COLD STARTING)
The system must then provide for the energy taken from In order to ensure satisfactory starting under the most
the battery to be replaced, and must also provide additional adverse conditions that will apply in service, it is essential
power to maintain any auxiliary electrical load e.g., lighting, that the correct combination of starter motor, battery and
blowers, wind screen wipers, etc. starting aid (if necessary) should be fitted.
SYSTEM VOLTAGE
The system voltage may be either 12 volt or 24 volt, depend-
ing primarily on the cold starting requirements that must be Starter Motor Installation
met, and on the engine type see Cold Starting Data in
Where the starter motor installation is engineered by the
SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
O.E.M., it is important that care is taken to ensure that cor-
rect engagement of the starter pinion with the starter ring
To a lesser extent, particularly in applications with extensive is achieved, and that the correct ratio of pinion to ring is used
ancillary electrical equipment, the voltage used for this equip- to give a satisfactory cranking speed. Details are shown in
ment may also influence the voltage chosen for the engine SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA of the recommended ratios
starting equipment. for the starter motor types listed for the various engine types.
142
PREFERRED ATTITUDE OF SOLENOID used to provide the return path from the starter motor to
the battery.
Starter Motor Wiring Earth Return Where increased reliability is required, and where the risk
and Insulated Return Systems of fire must be minimized, the insulated return arrange-
ment shown above may be used. This will entail the use of
Earth Return System an increased length of starter motor cable, however, and it
is important that the cable is of adequate cross-sectional
For reasons of economy, the majority of installations use the area, in order that the voltage drop is not excessive see
system shown above, in which the frame of the machine is STARTER MOTOR CABLES.
143
Starter Motor Cables In order to ensure satisfactory engagement of the pinion, it
is essential that the voltage drop in the starter motor sole-
The total length of cable in the starter motor (i.e., high cur-
noid circuit is not excessive.
rent) circuit should be kept to a minimum in order to avoid
excessive voltage drop.
Maximum acceptable voltage drop, or maximum acceptable
The resistance of the total circuit, including the earth return, circuit resistance, is shown in the applicable wiring diagram
must not exceed the maximum recommended resistance. (see appended circuit diagrams) for various starting system
This value is dependent upon the application, and can be configurations. The circuit diagrams also include details of
summarized as: solenoid circuit current in each case, together with details of
current flow in other sections of the starting circuit. In order
0.0034 ohm 24V systems (exc. V8) to facilitate selection of the cable size necessary to meet
0.0017 ohm 24V systems (V8 only) the specified maximum voltage drop/circuit resistance
12V systems (exc. V8) requirements, all wiring diagrams also include a table giving
0.0008 ohm 12V systems (V8 only) details of resistance/meter length of commonly used cable
sizes. In the case of cable types other than those listed,
The table below shows the maximum length of commonly cable type in the table with the cross-sectional area closest
used starter motor cables which may be used without to that in use.
exceeding these limits.
Starter Relay
N.B. The resistance in a cable will be modified by the num-
ber of connections made (each connection having a resist- If the engine is any great distance from the starter switch,
ance of approx. 0.0002 ohms). If length or cable size is it will be an advantage to use a starter relay in the starter
marginal, the next larger cable size should be used. motor solenoid circuit. This will shorten the solenoid circuit
wiring, and enable low current cables to be used to the
starter switch. The applicable wiring arrangement is shown
Starter Motor Solenoid Circuit in the appended circuit diagrams.
All starter motor types specified for Caterpillar engines incor-
porate solenoid actuated engagement of the starter motor Suitable relays are the Lucas 28RA for the Lucas M50 starter
pinion with the starter ring gear. The solenoid may be either or similar, and the Lucas 33RA for the CAV S115/S130
mounted externally on the motor, as in the case of the Lucas starters and for higher solenoid current draw starters such
M45 and M50 motors, or may be incorporated internally in as the Delco 40MT and the Lucas 45T. Equivalent relays may
the starter motor, as in the CAV CA45. also be used.
1.8 6.18 0.93 3.1 0.44 1.45 80/0.4 10.053 0.0156 0.00182 0.00055 7 P
3.1 10.0 1.54 5.0 0.73 2.35 37/0.75 16.35 0.0253 0.0011 0.00034 37/.029 5 P
3.4 11.3 1.7 5.6 0.81 2.67 266/0.3 18.80 0.0291 0.00099 0.0003 266/.012 4
4.46 14.6 2.2 7.3 1.05 3.4 37/0.9 23.54 0.0365 0.000762 0.0002323 37/.036 3
4.78 15.67 2.38 7.8 1.12 3.6 7/2.14 25.0 0.0388 0.000712 0.000217 37/.044 2 P
4.57 15.0 2.3 7.5 1.07 3.54 196/0.4 25.0 0.0388 0.000743 0.000226 PF
6.6 21.66 3.3 10.8 1.56 5.09 19/1.53 35.0 0.0543 0.000514 0.000157 P
7.36 24.15 3.7 12.0 1.7 5.7 61/0.9 38.8 0.0601 0.000462 0.0001408 61/.036 1
8.97 29.3 4.48 14.65 2.1 6.9 19/1.78 50.0 0.0776 0.000379 0.000116 19/.064 0 P
11.6 38.2 5.6 19.0 2.7 9.0 61/11.3 61.175 0.0948 0.000293 0.000089 61/.044 00
12.98 42.6 6.49 21.3 3.05 10.02 19/2.14 70.0 0.1086 0.000262 0.0000798 P
13.1 43.0 6.56 21.5 3.08 10.13 360/0.50 70.0 0.1086 0.000259 0.0000789 PF
18.0 56.67 9.0 28.3 4.2 13.3 19/2.52 95.0 0.147 0.000189 0.00006 513/.018 000
22.67 73.9 11.33 36.95 5.3 17.4 37/2.03 120.0 0.187 0.00015 0.000046 666/.018 0000
27.87 91.9 13.93 45.9 6.56 21.5 37/2.25 190.0 0.228 0.000122 0.000037 00000
Key:
* Max. total circuit resistances:
0.0034 ohm 24V systems (exc. V8)
0.0017 ohm 24V systems (V8 only)
12V systems (exc. V8) P Preferred cables
0.0008 ohm 12V systems (V8 only) PF Preferred flexible cables
144
The relay shall be mounted close to the starter in a position It can be seen that, in terms of ampere hour capacity, the
free from vibration and not subject to radiated heat. smaller battery gave a considerably better performance in
this test than the larger battery, and would therefore be
The relay shall be mounted with the terminals in the best much more satisfactory from a starting point of view.
position to protect them from water spray and road debris.
Batteries should conform to an internationally recognized
NOTE: The solenoid circuit currents for the CAV S115/CA45 specification. Typical examples are given in SECTION 16,
and AC-Delco starters exceed the rating of the four-position TECHNICAL DATA of specifications meeting given start-
switch Lucas 128SA or similar. If this type is used it is there- ing requirements for various engine and starter motor
fore essential that a starter relay is fitted. configurations.
It is however suitable for applications such as standby gen- In extreme cases, it will be advisable to use a separate bat-
erator sets, sprinkler pumping units, etc., as it does not lose tery, having double-separator construction, for the auxiliary
its charge over long periods without use. loads so that the starting battery cannot be drained.
The lead acid battery is cheaper, easier to maintain, and The auxiliary battery may be charged from the engine start-
has a better power/weight ratio. However, it can lose some ing system. The capacity should also be adequate to allow
of its charge over long periods without use. the installation to keep running safely for a reasonable time
after an alternator failure.
Battery Performance Battery capacity is usually expressed as reserve capacity
Lead/Acid Batteries which is the number of minutes the battery will survive while
discharging at a constant 25 amps.
Battery capacity in terms of ampere-hour rating is not a reli-
able guide to suitability for starting purposes. Some manufacturers still use the Ampere-hour capacity; the
relationship between these systems is:
In order to provide a satisfactory starting performance, the
battery must be capable of sustaining a relatively high ter- Amp-hrs = (Reserve capacity 14, 12)
minal voltage under the high current discharge conditions
1,647
that apply during cold starting. This is illustrated in the
curves, which compare results obtained on two battery If the installation is for standby emergency operation, with
types when subjected to a 300 ampere discharge current, trickle-charging to keep the batteries charged, then only dou-
the batteries being soaked cold at 18C. ble-separator type batteries should be used.
VOLTAGE/TIME CURVES AT 18C Providing the battery specification for starting purposes
meets the requirements detailed in SECTION 16, TECHNI-
DISCHARGE CURRENT 300 A
CAL DATA, the battery will normally have adequate capac-
ity for applications in which conditions are such that the
engine driven generator is able to maintain the auxiliary-run-
ning load for practically the entire duty cycle, while also pro-
viding the additional current required to recharge the battery
after starting.
145
essential not to permit any load that will result in the bat- Alternators have the following important advantages:
tery being discharged by more than 25% of its fully charged
capacity. 1. Useful current output is available at low engine speed,
in some cases down to idling speed, depending on
Example drive ratio.
A machine is required to use its lights for one hour after 2. Maximum available output is considerably greater than
engine shut down. Current drain on the battery is as follows: for a dynamo of comparable size.
Headlamps:
296 watts 2 1 hour = 96 watt-hours Determination of Generator
Rating Requirement
Rear Lamps:
214 watts 2 1 hour = 14 watt-hours In order to determine the generator rating requirement for
a particular installation, it is necessary to determine the
Spot Lamps: Average Electrical Loading that will apply during a repre-
200 watts 2 1 hour = 200 watt-hours sentative duty period. It is necessary to consider each elec-
trical load in the installation, and then to make an estimate
Marker Lamps:
of the time for which that particular load will be in demand.
214 watts 2 1 hour = 14 watt-hours
Average Electrical Loading is expressed in Watt-Hours, one
Total = 324 watt-hours watt-hour being the work done by one watt acting for one
hour. It is advisable to base the calculation on the most unfa-
Watt-Hours = Ampere Hours, vorable conditions that will be met in service, in order to pro-
System Voltage vide adequate reserve.
So in this case (12 volt system) A typical calculation is shown opposite for a commercial
vehicle, taken over a total driving period of 10 hours.
Ampere Hours = 324 = 27
12
Calculation of Average Electrical Loading
If this figure of 27 ampere hours represents 25% or more of Commercial Vehicle Total Driving Time 10 Hours
the battery capacity specified for starting purposes, then in Headlamps:
order to avoid possible starting problems, a battery of 2 2 85 watts for 6 hours = 1020 watt-hours
increased capacity must be specified, or, in extreme cases,
a separate battery should be installed for the auxiliaries. Side Lamps:
2 2 6 watts for 7 hours = 84 watt-hours
Battery Installation Rear Lamps:
the battery must be located away from sources of heat, and 2 2 6 watts for 7 hours = 84 watt-hours
must be protected from rain, snow, road splash and dirt,
Marker Lamps:
must be readily accessible for routine maintenance, and
2 2 6 watts for 7 hours = 84 watt-hours
should be located as close as possible to the starter motor,
in order to minimize lead length. Number Plate Lamp:
1 2 6 watts for 7 hours = 42 watt-hours
Battery carriers must be properly designed and supported
away from areas of vibration. Battery cables must be Instrument Panel:
secured to the machine frame, with a small amount of play Bulbs:
to prevent strain at the terminals. 4 2 6 watts for 7 hours = 168 watt-hours
Instruments:
GENERATOR SELECTION AND INSTALLATION
12 watts for 10 hours = 120 watt-hours
Introduction Heater Motor:
The generator must replace the energy taken from the bat- 1 2 48 watts for 10 hours = 480 watt-hours
tery during starting, and must also provide the additional
power required to maintain any auxiliary running load. Wind Screen Wipers:
2 at 72 watts for 10 hours = 1440 watt-hours
A range of generator types is available for the various engine
Interior Lighting:
types to suit the electrical loading requirements that will
2 at 5 watts for 1 hour = 10 watt-hours
apply in particular installations. Details of these are shown
in the applicable engine literature, or may be obtained from Stop Lamps:
Applications Engineering Department, Peterborough. 2 at 24 watts for total
estimated period of
The generator may be either an alternator or a dynamo, but 40 minutes = 32 watt-hours
alternators are now normal equipment on all engine types,
dynamos only being supplied as service items. Total 3564 watt-hours
146
Since generators are rated in terms of current output, it is Alternators
convenient to convert the Average Electrical Loading to The alternator design now usually incorporates the regula-
Ampere-Hours, and since tor as an integral part of the alternator, although separate
regulators are still available.
Watt-Hours = Ampere Hours,
Alternator regulators are normally of the electronic solid state
System Voltage type with no moving parts.
Average Electrical Loading (12 Volt System) When a separate regulator is supplied, it should be mounted
away from heat and vibration, and in the manner recom-
= 3564 = 297 Ampere Hours mended by the manufacturer.
12
Ignition Warning Light
In addition, it is necessary to consider starting current The ignition warning light is an integral part of the charging
demand, and in this example one cold start plus seven circuit, and allows an initial current flow to the regulator to
starts with the engine warm are considered: commence excitation. A resistor may be used to supple-
ment or replace the warning light, and the appropriate wiring
1 Cold start 450 Amps for 20 seconds diagram shows details of this. The current flow is this cir-
= 2.5 Ampere Hours cuit will affect the alternator cut-in speed, the speed at which
the alternator commences to produce an output. If any doubt
exists, the regulator manufacturer must be consulted.
7 Hot starts 300 Amps for 3 seconds each start
= 1.75 Ampere Hours In installations where it is possible for the field windings to
remain energized when the engine is not running, it is desir-
Average Electrical Loading is therefore: able to have the field supply switched via a relay which is de-
energized when engine oil pressure falls, permitting the oil
297 + 2.5 + 1.75 = 301.25 Ampere Hours pressure switch contacts to open.
The usual sizes, their current rating and unit resistance are
Dynamos shown in the table below.
Dynamos are increasingly being replaced with alternators in When selecting cable sizes, the following factors must
new installations. be considered:
147
3. The insulation must be adequate to meet the conditions
that will apply in service, with respect to temperature,
and contamination by fuel oil, lubricating oil, etc. Current
resistance and voltage drop are related as follows in the
direct current circuits under consideration, and these
relationships may be used when estimating voltage
drop for a given cable size and current flow, etc.:
or
Where there are several similar installations, the loom may CABLE CLIPS
be conveniently pre-formed away from the machine, the
loom then subsequently being installed much more easily Grommets must be used where cables or looms pass through
than with individual cables. panels or bulkheads.
148
Connections and Terminals presses the terminal and cable into a solid mass with a pre-
determined pressure. If this method is not used, the cable
Incorrect connection between cable and electrical compo- end must be either welded or soldered.
nents can increase the circuit resistance, causing poor elec-
trical contact with the possibility of short circuits. Eye type terminals are commonly used (see illustration), the
larger type being frequently used for the battery cable con-
For general wiring, the terminal most commonly used is the nection to the starter motor. The connector fits over a stud
spade type illustrated below. The male terminal is part of terminal, and is fastened by a nut. The cables are either
the component, and the female terminal is attached to the crimped or soldered to the terminal.
cable end, with an insulating sleeve covering the bare con-
nector to prevent accidental short-circuiting.
Details of the wiring for the Electrical Fuel Shut-Off Solenoid (E.S.O.S.) can be found on drawing ref. 3186T001.
149
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY CABLES A, B, & C NOT TO EXCEED 0.0008 OHM
BATTERY 12V OR 2 2 6V
MAXIMUM
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT MAXIMUM
STARTER MOTOR
CABLE MINIMUM CABLE SIZE CURRENT RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT NOS. FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT (AMPS) (OHMS) VOLT DROP REMARKS
STARTER RELAY
ALTERNATOR 2 2 65/0.3 & 120/0.3 (AC5R) 60 0.0083 MAX. CABLE SIZE TO 375 SERIES
CHARGING 2 2 65/0.3 & 180/0.4 (25ACR) 65 0.0077 CONNECTOR 65/0.3
AMMETER 1, 1A & 2 2 2 44/0.3 & 120/0.3 (23ACR) 55 0.0091 0.5 VOLT 2 CABLES REQUIRED ABOVE THIS
2 2 44/0.3 & 197/0.3 (18ACR) 45 0.0110 SIZE, CABLE SIZE TO SUIT
SWITCH 1 2 65/0.3 & 120/0.3 (17ACR) 35 0.0143 ALTERNATOR.
5 TERMINAL/4 POSITION STARTING 2 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT CABLES 2 & 3 CARRY RELAY &
AID 3 32.3 STARTING AID CURRENT DURING
0.0200 0.6 VOLT
SWITCH 4 27.0 START.
4 TERMINAL/4 POSITION 5 13.5 VOLT DROP MEASURED AT
STARTER 2 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT STARTING AID NO. 2.
ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT RELAY 3 32.3 0.0900 0.5 VOLT
12V 2W MIN. WITH 27-40 OHM 6, 7 5.3
RESISTOR
STARTER SOLENOID PULL IN CURRENT
8, 9 65/0.3 19 0.0067 0.5 VOLT
SOLENOID TOTAL 92-104 AMP
ALTERNATOR
ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT & RESISTOR
WARNING 10, 11 14/0.3 3 MAX. 0.1000 0.5 VOLT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE INITIAL
FUELLED STARTING AIDS LIGHT ALTERNATOR OUTPUT.
SEE WIRING DIAGRAM 3186T001 ALL CABLE RUNS TO BE KEPT AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE.
IMPORTANT! TO PREVENT ALTERNATOR DAMAGE:
NEVER DISCONNECT ANY LEAD WITHOUT FIRST STOPPING THE ENGINE & TURNING SWITCHES TO OFF POSITION.
AC5R ONLY ALWAYS IDENTIFY A LEAD TO ITS CORRECT TERMINAL WHEN CONNECTING OR DISCONNECTING ANY LEAD.
NEVER FLASH CONNECTIONS TO CHECK FOR CORRECT CURRENT FLOW.
NEVER CONNECT A BATTERY INTO THE SYSTEM WITHOUT FIRST CHECKING FOR CORRECT POLARITY & VOLTAGE.
NEVER ARC WELD ON INSTALLATION WITHOUT FIRST REMOVING ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS.
NEVER RUN ALTERNATOR WITH BATTERY DISCONNECTED & FIELD ENERGIZED.
150
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY CABLES A, B, & C NOT TO EXCEED 0.0017 OHM
BATTERY 12V
MAXIMUM
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT MAXIMUM
STARTER MOTOR
CABLE MINIMUM CABLE SIZE CURRENT RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT NOS. FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT (AMPS) (OHMS) VOLT DROP REMARKS
STARTER RELAY
ALTERNATOR 4, 5 44/0.3 28 0.0180 0.5 VOLT 15 ACR 12 VOLT ALTERNATOR
CHARGING 4, 5 44/0.3 28 0.0180 0.5 VOLT 17 ACR DERATED 12 VOLT ALTERNATOR
AMMETER 4, 5 65/0.3 36 0.0140 0.5 VOLT 17 ACR 12 VOLT ALTERNATOR
SWITCH
4
5
2 2 44/0.3
97/0.3 j 45 0.0110 0.5 VOLT 18 ACR 12 VOLT ALTERNATOR
LIGHT SWITCH
V.D.O. INSTRUMENT
WIRING DIAGRAM
151
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY CABLES A, B, & C NOT TO EXCEED 0.0017 OHM
BATTERY 12V
MAXIMUM
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT MAXIMUM
STARTER MOTOR
CABLE MINIMUM CABLE SIZE CURRENT RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT NOS. FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT (AMPS) (OHMS) VOLT DROP REMARKS
AMMETER
ALTERNATOR 1 2A 44/0.3 15ACR 28 0.0180 SIZE OF CABLE TO BE INCREASED
CHARGING 1 2A 44/0.3 17ACR (DERATED) 28 0.0180 IF CIRCUIT VOLT DROP EXCEEDS
SWITCH 1 2A 65/0.3 16ACR 32 0.0160 0.5 VOLT
5 TERMINAL/4 POSITION 1 2A 65/0.3 17ACR 35 0.0138
SWITCH
1
2
1A 2 2 44/0.3
1 2 97/0.3 j 18ACR 45 0.0110
0.5 VOLT
4 TERMINAL/4 POSITION 1
2
1A 2 2 44/0.3
1 2120/0.3 j 23ACR 55 0.0091
ALTERNATOR WITH GLOW PLUG 2 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT CABLES 2 & 3 CARRY BOTH GLOW
EUROPEAN TERMINALS RELAY 3 21/0.3 (35/0.3) 5.3 0.5 VOLT PLUG RELAY & STARTER
4 5 14/0.3 SOLENOID CURRENTS
ALTERNATOR WITH STARTER 2 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT IMPORTANT IF LESS THAN
STUD TERMINALS MOTOR 3 35/0.3 21.05 0.63 VOLT 0.63 VOLT DROP CANNOT BE ACHIEVED,
SOLENOID 6 28/0.3 15.75 A STARTER RELAY WILL BE REQUIRED.
ALTERNATOR WARNING LAMP OR RESISTOR IS
GLOW PLUG RELAY 1
WARNING 7 8 14/0.3 0.1000 REQUIRED FOR INITIAL
(NOMINAL)
LIGHT ALTERNATOR OUTPUT
GLOW PLUGS GLOW PLUGS 9 10 65/0.3
40 0.0125 0.5 VOLT
(VIA RELAY) 11 12 13 LINKS SUPPLIED WITH ENGINE
SEE WIRING DIAGRAM
3186T001 ALL CABLE RUNS TO BE KEPT AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE.
IMPORTANT! TO PREVENT ALTERNATOR DAMAGE:
NEVER DISCONNECT ANY LEAD WITHOUT FIRST STOPPING THE ENGINE & TURNING SWITCHES TO OFF POSITION.
AC5R ONLY ALWAYS IDENTIFY A LEAD TO ITS CORRECT TERMINAL WHEN CONNECTING OR DISCONNECTING ANY LEAD.
NEVER FLASH CONNECTIONS TO CHECK FOR CORRECT CURRENT FLOW.
NEVER CONNECT A BATTERY INTO THE SYSTEM WITHOUT FIRST CHECKING FOR CORRECT POLARITY & VOLTAGE.
NEVER ARC WELD ON INSTALLATION WITHOUT FIRST REMOVING ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS.
NEVER RUN ALTERNATOR WITH BATTERY DISCONNECTED & FIELD ENERGIZED.
152
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY CABLES A, B, C, & D NOT TO EXCEED 0.0034 OHM
BATTERIES 2 2 12V OR 4 2 6V
MAXIMUM
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT MAXIMUM
STARTER MOTOR
CABLE MINIMUM CABLE SIZE CURRENT RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT NOS. FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT (AMPS) (OHMS) VOLT DROP REMARKS
AMMETER
ALTERNATOR MAX. CABLE SIZE FOR 375 SERIES
1, 2 & 3 65/0.3 36 0.027 1.0 VOLT
CHARGING LUCAR TERMINALS 65/0.3
SWITCH
FUELLED 3 SEE ALTERNATOR CIRCUIT 0.6 VOLT CABLES 4 & 6 CARRY BOTH
5 TERMINAL/4 POSITION
STARTING 4 44/0.3 28.3 NOT INCL. STARTING AIDS & STARTER
AID 5&6 21/0.3 13.5 VOLT DROP SOLENOID CURRENTS.
SWITCH IN RESISTOR
4 TERMINAL/4 POSITION
STARTER 3 SEE ALTERNATOR CIRCUIT
MOTOR 4 SEE STARTING AID CIRCUIT 28,3 1.0 VOLT
ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT SOLENOID 7 28/0.3 14.8
24V 2W WITH 300 OHM
5W RESISTOR ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT &/OR RESISTOR
WARNING 8, 9 14/0.3 ESSENTIAL FOR INITIAL
LIGHT ALTERNATOR OUTPUT.
ALTERNATOR
153
RESISTANCE OF BATTERY CABLES A, B, C, & D NOT TO EXCEED 0.0034 OHM
BATTERIES 2 2 12V OR 4 2 6V
MAXIMUM
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT MAXIMUM
STARTER MOTOR
CABLE MINIMUM CABLE SIZE CURRENT RESISTANCE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT NOS. FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT (AMPS) (OHMS) VOLT DROP REMARKS
STARTER RELAY
STARTER RELAY REQUIRED IF VOLT DROP
MOTOR 1, 2 28/0.3 (STANDARD MOTOR) 14 0,0715 OR CABLE SIZE WOULD
AMMETER SOLENOID 35/0.3 (OIL SEALED MOTOR) 19 0,0530 1.0 VOLT OTHERWISE BE EXCESSIVE
(VIA RELAY)
SWITCH ALTERNATOR 3, 4, 5 65/0.3 36 0,027 1.0 VOLT MAX. CABLE SIZE FOR 375 SERIES
5 TERMINAL/4 POSITION CHARGING LUCAR TERMINALS 65/0.3
GLOW PLUG 5 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT CABLE 6 CARRIES 2 2 RELAY CURRENTS
SWITCH RELAY 6 28/0.3 4.2 (21.1) 1.0 VOLT OR STARTER SOLENOID CURRENT PLUS
4 TERMINAL/4 POSITION 7, 8 14/0.3 2.1 GLOW PLUG RELAY CURRENT.
CABLE 6 MUST BE OF SUFFICIENT SIZE
ALTERNATOR WARNING TO CARRY OTHER SWITCHED AUXILIARY
STARTER 5 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT
LIGHT WITH 24V 2W WITH LOADS. STARTER RELAY TO BE
RELAY 6 14/0.3 4.2 1.0 VOLT
300 OHM 5W RESISTOR POSITIONED AS CLOSE TO STARTER
9, 10 14/0.3 2.1
AS POSSIBLE.
ALTERNATOR STARTER 5 SEE CHARGING CIRCUIT
MOTOR 6 28/0.3 (35/0.3) 16.1 (21.1)
1.0 VOLT
SOLENOID 28/0.3 (STANDARD MOTOR) 14.0 0.062
13
GLOW PLUG RELAY (WITHOUT 35/0.3 (OIL SEALED MOTOR) 19.0 0.047
RELAY)
GLOW PLUGS ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT OR RESISTOR
WARNING 11, 12 14/0.3 REQUIRED FOR INITIAL
LIGHT ALTERNATOR OUTPUT
SEE WIRING DIAGRAM
3186T001 GLOW PLUGS 13, 14 65/0.3 INITIAL CURRENT DRAW
40 0.0125 0.5 VOLT
(VIA RELAY) 15, 16, 17 LINKS SUPPLIED WITH 170 AMP APPROX
& 18 ENGINE
154
LUCAS 128 SA AUXILIARY/HEAT/START SWITCH ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT WITH OPTIONAL PARALLEL RESISTOR
4 TERMINAL 4 POSITION SWITCH OR OTHER ALTERNATOR ENERGIZED LOADS, REFER TO INSTALLATION
SWITCH CONTACTS VIEWED FROM REAR OF SWITCH WIRING DIAGRAM
SWITCH IS ADVANCED IN 30 STEPS WITH SPRING RETURN TO AUXILIARY
TERMINAL NO. 1 BATTERY FEED POSITION NO. 1 OFF
NO. 2 AUXILIARIES NO. 2 AUXILIARIES TO ALTERNATOR IND TERMINAL
NO. 3 HEATER NO. 3 HEAT
NO. 4 START NO. 4 HEAT & START 12 VOLT SYSTEM AND E.S.O.S.
LUCAS 128 SA AUXILIARY/HEAT/START SWITCH 24 VOLT SYSTEM USING 12/24 VOLT E.S.O.S. (SEE NOTE AND )
5 TERMINAL 4 POSITION SWITCH
TERMINAL NO. 1 BATTERY FEED POSITION NO. 1 OFF
NO. 2 AUXILIARY NO. 2 AUXILIARIES (RUN) BATTERY RETURN
NO. 3 START NO. 3 HEAT
NO. 4 ALTERNATOR NO. 4 HEAT & START
NO. 5 HEATER MAXIMUM VOLT DROP IN CIRCUIT IS NOT TO EXCEED 0.5 VOLT AT A
CURRENT OF 1.5 AMPS
155
156
SECTION 13
Noise Control
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Definition of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Addition and Subtraction of Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Combination and Elimination of Noise Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Basic Noise Reduction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
157
COOLING FAN NOISE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Nature and Causes of Fan Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Cooling System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Radiator Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Fan Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Fan Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Cooling System Layout and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Methods of Cooling Air Flow Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
158
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC THEORY Definition of Noise
Introduction Noise is generally defined as unwanted sound. Sound
itself consists of small pressure variations in the air, the
Pressures are increasing throughout the world for reduction source of which may be either a vibrating structure or a pul-
in the noise of everyday life. Noise is a matter which affects sating gas flow.
not merely the convenience and comfort of the end-user,
but the health and welfare of the whole community. The criteria by which noise is judged are its level (or inten-
Exposure to high noise levels for extended periods of time sity) and its frequency composition, which determines its
can cause damage to hearing, and, as the level of noise subjective characteristics. The human ear in good condition
increases, so the ability of the human ear to withstand injury can detect noise over the approximate frequency range
falls away sharply. In consequence, it is becoming the pat- 20 to 16,000 Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second), but is particu-
tern in legislation to impose on suppliers of products, an obli- larly sensitive to noise within the frequency range 500 to
gation, at each point in the chain of manufacture or sale, to 4000 Hz.
ensure that those products will not generate noise levels
which induce hearing loss.
Units of Measurement
For many years, Caterpillar has played a leading part in the
The most widely used unit of sound measurement is the
field of noise control of both engines and total installations.
decibel (abbreviated dB) which expresses, on a logarithmic
The aim of this section is to give guidance on ways in which
scale, the ratio between the sound being measured, and a
quiet installations may be achieved, based on experience
reference sound level. This reference level, known as the
gained on a wide variety of application types.
Threshold of Hearing, approximates to the minimum
sound audible to a person with very good hearing.
It is for each manufacturer, who installs an engine in his
equipment, to insure that the noise levels produced by that (It should be noted that, as the decibel is a logarithmic unit,
equipment are compatible with the welfare of those who an increase of 3 dB actually represents a doubling in sound
come within the operating environment. This Section is intensity. However, the response of the average human ear
intended to assist equipment manufacturers in discharging is such that an increase of approximately 10 dB is neces-
that responsibility. sary for a doubling in subjective loudness to be perceived.)
For more detailed information on topics discussed in the fol- The accompanying chart illustrates typical levels of various
lowing pages, and for specific advice on particular installa- everyday sounds.
tion problems, O.E.M.s are invited to contact their nearest
Caterpillar Area Operations Office. These offices have avail- The measurement unit specified in most noise legislation is
able to them the full resources of the Application Engineering the A weighted decibel or dBA. This approximately
Department, Peterborough. simulates the frequency response of the human ear to noise,
159
by suppression of noise components at very low and very To subtract decibels:
high frequencies, and amplification of those in the middle
frequency range. Enter the chart with the NUMERICAL DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN TOTAL AND LARGER LEVELS if this value is less
Most commercially available noise meters incorporate elec- than 3 dB. Enter the chart with the NUMERICAL DIFFER-
trical weighing networks which enable dBA levels to be ENCE BETWEEN TOTAL AND SMALLER LEVELS if this
read directly. value is between 3 and 14 dB. Follow the line correspon-
ding to this value to its intersection with the curved line,
then either left or down to read the NUMERICAL DIFFER-
ENCE BETWEEN TOTAL AND LARGER (SMALLER) LEVELS.
Addition and Subtraction of Decibels Subtract this value from the total level to determine the
unknown level.
In noise analysis and reduction work it is often necessary to
calculate the effects of combining or eliminating noise Example: Subtract 81 dB from 90 dB. The difference is
sources. However, since the decibel is a logarithmic unit, 9 dB. The 9 dB vertical line intersects the curved
noise levels cannot be added together arithmetically in line at 0.6 dB on the vertical scale. Thus, the
fact, 80 dB + 80 dB = 83 dB, and not 160 dB. (Thus, an unknown level is 90 0.6 or 89.4 dB.
increase of 3 dB represents a doubling of sound intensity.)
Reproduced from Handbook of Noise Measurement by courtesy of General Radio Cumulative effect of addition of identical noise sources.
Company, West Concord, Massachusetts, U.S.A. The chart is based on one developed
by R. Musa.
From this example it can be seen that the combined effect
of four 80 dB noise sources is 86 dB,
To combine decibels:
i.e. 80 dB + 80 dB + 80 dB + 80 dB = 86 dB
Enter the chart with the NUMERICAL DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN TWO LEVELS BEING ADDED. Follow the line The addition of a fifth 80 dB noise source increases the total
corresponding to this value to its intersection with the curved to 87 dB,
line, then left to read the NUMERICAL DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN TOTAL AND LARGER LEVEL. Add this value to i.e. 80 dB + 80 dB + 80 dB + 80 dB + 80 dB = 87 dB,
the larger level to determine the total. or 86 dB + 80 dB = 87 dB
Example: Combine 75 dB and 80 dB. The difference is 5 dB. Conversely, the removal of one of five equal noise sources
The 5 dB line intersects the curved line at 1.2 dB reduces the total noise level by only 1 dB,
on the vertical scale. Thus the total value is 80 + 1.2
or 81.2 dB. i.e. 87 dB 80 dB = 86 dB
160
This demonstrates that suppression of a minor noise d) Stiffness
source, or just one of a number of equal noise sources,
will have only a limited effect on total noise. Vibration amplitudes can sometimes be reduced by stiff-
ening (for example, by swaging of sheet metal body
On the other hand, the removal of four out of five equal panels), usually as a design feature. However, the effect
80 dB noise sources (i.e. effectively removing one source on complex structures, such as engine crankcases, is less
of 86 dB) reduces the total noise level by 7 dB. predictable, as the effects on the vibration amplitude/
frequency characteristics of the increased mass may
i.e. 87 dB 86 dB = 80 dB. outweigh the benefits of the increased stiffness.
b) Absorption
MINIMIZATION OF TOTAL
INSTALLATION NOISE
In contrast to insulation, the material used for acoustic Legislative and Marketing Considerations
absorption is porous (for example, polythane foam,
These are usually the main factors influencing noise reduc-
fiber-glass blanket, etc)., and is usually placed inside the
tion requirements. Sometimes legislation sets specific lim-
area where the noise source is situated, in order to pre-
its upon maximum noise levels which may not be exceeded.
vent internal reflection and build-up (or reverberation)
Sometimes it is framed in general terms so as to leave the
of noise.
manufacturer responsible for establishing and implement-
ing noise safety levels in respect of his product. Such leg-
c) Damping islation tends to be supported or supplemented by marketing
considerations which grow increasingly important as oper-
ators become noise-conscious.
This technique is used to reduce the vibration of noise
radiating surfaces, for example, flat unsupported panels.
Damping can be provided either by the application of a Noise limits fall into two main categories, concerning:
surface treatment, or by making the panel from a mate-
rial which is inherently well-damped. Damping con- a) external or third party noise
strains the flexural bending of the panel and absorbs
energy as the material is alternately put into tension and b) internal or driver/operator noise
compression. Where the mass of the damping layer
is significantly in relation to the mass of the panel, the In both cases many different test procedures and noise lim-
vibration frequently response characteristics of the its may be specified by interested parties, including national,
panel may be modified with beneficial effect. state and local authorities, as well as end users.
161
Existing legislation is too extensive and too liable to change
to list in this manual, but examples of test specifications and
applications are indicated below.
Test Type
}
Acceleration test (moving vehicle) Application
Engine acceleration (stationary vehicle) Road vehicles and mobile equipment on public roads.
Steady speed test (moving vehicle)
Noise Reduction Requirements fall into two main categories, (a) engine-related, and (b) appli-
In setting noise targets for their products, manufacturers cation-related.
would obviously be wise to identify all legislative and mar-
keting requirements to which the vehicle or machine may be Engine-related noise sources include:
subject. Caterpillar is able to give advice on legislation, which
is continuously monitored by Product Legislation staff. Exhaust
O.E.M.s themselves are however probably best able to
judge marketing requirements. Inductions
Note: A margin should be allowed for scatter of noise lev- Cooling Fan
els between nominally identical vehicles or machines.
Application-related sources include:
It may be found expedient to offer noise-reduced versions
of basic products for operation only in noise-conscious ter- Transmission
ritories. In some cases it may also be possible to trade off
cooling performance against noise reduction for operation Hydraulics
in temperate climates.
Air brake systems
Tires
Composition of Total Application Noise
The total noise of a complete application is due to the The relative magnitudes of the various noise sources can
combined contributions of various noise sources. This is vary greatly, being dependent upon application type and con-
illustrated for two typical applications. These noise sources figuration, and operating conditions.
162
To illustrate this point, the accompanying diagrams show the
noise composition (depicted as proportions of total radiated
sound energy) of the total noise emitted by two typical appli-
cation types. It can be seen that the significance of the var-
ious noise sources is completely different for the two cases.
AIR INTAKE
COMPRESSORS AND
BRAKE SYSTEMS
FAN AND
COOLING SYSTEM
EXHAUST
TRANSMISSION
ENGINE TIRES
EXHAUST
AIR INTAKE
ENGINE
HYDRAULICS
FAN AND
COOLING SYSTEM
163
OTHER SOURCES Noise radiated by the silencer shell and exhaust pipes
(Chassis, Fan, Induction, can be suppressed by lagging with asbestos tape.
Transmission, Tires)
Induction system:
intake can be piped to a remote position.
ENGINE NOISE
Nature of Engine Noise
Engine noise is considered as being that radiated directly
from the basic engine structure alone, with noise from other
(a) Medium range truck
engine-related systems (exhaust, induction and fan) and
(Moving test procedure; noise measured at side
accessories completely eliminated. It is, however, possible
of vehicle)
for engine noise to be transmitted to, and radiated from,
interconnected systems (for example, transmission units).
ALL OTHER
SOURCES
Sources of Engine Noise
Engine structural noise is excited by both combustion and
mechanical sources. The areas of the engine which are most
responsible to this excitation are typically the sump, cylin-
der block and crankcase, cylinder head covers, timing case
cover and crankshaft pulley.
FAN
Methods of Engine Noise Reduction
by Attention to the Engine
Apart from fundamental re-design of the engine structure,
direct methods of reducing engine noise radiation include
speed reduction, combustion system modifications, com-
ponent modifications, acoustic treatment of engine surfaces,
(b) Wheeled shovel loader and the use of close-fitting engine shields.
(Stationary test; noise measured at rear of machine)
Since engine noise increases rapidly with speed, speed
Composition of total noise emitted by two typical reduction is a most effective technique, and has the advan-
applications. tage of also reducing the effects of other engine-related
noise sources (fan, exhaust and induction). In consultation
with the engine manufacturer, the lowest possible rated
Experimental Identification of Noise Sources speed compatible with performance requirements should
therefore be chosen.
In order to be able to carry out noise reduction of an exist-
ing application methodically and effectively, it is obviously Direct engine treatment is however the responsibility of
most important to know which of the various constituent the engine manufacturer alone, and where required is incor-
noise sources are actually significant. porated in the original engine specification. Engine noise
reduction methods available to vehicle and machine manu-
Some indication can be obtained experimentally by sup- facturers are therefore applicable only to the installation and
pressing individual sources in turn, thus: complete application.
164
expected to give a reduction of about 1 dBA on a road air inlet and outlet the compartment should be as nearly air-
vehicle. In the case of industrial and construction machines tight as possible, with acoustic absorbent linings to the sides
the effect would probably be considered less. and top. Sealing strip should be fitted around the edges of
detachable panels.
Insulation
the use of machine mounted shields to prevent airborne
transmission of noise to the observer, both by direct
radiation and by reflection from the road surface.
Absorption
acoustic absorbent material (approximately 25 mm
1" thick) applied to inner surfaces of the engine com-
partment to reduce build-up of noise. The material may
be held in place by means of wire mesh or thin metal
straps. Absorbent material can also usefully be applied
to the surfaces of noise shields. (NOTE: care must be taken
to ensure that linings do not become a fire hazard due
to absorption of fuel oil. Some suppliers offer absorbent
material complete with protective surface treatment.)
Damping
treatment applied to resonant panels to reduce their
vibration response and noise radiation capacity.
TREATMENT OF ENGINE COMPARTMENT INTERIOR SURFACES The choice of suitable resilient engine mounts is very
important in minimizing transmission of vibration and exci-
tation to the machine frame and body work. The subject is
In the extreme case, for an ultra-low noise machine, treat-
covered in detail in Section 6 of this manual.
ment should comprise a completely enclosed engine com-
partment, with cooling air inlet and outlet by means of either
a silencing duct, or acoustic louvers lined with absorbent The avoidance of fouls between engine and the machine
foam or similar material, as illustrated. Apart from the cooling frame and body work is obviously essential.
165
VIEW IN DIRECTION OF ARROW A ACOUSTIC FOAM FASTENED TO UNDERSIDES OF LOUVERS
166
(c) Expansion chamber these are used early in the sys- (b) Exhaust System Configuration
tem to dissipate energy quickly or used as a resonator
towards the back of the system to reduce noise of a Silencer position (see diagram opposite)
specific frequency.
There is some divergence of opinion amongst exhaust
system specialists as to the ideal position. However,
experience has shown that the silencer, or at least an
expansion chamber should be within approximately
1.5 m (4 ft) of the exhaust manifold.
167
OPTIMUM DIMENSIONS FOR EXHAUST SYSTEMS
168
Intake system configuration airstream. In either case the noise is greatly influenced by
The air filter should be located as close as practicable to the the design and configuration of the whole cooling system.
engine, while the intake should be directed or positioned
away from the observer or microphone. Intake stacks may Cooling System Design
be helpful for this purpose. For a given power unit heat rejection, there is a large num-
ber of combinations of fan type, fan speed and radiator type
The use of an additional absorption type silencer unit at the which will provide the required cooling. The choice of a cool-
intake may also be found beneficial in suppressing high fre- ing system package giving the optimum combination of com-
quency noise, particularly in the case of turbocharged engines. ponents for low noise is therefore important.
Various proprietary units are marketed.
There are also considered benefits to be obtained in respect
Installation of cooling efficiency, low noise and low fan power absorp-
tion, by ensuring that the system layout provides for a
Pipes should be of round section, and of heavy wall con-
smooth cooling air flow path free from obstructions and devi-
struction to ensure good acoustic barrier properties. It is very
ations. The use of an efficient fan cowl with low blade tip
important to ensure that the system is airtight at all times.
clearances is strongly recommended.
COOLING FAN NOISE In view of the possible variations in installation size, config-
uration, accessory cooling requirements and target noise
Nature and Causes of Fan Noise levels, it is not possible in this manual to specify complete
The term fan noise is commonly used to describe noise cooling systems to meet particular application/engine
created by the interaction between the fan and the cooling requirements. The notes given below are therefore intended
system air flow. It is now widely recognized that on heavy only as guidelines in the choice of suitable components for
vehicles and machines this noise source can make a signif- typical installations.
icant contribution to total noise of the installation.
O.E.M.s wishing to select cooling system components for
Fan noise may comprise discrete frequency components particular installations are invited to consult Caterpillar
(characteristic of obstructions in the air flow path) or cover Application Engineering Department for specific recom-
a wide frequency range, due to eddies and turbulence in the mendations based on the latest available data.
(a) Typical standard-efficiency radiator fin form. Uses (b) Typical continuous louvered fin construction for medium
non-clog applications, where high mechanical strength and high-efficiency radiators (depending upon core
is essential, e.g. construction machines. density). Moderate mechanical strength. Uses agri-
cultural, industrial and construction machines and com-
mercial road vehicles.
169
Radiator Selection On some applications there may be considerable advantages
As a general rule the largest possible core area which can be to be gained in terms of noise, efficiency and power saving by
accommodated should be specified. This enables both air the use of viscous or clutch fan drives. (See also METHODS
flow volume and system pressure drop to be kept to a min- OF COOLING AIR FLOW REGULATION.)
imum, with consequent minimization also of fan noise.
Cooling System Layout and Installation
For the same reasons the use of high-efficiency radiators is
Fan noise is greatly increased by distortion of the air flow
recommended. Examples of radiator fore fin constructions
passing through it, but this can be minimized by attention
of various efficiency levels are illustrated.
to the following:
For a given core type area and heat dissipation, the air flow
requirement and system pressure loss will vary with core (a) The fan should lie on the same flow axis as the radiator,
thickness, and there will be an optimum thickness for min- and should not overlap the edges of the radiator core.
imum noise and power absorption. (As an approximate (b) If fan diameter is well matched to the radiator dimen-
guide, it has been found that on applications having low cool- sions, the optimum spacing between fan and radiator is
ing system noise levels, the air velocity through the radiator in the range 1/2 to 1 blade width. For poor matching the
core is usually less than 8 m/sec 25 ft/sec). spacing should be increased.
By careful consideration of the above factors, the air flow (c) Obstructions likely to induce air flow distortion should
requirement and system pressure loss can be reduced so be removed from the fan inlet, particularly with pusher
that a lower output is required from the fan, giving lower fans. Obstructions downstream of the fan produce less
noise levels and power consumption. distortion in the fan plane, and if kept one-third of a
From details of particular installation configuration and oper- diameter from the fan should have negligible effect.
ational requirements, Caterpillar can offer specific recom- (Examples of typical obstructions include hoses, pipes,
mendations on radiator selection. alternators, etc.).
Note: (d) A fan cowl should always be used in the interests of
high efficiency as well as low noise. (Note however that
Final choice of radiator will take into account:
the use of a fan cowl does not itself reduce fan noise,
Heat dissipation requirements but by increasing air flow efficiency may enable fan
Permissible fin and tube densities in relation to work- speed or size to be reduced. Fan power absorption will
ing environment. also be reduced.)
Mechanical robustness in relation to likely dynamic As explained in SECTION 7, COOLING SYSTEM, a tapered
loads during operation. cowl form is ideal in order to allow smooth air flow between
radiator and fan. Examples of good tapered cowl/fan arrange-
Fan Selection ments are illustrated for:
Where possible a puller type of fan should be used (i.e. fan puller fan (1/3 of projected blade width protruding from
situated downstream of the radiator) in preference to a cowl outlet,
pusher type (fan situated up-stream of the radiator). The
engine and ancillary components situated on the inlet side pusher fans (2/3 of projected blade width protruding
of a pusher fan severely affect its noise level and perform- from cowl outlet.
ance, whereas a puller fan will have the engine on its outlet
An example is also shown of a box-type cowl used in con-
side, where it has less effect.
junction with a pusher fan.
In general the largest diameter, lowest speed fan should be
used, with the lowest possible tip clearance (ideally less It should be noted that the position of the cooling fan rela-
than 1% of fan diameter). If a large tip clearance must be tive to the cowl has a considerable effect on efficiency. The
used (say, greater than 2% of fan diameter), care must be configurations illustrated have been found to give generally
taken to ensure that the fan is not running in the stall con- satisfactory results, but in particular cases some further
dition (ref. fan manufacturers performance data). improvement may be obtained by adjustment of the fan posi-
tion, the optimum position being determined by experiment.
For each fan diameter, a choice will be available of puller and
pusher types, number and spacing of blades, blade widths (e) Blade tip clearance can be minimized by use of an
and pitch angles, and possibly fan drive ratio. For particular engine-mounted fan ring. This eliminates relative move-
installations Caterpillar can make recommendations for fan ment between fan and ring, while relative movement
specifications to give the optimum combination of air flow, between the engine and radiator can be accommodated
pressure and speed characteristics for operation in the low by means of a flexible section in the cowl.
noise, high efficiency zone just below the stall region.
(f) Barriers should be fitted where necessary to prevent
Fan Speed recirculation of air between downstream and upstream
sides of radiator as this creates turbulence, with con-
Where a choice of fan drive ratios is available, the ratio sequent increase in noise.
should be selected which gives the lowest practicable fan
speed, taking into account air flow volume and pressure For further information on cooling system details and lay-
characteristics. out, see SECTION 7, COOLING SYSTEM.
170
Enlarged view of Section A
171
Methods of Cooling Air Flow Regulation b) The main hydraulic components should, if necessary,
be sited inside an acoustic enclosure (e.g. the engine
Radiator shutters and blinds
compartment), or positioned remotely from operators,
Thermostatically-controlled shutters may be used to main-
observers, etc.
tain optimum working temperatures. In the open position
they can however create considerable interference to
c) Flexible pipes should be used in preference to rigid
smooth cooling air flow, with consequent increase in fan
pipes to avoid pipe resonance.
noise, while in the closed position they can also cause a
significant increase in noise, since the reduced air flow is
d) Avoid rigid pipe attachments.
likely to cause the fan to go into a stall condition. Closed
shutters also create additional internal reflecting surfaces
e) Avoid sudden changes of section and direction in the
which can lead to further build-up of noise within the engine
hydraulic system.
compartment.
f) Servo-actuated controls can reduce noise transmission
Thermostatically-controlled fan drives
to cabs.
As a means of air flow control, thermostatically-controlled
fan drives of either the on-off or variable-speed type are
preferable to shutters in respect not only of noise but also Tires
of efficiency and power saving. On some application types, tires can be a major source of
noise. This particularly applies to road vehicles operating at
The advice of Caterpillar Application Engineering Depart-
ment should however be sought if the use of such drives is speeds above 55-66 km/h (35-40 mph).
contemplated.
Tire noise characteristics are dependent upon a number of
factors, including:
OTHER INSTALLATION NOISE SOURCES
Transmission and Drive Train Tire construction and material.
Noise under this heading falls into two main categories:
Tread pattern.
a) noise originating from transmission units and drive train,
arising from design, manufacture or assembly, or from Degree of tire wear.
excessive wear of components;
Wheel and tire alignment and balance.
b) noise radiated from transmission casings, housings,
etc., due to direct excitation from the engine structure. Road surface.
Hydraulics Systems
CAB NOISE
In general, hydraulic systems do not add significantly to over-
all noise levels. They can however, create a nuisance, par- Nature and Causes of Cab Noise
ticularly inside a cab, due to their distinctive frequency Cab noise usually comprises a combination of airborne noise
characteristics, which may cause them to be clearly audible entering the cab from various external sources (engine,
to the human ear. Noise problems associated with the pump
exhaust, fan, etc), and noise radiated from directly-excited
unit itself should be referred back to the pump manufacturer
structural parts of the cab itself.
for assistance.
Other hydraulic system noise may be minimized by attention Noise due to both causes may be reinforced by reflection
to the following points: or reverberation within the cab interior.
a) Pumps and associated valves, etc. should if possible be (Note: radiated and reflected noise can also occur where
flexibly mounted to prevent transmission of vibration. overhead guards are fitted.)
172
Cab Noise Reduction Techniques d) Panel vibration can further be reduced, either by fabri-
cation from high-damping material or by the applica-
Substantial noise reductions can often be achieved by judi-
tion of damping treatment. This is most conveniently
cious application of the basic principles of insulation, damp-
achieved by use of proprietary self-adhesive damping
ing and absorption, as detailed below:
pads (which in some cases are available in combination
with absorption material.)
a) Eliminate the paths by which airborne noise can enter
the cab interior. This involves closing and sealing all
e) Reflected noise inside the cab can be reduced by use of
gaps, apertures and joints by means of sheet metal pan-
acoustic absorbent material, which can be obtained if
els, rubber sheet, sealing strip, etc. Effective gaiters
required with decorative finish for improved appearance.
should be used where control levers, etc., pass through
holes in body panels. Heater ducts which discharge into
(Note: as cab noise typically exhibits a substantial
the cab can also transmit noise, and should therefore
low-frequency noise component, the use of at least
incorporate acoustic lining and/or baffles if possible.
25 mm (1 in) thick absorbent material is recommended.
b) Noise transmission through floor panels and engine
housing panels should be minimized by use of substan-
tial barrier matting, an example of which is illustrated.
(If flexible cab mounting is not possible, individual pan- (b) the market territories? (Ref. LEGISLATIVE AND
els may be decoupled from their surroundings by means MARKETING CONSIDERATIONS)
of flexible connections, as illustrated.)
2. What degree of noise reduction is necessary to meet
the required limits?
173
(c) Induction system is the air cleaner large
enough? (Ref. INDUCTION NOISE).
174
SECTION 14
Instrumentation and Controls
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
175
INTRODUCTION Pressure Gauge Pipework
The instrumentation covered in this section is that included In installations where there is little engine movement, steel
as part of the installation in order to provide information to or copper pipe of 4.76 mm (0.1875 in) outside diameter may
the operator, to initiate operation of warning or engine shut- be used. The pipe should incorporate two or three axial coils
down systems in the event of malfunction arising. at either the gauge or the engine end, to absorb any relative
movement or vibration, and should be suitably secured along
For details of instrumentation requirements for application its length. In all cases where there is significant engine move-
testing as part of the installation sign-off procedure, see ment, however, as in many flexibly mounted engine instal-
SECTION 15, APPLICATION TESTING. lations, connection should be made by means of steel or
copper pipe in conjunction with a flexible pipe at the engine
end. The junction of the flexible to the rigid pipework should
INSTRUMENTATION ESSENTIAL be anchored, to prevent flexing and possible failure of the
REQUIREMENTS rigid pipe.
In order to give warning of engine or cooling system mal-
The flexible pipe section must be of oil-resistant armored
function, and so assist in the prevention of possible engine
construction, and able to withstand working conditions with
failure, Caterpillar minimum instrumentation requirements are
respect to temperature and pressure. Only screw type end
as follows:
connections should be used.
1. A warning light to give indication of low engine oil pressure.
Plastic or semi-rigid nylon tubing is not suitable for this
duty, since it is easily damaged in service due to chafing or
2. A temperature gauge, of appropriate range and markings, crushing, leading to the possibility of loss of oil pressure and
to indicate engine coolant temperature at the location pro- engine failure.
vided in the cylinder head, or thermostat housing/water
outlet body, depending on the engine type.
Electrically Operated Pressure Gauges
In the case of Vee engines, two gauges are required, to indi- These are widely available, and may be used as an alterna-
cate coolant temperature in both banks. tive if required.
176
It is essential that the thermometer bulb or sender probe
should be completely immersed in the coolant in order to
ensure accurate readings. In the case of the instruments
shown in SOS2 catalogs, correct immersion will be achieved
provided that the bulb or sender is screwed directly into the
specified tapping point without the use of an intermediate
adapter. If instruments other than those detailed in SOS2
catalogs are used, care should be taken in ensure that full
immersion is achieved.
AND HOURMETERS
If a separate heat or aid button is used, it must be located
Engine Speed Indicators (Tachometers) close to the starting control.
All engine types have provision for a tachometer drive. Both
electrical and mechanical types are available, and details of If a cold starting aid is fitted, instructions for its use must
these are available from Application Engineering Depart- be clearly displayed.
ment, Peterborough.
The legal position in respect of these devices should be estab-
lished by the equipment manufacturer in all cases, and action
should be taken to conform to the relevant requirements.
Hourmeters
Hourmeters are available to fit most engine types, and details
of these are available from Application Engineering Depart- Excess Fuel Device
ment, Peterborough. Certain engine types incorporate an excess fuel device in
the fuel pump, which must be actuated by the operator prior
to starting from cold below a certain ambient temperature,
ENGINE CONTROLS depending on the engine type.
177
When a remote actuating arrangement is fitted due to inac- The valve may be used with mechanically-governed engines,
cessibility of the device in the installation, care must be taken but the following points should be noted:
that this will not result in excessive loads being applied at the
fuel pump. 1. The valve should be used as a means of emergency
shut-down only, since experience has shown that, if
used as a regular means of shut-down, aeration in the
Engine Speed Control
fuel system may result, leading to starting problems.
In variable speed applications, operation of the speed con-
trol lever may be effected through a rod or cable linkage, or 2. The engine may run on for a considerable period after
through a combination of these, or in certain cases by means operation of the valve, depending on load and speed
of an electrical or other actuator. In all cases, it must be ensured conditions.
that excessive loadings are not applied at the lever. Where
there is a danger of this, as in pedal operated mechanisms 3. It must be ensured that fitment of the valve does not
(vehicles and other mobile applications, etc), an adjustable result in the introduction of foreign matter into the fuel
stop must be provided, either under the pedal or in the link- system.
age. This must be set to limit pedal travel, so that the load
is taken by the pedal/linkage stop rather than by the maxi- This is normally achieved by arranging for the actuator of
mum speed stop at the fuel pump. the shut-down control to hold the stop lever in the run
position, against a return spring.
The control linkage or cable should incorporate a means of
fine adjustment (normally by means of a screw thread), to
Engine shut-down should be effected by operation of the
allow initial setting and adjustment for wear in service.
stop lever at the fuel pump, either by an electrical, or other
type of actuator, or, in the case of some proprietary systems
When necessary, a return spring should be fitted either at
by a spring-operated mechanical linkage. In all cases, the
the fuel pump or in the control linkage, or both. When a rod
shut-down arrangement should be of the fail-safe type.
type control is fitted to the speed control lever, a swivel type
It is the responsibility of the installer to select a system appro-
ball joint is recommended, incorporating a threaded end to
priate to the application type and its operating conditions,
allow fine adjustment.
taking full account of the potential consequences of sudden
engine shut-down.
Engine Stop Control
This may be operated by means of a cable or rod mecha-
Electrical Shut-Down Systems
nism, or by means of a suitable electrical or other actuator.
A spring should be fitted where necessary, to return the link- In order to achieve fail-safe operation of solenoids not inte-
age to the run position when the stop control is released. gral with the fuel injection pump, the solenoids may need to
be of either the energized to run or energized to stop
For safety reasons, it is essential that the stop control is eas- type, depending on the circumstances mentioned above.
ily accessible to the operator, and that it should be immedi-
ately identifiable for use by other persons in an emergency. Requests for information regarding all shut-down operating
devices available from Caterpillar should be addressed to
Application Engineering Department, Peterborough.
AUTOMATIC ENGINE PROTECTION
EQUIPMENT
Switch Settings, (Engine Coolant
Introduction
Temperature and Oil Pressure) for
In applications which are required to operate unattended for
extended periods, it is recommended that automatic engine Engine Protection/Alarm Systems
protection equipment should be fitted. Temperature and Pressure operated switches used in con-
junction with automatic engine protection systems should
Various proprietary systems are available, designed to shut have the following settings:
the engine down automatically in the event of coolant tem-
perature, engine oil pressure, engine speed, or other possi-
Coolant temperature
ble parameters falling outside safe limits.
The switch should be set to operate as a level 3C below
Caterpillar maximum acceptable temperature for the oper-
Fuel Cut-Off Valve ating altitude and pressure cap setting in use see
It should be noted that engine shut-down systems utilizing SECTION 7, COOLING SYSTEM.
an electrical or other cut-off valve in the fuel system, and
separate from the fuel injection pump, are not recommended Operating accuracy should be within 3% of the nominal
by Caterpillar. setting.
178
If it is required to incorporate engine protection triggered
by operating parameters other than coolant temperature and
oil pressure, Application Engineering Department, Peter-
borough should be consulted with regard to the applicable
limiting values.
179
180
SECTION 15
Appraisal and Testing
APPLICATION APPRAISAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
World Ambient Operating Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
181
COOLING TEST EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Dynamometer Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Field Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
182
APPLICATION APPRAISAL have been established. These are based on official meteor-
ological records of world ambient temperatures, and on prac-
Introduction tical experience accumulated over many years by Caterpillar
This section sets the standards covering the Appraisal Application Engineers, both from Peterborough and local
Testing and Application Sign-off for guidance and standard- Operating Units.
ization by all Operating Units.
General recommendations for minimum ambient operating
The Appraisal Data Sheets and Sign-off Document have clearance temperatures are:
been specifically compiled to form a step-by-step appraisal
procedure, terminating with the actual application sign-off. Europe 40C
The Data Sheets constitute a check list ensuring that all Rest of World 46C
necessary items are examined and recorded, reflecting the
recommended standards of the foregoing sections in this It is recognized that temperatures determined on this broad
manual. It is important to complete all items on the Appraisal basis cannot cater for every conceivable operating condi-
Data Sheets. tion, or for unusual climatic or topographical features of par-
ticular geographical locations. Due allowance should
Installation recommendations for each topic are not incor- therefore be made for such cases.
porated in this section as they are included in previous sec-
tions of the manual. Therefore, reference must be made to It is the responsibility of the O.E.M. to ensure that the
each section for advice, to ensure that the installation is to cooling specification is suitable for all areas where the
a satisfactory standard. machine will operate.
While the preliminary cooling system design is necessarily More specific guidance on clearance temperature require-
based on calculations, the suitability of a particular system ments for specific operating conditions and territories can
must be determined by actual tests, which must be repre- be obtained from Applications Engineering Department,
sentative of the most severe operational conditions likely to Peterborough, and from local Caterpillar Operating Units.
be experienced in service.
For customers exporting machines and/or manufacturing in
Optional equipment specified by the O.E.M. must be clearly different parts of the world, a standardized cooling system
defined and detailed on the appraisal, and the appraisal and is strongly recommended which is suitable for world-wide
testing must include and cater for such equipment. use, facilitating spare parts stocking and servicing.
With increasing emphasis on world-wide standardization, One of the main objectives is trying to ensure that temper-
particularly of Industrial, Construction and Farm machinery atures and other data are always recorded at the same point.
models, giving manufacturers flexibility to ship machines In the past, engine oil temperature has been recorded at var-
and parts between different areas of the world, it is strongly ious points by different Operating Units and O.E.M. cus-
recommended that cooling systems are designed so that tomers, with significant variations in results obtained. In
machines may operate anywhere without changes to the order to avoid this situation, oil temperature should there-
cooling system. fore always be recorded in the main oil pressure gallery or,
if this is not possible due to the non-availability of suitable
To meet Operating Units specific requirements the Appraisal thermocouples, a tapping must be provided in the head of
format may be translated, but it is essential to maintain the the filter to record the oil temperature entering the oil gallery
numbering system adopted. after the filter.
Copies of all appraisal documents must be forwarded Some manufacturers offer optional cooling systems. In such
to Application Engineering Department, Peterborough, cases, prior to conducting any coolant tests, the variations
to enable the information to be tabulated and recorded in cooling specifications must be clearly defined and sepa-
for future reference and guidance for all Operating Units, rate tests conducted to clear each specification.
and also for reference in respect of information required
by Claims and Service Divisions. This request applies
equally to applications which are approved or not
Instrumentation
approved. Recommended minimum requirements All instru-
ments must be capable of withstanding vibration and gen-
eral usage on all types of application.
World Ambient Operating Temperature
Guidelines for minimum ambient operating clearance tem- Water manometer to read up to 760 mm (30 ins) for induc-
peratures for operation of Caterpillar powered applications tion system.
183
Mercury manometers to read up to 250 mm (10 ins) for j) If the application is fitted with a torque converter which
exhaust system. incorporates an oil cooler, oil temperatures should be
recorded in and out of the cooler.
Permanently fixed open thermostat(s) (of type used in
engine to be tested with opening coinciding with actual tem- k) Oil pressure drop across the engine oil cooler circuit,
perature setting). i.e., including interconnecting pipework, must be checked
(when the cooler is not an approved Caterpillar part).
Thermocouples or resistance thermometers for connecting
to a read-off dial or recorder suitable for up to 14 stations. l) Air filter restriction (see also SECTION 8, INDUCTION
(Accuracy required to be within 1C.) SYSTEM).
Thermometer to record shade ambient temperature. m) Exhaust back pressure (see also SECTION 9, EXHAUST
(Accuracy required to be within 1C.) SYSTEM).
Tachometer to be temporarily installed to record engine n) Where possible, exhaust temperature should be meas-
rev/min (instrument capacity to read up to 50% above engine ured close to the engine manifold, to enable load factors
governed speed). to be determined.
184
COOLING TESTS GENERAL De-aeration and Hot Shut Down
(See also SECTION 7, COOLING SYSTEMS) De-aeration A critical function of the cooling system is
its ability to remove air from the system during the filling
Cooling System Terminology process and to further remove entrained air or gases from
Several terms are used in defining cooling system capability. the system during engine operation.
Ambient Clearance Temperature The maximum ambient Aerated coolant can produce localized areas of over heating
temperature in which the machine can be operated without and result in damage to the engine.
exceeding permissible water and engine oil temperatures.
Water pump flow will also be reduced with aerated coolant
R.O.A. (Rise Over Ambient) The difference between the and could lead to a complete stoppage of coolant flow
water outlet temperature from engine to radiator top tank through the engine.
and the ambient shade temperature. Also the difference
between engine oil temperature and the ambient. Hot shut down The cooling system must generally allow
for the engine to be stopped at water outlet temperature of
T.D. (Temperature Difference) Same as R.O.A. up to 95C (203F) without discharging from the coolant
overflow pipe a total amount in excess of 10% of the nom-
Air to Boil The ambient temperature at which the water inal system capacity from repeated shut downs. However,
at the radiator inlet (outlet to radiator from engine) reaches for agricultural combines and heavy-duty industrial and con-
100C (212F) (boiling point of water at sea level). This is in struction equipment operating at high load factors and with
respect of a non pressurized coolant system. If a pressure pressurized cooling systems, the hot shut down tempera-
cap or valve is incorporated, this increases the boiling point tures is 100C (212F), while for all applications of the
according to the value of the pressure setting, i.e. 48.3 kN/m2 V8.640/TV8.640 the temperature is 95C (203F). If the
(7 lbf/in2) would give a boiling point of 111C (232F), and amount of discharge is in excess of 10% the design of the
the Air to Boil would increase accordingly. See also ENGINE system must be checked.
WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE.
The main cause of high water loss is generally due to the
Working to the maximum allowable water outlet tempera- system not de-aerating, and this may be caused by inade-
tures as defined in ENGINE WATER OUTLET TEMPERA- quate radiator top tank capacity.
TURE, Air to Boil is also defined as Air clearance to 103C,
for example. This expression is used mainly on Farm and Hot shut down tests This test should be carried out with
Construction Machinery applications where the O.E.M.s the vehicle or machine coupled to a dynamometer or other
often disregard the effect of the pressure cap and use Air similar means of applying full load to the engine. If the facil-
clearance to 100C as the criterion. ity is not available the fan can be removed to allow the
engine to attain the required water outlet temperature.
Filling and Capacity Tests The radiator overflow pipe should be placed in a container of
The following test procedures will define the total coolant approximately 5 liters (1 gallon) capacity containing 1 liter
capacity of the system and the acceptability in respect of (2 pints) of water.
complete system filling:
With a standard operative thermostat(s) fitted, the cooling
With operative thermostats fitted, fill the cooling system slowly system should be filled as specified in FILLING AND CAPAC-
with measured quantities of water and note the total capacity. ITY TESTS. Ensure that the system is fitted with a radiator
pressure cap or valve to a valve not exceeding 48.3 kN/m2
Bleed vent points, if approved, for cab heater or any accessory (7 lbf/in2), and that the cap fitted is functioning correctly
circuits. Note additional water added to top up the system. (preferably by measuring pressure in tank during test). Run
engine under load (or without a fan) until the water outlet
Operate engine to ensure that the cooling system is full; bleed temperature reaches 82C (180F) or the thermostat(s) open-
by venting if necessary; record any additional coolant added. ing temperature, and note the total loss of coolant from the
overflow due to the normal expansion.
Drain down the total cooling system and refill at a rate of
10 liters/min (2 gallons/min). This should be done by a con- Continue to operate the engine until the water outlet tem-
tinuous flow with no breaks for venting and the time required, perature reaches the specified temperature, continuing long
to fill, should be recorded. If the established capacity cannot enough to ensure settled temperatures throughout the sys-
be attained, repeat the test to determine reason for discrep- tem, and then shut the engine down instantly.
ancy, and if this cannot be established, record the difference.
The rise in water outlet temperature and the volume of
N.B. The filling rate of 10 liters/min (2 gallons/min) is about coolant lost should be recorded.
the minimum acceptable level in service, and should not
generally give an unduly long filling time. However, larger Repeat the hot shut down until either no further coolant is
industrial, agricultural and construction machines with cool- lost after two consecutive cycles, or the total water loss is
ing systems of large capacity may require higher filling rates. in excess of 10% of the nominal coolant system capacity.
The target for these machines is 25 liters/min (5 gallons/min). This does not include the water lost due to normal expansion
185
up to the thermostat opening temperature. The number of Instances will occur where all the recommended equipment
hot shut down tests and the total coolant loss should be cannot be made available, but it should be appreciated that
recorded. Should the water loss be in excess of 10% of the the main objective is to ensure that the application is tested
nominal system capacity, the design of the system must be under a duty cycle representative of the most severe con-
carefully checked, with particular reference to header tank ditions likely to be experienced in service.
and tendency to aeration.
The test should be carried out with the application loaded
With a satisfactory system providing less than 10% water to its rated capacity (see COOLING TEST AUTOMOTIVE
loss, it must be ensured that with the reduced level of water through COOLING TEST CRANES).
in the system the level of the coolant must be at least
32 mm (1, 14 in) above the radiator core tubes or feed pipe Recording instruments should be fitted to the applicable
if a separator header tank is fitted. points recommended (see RECORDING POINTS).
Hot starting While carrying out the hot shut down tests All tests should be carried out with fixed open thermostat(s).
observe the time taken for engine to start and achieve rated
speed, commenting accordingly in the appraisal report. Coolant system should be drained, flushed and re-filled with
water only, the total capacity of the system being checked
De-aeration tests If the cooling system fills correctly, and recorded.
and there are no problems with the hot shut downs, then
Install manometers to record air cleaner restriction and
there should generally not be any aeration problems.
exhaust back pressure.
In the event of any aeration problems, however, de-aeration
Install tachometer to observe engine rev/min.
tests should normally be carried out in conjunction with the
hot shut down tests. A short test run should be carried out to establish that all
points to which temperature probes are fitted are function-
To evaluate the level of aeration in the system, reinforced
ing correctly. This test will also check that the driver or oper-
glass tubes (e.g. Pyrex) should be fitted between the
ator is capable of achieving a satisfactory work rate which
engine water outlet connection and the inlet to the radiator.
will produce typical engine speeds and loadings during the
If accessible, a better indication of radiator de-aeration func-
operating cycle.
tion is obtained with tubes fitted to radiator bottom hose.
The test should be carried out under dry weather conditions,
Ideally there should not be any entrapped air visible through with wind speed not in excess of 24 km/h. (15 m/h) and
the reinforced glass tubes at any stage of the test, and cer- preferably in ambient temperatures above 4C (40F).
tainly none by the end of the hot shut downs, or of a simi-
lar cycle which simulates the most severe operating Water circulation to cab heater should be turned off.
conditions likely to be experienced by the engine.
Prior to the cooling test the exhaust back pressure must be
Engine Oil Coolers determined for both naturally aspirated and turbocharged
engines operating at the rated speed under full load condi-
If the engine oil coolers fitted by the O.E.M. are not a basic tions (see SECTION 9, EXHAUST SYSTEM).
Caterpillar fitment, the total oil pressure drop through the oil
cooler and interconnecting pipework and fittings must be The air filter restriction must be determined with the engine
measured. operating at the rated speed (see SECTION 8, INDUCTION
SYSTEM).
Integral oil coolers, where fitted to Caterpillar engines, are
adequate for tropical conditions provided that the radiator is Engine oil and water temperatures are generally recorded at
capable of keeping the coolant temperature within the spec- 10 minute intervals, but visual checks should be made as fre-
ified limits. quently as practicable and the peak temperatures recorded.
For other engine types, the necessity of an oil cooler must In respect of maximum speed and overspeed tests with the
be defined based on the appraisal cooling test results and vehicle applications, the engine peak rev/min should be con-
operating areas. tinuously observed and peaks recorded with duration factor
relative to such peaks in engine speed.
Cooling Test Preparation
Prior to preparing the application for cooling tests, it is of Engine Water Outlet Temperature
the utmost importance to ensure that the general installa- A maximum permissible water outlet temperature is speci-
tion is satisfactory, and if any corrective action is to be made fied in respect of all Caterpillar engines. This varies with pres-
following the appraisal which may in particular affect the sure cap or valve setting.
cooling, these alterations should be carried out at this stage.
From the figures quoted below it can be seen that, with the
Availability of accurate and reliable instrumentation is of the exception of the V8.640/TV8.640 engines (see note), the
utmost importance, as also are the additional equipment and maximum allowable temperatures are 8C (15F) lower than
facilities recommended to carry out the cooling tests. the true boiling point of water at sea level.
186
Maximum allowable water outlet temperature
Sea 1500 m 2500 m 3500 m
Pressure cap setting Level (4920 ft) 8200 ft) 11,480 ft)
Non-pressurized system 92C 87C 83C 79C
(198F) (189F) (180F) (174F)
27.6 kN/m2 99C 95C 92C 89C
(4 lbf/in2) (210F) (203F) (198F) (192F)
48.3 kN/m2 103C 100C 97C 94C
(7 lbf/in2) (217F) (212F) (206F) (201F)
Note: For V8.640/TV8.640 engines, all the above temperatures must be reduced by 8C (15F).
Although pressure caps or valves up to 103 kN/m2 (15 lbf/in2) Engine lubricating oil specifications
(1 bar) are acceptable for Caterpillar engines, cooling per- See SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA, for recommendations.
formance is based on a pressure of 48.3 kN/m2 (7 lbf/in2)
(0,5 bar) (see COOLING SECTION, 7.2.2).
Analysis of Cooling Test Results
From the stabilized cooling test results obtained during the
Lubricating Oil Temperature tests, the maximum allowable operating temperature (i.e.
The maximum allowable engine oil temperature varies in Ambient Clearance Temperature) can be determined. This
respect of certain engines and the type of application. is illustrated below, using typical results of tests on a typi-
cal vehicle operating at sea level. The engine is fitted with
an oil cooler and the radiator fitted with an 48.3 kN/m 2
Automotive applications
(7 lbf/in2) 0.5 bar pressure cap.
The normal maximum permissible lubricating oil temperature,
measured at the oil filter head or pressure rail, is 121C (250F) (a) Maximum Torque conditions
for most automotive engines. If however, the engine never
operates at its maximum speed for more than one hour at Stabilized temperature
a time, for example in a goods or passenger carrying vehi- Rise over
measured at: ambient (1)
cle, operating in a territory which does not have motorways
or similar high speed, limited access road, then the maxi- Item C (F) C (F)
mum oil temperature may be extended to 132C (270F). Ambient shade 15 (060)
Water IN 64 (148)
Intregal oil coolers, where fitted as original equipment, are Water OUT 68 (154) 53 (094)
adequate for tropical conditions, provided that the radiator is
capable of keeping the coolant temperature within the spec- Lubricating oil 78 (172) 63 (112)
ified limits.
(b) Maximum Speed conditions
For other engine types, the installation should be designed
so as to allow air to flow freely over the engine lubricating Stabilized temperature Rise over
sump and filters. If a cooling test shows an oil cooler to be measured at: ambient (1)
necessary, Caterpillar Application Engineering Department Item C (F) C (F)
should be contacted to ensure a satisfactory installation.
Ambient shade 14 (058)
Water IN 53 (127)
Agricultural and earth moving equipment
Water OUT 60 (140) 46 (082)
The maximum allowable oil temperature is 121C (250F). Lubricating oil 82 (180) 68 (122)
Industrial equipment (1) Rise over ambient = Water or oil temperature minus
ambient temperature
For forklift trucks and similar light duty applications classi-
fied as Intermittent (but not including rough terrain fork- In this example the following maximum allowable temper-
lift trucks), the maximum oil temperature is 132C (270F), atures apply.
subject to the use of oils to Caterpillar recommendations.
Maximum allowable engine water outlet temperature
Other industrial applications such as air compressors, gen- at sea level is 103C (217F).
erating sets, welding sets, and similar equipment which are
classed as Continuously-rated applications are limited to Maximum allowable engine oil temperature for auto-
121C (250F). motive applications is 121C (250F).
187
As the Ambient Clearance Temperature = Maximum Acceptance of this increased water temperature must how-
Allowable Temperature minus Rise Over Ambient, the Rise ever be subject to the following guidelines:
Over Ambient and Ambient Clearance Temperatures from
the example can be summarized as follows: it applies only where the test procedure used simulates
extreme use not representative of normal operation by
(a) Maximum Torque conditions the majority of the application population.
Under the exceptional intermittent test conditions above, This test should preferably be carried out on a circular track,
the maximum water temperature may be allowed to over a distance of approximately 1.5 km (1 mile), the maxi-
increase to a level more appropriate to the particular cool- mum temperatures being recorded during each lap. The
ing system taking into account the pressure cap setting. For tests should be conducted under dry weather conditions
example, it is recommended that, with a pressure cap set- with wind speed not exceeding 24 km/h (15 mph).
ting of 103 kN/m2 (15 lbf/in2) (1 bar), giving a boiling point of
121C, a maximum water temperature of 113C, be per- In the absence of a circular track the test may be carried out
mitted. The difference between these two temperatures on a level unrestricted highway over a distance of approxi-
represents the normal Caterpillar allowance for system tol- mately 35 km in both directions until stabilized tempera-
erances and deterioration. tures are obtained.
188
In the absence of a towing dynamometer a suitable vehicle Temperature requirements
can be used to provide the required towing load. Air temperature after the charge cooler (measuring point 4)
should not exceed the following values:
Maximum Speed Test
Maximum allowable
Following the maximum torque tests, tests under maximum temperature after
speed conditions should be carried out. Ambient temperature charge cooler
C F C F
The vehicle should be loaded to its maximum rated capac- 20 68 52 125
ity and the test conducted with the vehicle operating in the
highest gear at maximum road and engine speed. 29 85 58 136
50 132 72 162
It is desirable to conduct this test on a high speed circular Intermediate temperatures pro rata.
track approximately 5 km (3 miles) in length. The maximum
temperatures should be recorded during each lap until sta- Note: The permissible air inlet temperature is raised at
bilized engine out temperature are obtained. higher ambient temperatures because of the corresponding
reduction in power output.
Normally the water temperature under this test condition is
lower than is obtained under maximum torque, but the oil Instrumentation
temperature will generally be higher. 1. Boost pressure before charge cooler, approx. 300 mm
(12 in) from the turbocharger.
In the event of a high speed test track not being available,
2. Boost pressure after charge cooler.
the test should be carried out under high speed motorway
type conditions over a test distance of 24-32 km (15-20 miles).
3. Air temperature, before cooler approx. 300 mm (12 in)
Under these test conditions it may however be difficult to
from charge cooler.
maintain stabilized conditions due to traffic and gradients,
and the maximum recorded temperatures in both directions 4. Air temperature, after charge cooler approx. 300 mm
should therefore be used in determining ambient operating (12 in) from charge cooler.
clearance.
5. Air temperature, external air six proves evenly distrib-
uted approx. 300 mm (12 in) in front of charge cooler.
Maximum Power Test
6. Air inlet to engine, within 75150 mm (36 in) of air
At the discretion of the appraisal engineer or O.E.M., the
cleaner.
following test (as also specified in COOLING TESTS
APPLICABLE TO AIR-TO-AIR CHARGE-COOLED VEHICLE 7. Air restriction, between air cleaner and turbocharger.
ENGINES for charge-cooled vehicle engines) should be car-
ried out when the vehicle is intended to be operated in hilly 8. Exhaust temperature before turbocharger.
terrain, especially with long gradients.
Pressure drop across air charge cooler
If suitable hills are not available, the towing dynamometer
For information on allowable pressure drop between air
procedure specified in MAXIMUM TORQUE TEST should
charge cooler inlet and outlet, reference should be made to
be used with load adjusted so that, in 1st or 2nd gear and
SECTION 16, TECHNICAL DATA.
a road speed of 13 km/h (8 mph) max with engine at full
throttle, the engine achieves full power at rated speed. The
test is to be continued until stabilized temperatures Boost pressure
are obtained. The boost pressure is to be recorded under the test condi-
tions specified in COOLING TESTS APPLICABLE TO AIR-
TO-AIR CHARGE-COOLED VEHICLE ENGINES, a mercury
Cooling Tests Applicable to Air-to-Air manometer being connected at measuring point 2.
Charge-Cooled Vehicle Engines
In addition to the test specified in ENGINE OVERSPEED COOLING TEST AGRICULTURAL
TESTING (VEHICLE) and MAXIMUM TORQUE TEST, tests EQUIPMENT
must be carried out on air-to-air charge-cooled vehicle appli- General
cations with the engine developing maximum power at rated
The application must be prepared for test and instrumented
speed, while the vehicle is traveling at a low road speed
as detailed in INSTRUMENTATION and RECORDING POINTS.
i.e., eliminating any ram air effect.
For accurate and consistent results, cooling tests should
Temperature and pressure measurements should be at the preferably be carried out on a dynamometer, where facili-
positions indicated on the diagram. ties permit. When this is not possible, cooling tests can be
189
VEHICLE RADIATOR
AIR
CLEANER
TURBINE
DRIVEN COMPRESSOR
COOLED AIR
conducted from field trials, but it is essential that machines It should be ensured that the required ambient clearance is
are subjected to the most arduous conditions which can be achieved throughout the speed range from maximum torque
achieved. lt is therefore most important that the operator should to maximum rated speed.
be fully experienced with the machine type concerned.
Combine harvesters
In addition to cooling tests results, exhaust back pressure and With the majority of combine harvesters, the engine can be
air filter restriction should also be measured and recorded. connected to a dynamometer by removing the engine rear
end drive housing and connecting a shaft directly from fly-
wheel to dynamometer.
Dynamometer Tests Prior to commencing cooling tests, it is essential that checks
be carried out to ensure the correct rated speed and gover-
Agricultural tractors
nor run-out conditions are achieved. Cooling performance
Load is applied by connecting the tractor P.T.O. shaft to the should then be recorded at maximum throttle setting with
dynamometer. Performance and cooling characteristics the load adjusted to give rated speed, and also at 75% of
should be determined under full load conditions across the rated load on the governor curve. For combines with con-
speed range, with special attention to maximum torque and ventional mechanical transmissions the ambient clearance
rated speed conditions. parameters should be based on:
coolant full load, rated speed condition
In the event of the tractor manufacturer specifying a stan-
lubricating oil at 75% load on governor curve.
dard P.T.O. speed at an alternative engine speed perform-
ance and cooling should be recorded under the For combines with hydrostatic transmissions, or models
recommended P.T.O. condition. equipped with special attachments (e.g. high power
190
requirement straw choppers etc.) the ambient clearance for Dynamometer Tests
both coolant and lubricating oil must be determined under It is not possible to give specific recommendations regard-
full load rated speed conditions. ing the method of connecting machines to a dynamometer,
due to the wide variation of machine types, transmissions,
NOTE: On applications having hydraulic or transmission oil etc. The following notes are however included for general
coolers positioned in the air stream into the radiator, the guidance, and further information if required can be obtained
necessary allowance for heat input must be included in from Caterpillar Application Engineering Department.
the results.
Crawler loaders/dozers: Where machines are fitted with
P.T.O. shafts (e.g. winch drives etc), these can be utilized
Other specialized equipment
providing it is ensured that the drive is capable of transmit-
This covers equipment such as viners, beet harvesters, for- ting full engine power, and also that, with torque converter
agers, etc. With the dynamometer connected at the most transmissions, the P.T.O. is driven from the torque converter
convenient position to absorb full engine power, tests should output shaft. If no P.T.O. shaft is incorporated, the
be carried out over the full operating range. dynamometer can be connected (via a step-up gearbox) to
any convenient transmission drive shaft, on to the track
The ambient clearance parameters should be based on the final drive shaft.
worst cooling condition recorded within the normal operat-
ing range of the machine. Wheel loaders: In the majority of cases P.T.O. shafts are
available, although in some cases, it is necessary to remove
the rear transmission housing and connect the dynamome-
Field Tests ter to the gearbox output shaft.
A convenient method of determining the highest load con- Excavators: Where necessary the rear drive housing must
dition on the engine is to incorporate an exhaust tempera- be removed and the dynamometer connected direct to the
ture prove. The machine is then subjected to a variety of engine flywheel.
duties to determine the highest load that can be maintained
to achieve stabilized temperatures. When conducting these On hydraulic drive machines, however, stationary tests can
trials it is necessary to record the exhaust temperature at be completed without using a dynamometer by utilizing the
full load rated speed as a datum condition. machine hydraulic pumps to load the engine. This can be
achieved by incorporating adjustable valves in the hydraulic
For agricultural tractors, it is necessary to ensure that exces- oil circuit, but it is necessary to fit an independently hydraulic
sive wheel slip does not occur. In some cases this problem cooled hydraulic oil cooler to dissipate the increased heat
can be avoided by using P.T.O. driven implements (e.g. input to the hydraulic circuit.
Rotavators etc.).
The loading on the engine can be determined from pressure
For all applications it is essential that the tests are conducted and flow characteristics, adjustments of flow via the valves
at maximum throttle, and that an adequate test area is avail- enabling the required percentage loading to be achieved
able to enable continuous operation to achieve stabilized as specified below under the heading Ambient clear-
temperatures. ance parameters.
The clearance ambient must be determined from the high- Cooling test procedure
est coolant and oil temperatures recorded during the test Prior to commencing cooling tests it is necessary to ensure
period. that the maximum no-load engine speed is at the specified
setting. Correct governor control and maximum no-load
speed is essential for machines incorporating torque con-
COOLING TEST EARTH MOVING verter transmissions, especially where the torque converter
EQUIPMENT speed ratio range is matched to the engine governor curve.
General (NOTE: Torque converter output speed
=
The application must be prepared for test and instrumented speed ratio input speed
as detailed in INSTRUMENTATION and RECORDING POINTS.
All cooling tests with torque converter transmissions should
be carried out with the engine under full throttle conditions,
For accurate and consistent results cooling tests should prefer-
the dynamometer loading being adjusted to enable cooling
ably be carried out on a dynamometer, where facilities permit.
performance to be determined along the torque converter
When this is not possible, cooling tests can be conducted
speed ratio curve down to the ratios specified below.
from field trials, but it is essential that machines are subjected
to the most arduous conditions which can be achieved. It is For machines fitted with hydraulic or mechanical drive trans-
therefore most important that the operator should be fully missions the ambient clearance parameters should be deter-
experienced with the machine type concerned. mined at the percentage loads at rated speed specified below.
In addition to cooling test results, exhaust back pressure and NOTE: Where machines are fitted with hydraulic or trans-
air filter restriction should also be measured and recorded. mission coolers, a field test should be completed prior to
191
dynamometer testing in order to determine the oil temper- For guidance the following cycles have been found most
ature rise over ambient which must be simulated during the effective:
cooing tests.
Crawler loaders: The most practical and severe test cycle is
Ambient clearance parameters for dynamometer tests to operate the machine by digging an underground ramp as
illustrated. This allows the machine to operate for limited
For machines fitted with torque converter transmissions the
periods in still air, and has proved more repeatable than sur-
ambient clearance temperature must be based on results
face testing.
obtained over the torque converter speed ratio curve down
to a speed ratio appropriate to the machine type, as follows:
Wheel loaders: The most practical test involves a dig and
Crawler loaders and dozers 0.3 speed ratio dump cycle, and it is generally found that the period between
dig and dump should be kept to a minimum.
Wheel loaders 0.35 speed ratio
Excavators: It is evident that the most effective test is to
Industrial tractors, tractor/ excavate a trench. It is however necessary to select a site with
digger/loaders, etc. 0.4 speed ratio rock or heavy clay subsoil in order to submit the machine to
a maximum break-out loadings and to restrict slewing
For machines with hydraulic and mechanical drive trans- time to a minimum.
missions, the ambient clearance temperature should be
based on the following load factors: Further guidance in respect of other application types can
be obtained on request from Caterpillar Application Engineer-
Excavators 80% load
}
ing Department.
192
COOLING TEST INDUSTRIAL LIFTING Test Procedure
EQUIPMENT The application must be prepared for tests and instrumented
General as detailed in paragraphs INSTRUMENTATION, and
RECORDING POINTS.
This covers the following range of applications:
This induction and exhaust back pressure must be checked
a) Forklift trucks and recorded with the engine developing its maximum
b) Side loaders power at the rated speed.
c) Straddle carriers Forklift trucks
With these applications several variants in capacity are nor- The machine should be loaded to 75% of its rated capacity,
mally offered, resulting in major alterations to the basic and the length of test track defined and marked.
machine which can cause drastic effects on the efficiency
The machine with the forks in the lowered position is driven
of the coolant system. The same applies also to the fitment
at full engine throttle opening in a forward direction to the
of optional transmissions, especially where provision is to
end of the test track where a three point turn is executed to
be made to cool the transmission oil.
face the machine in the opposite direction. The load is then
The standard cooling test for the above range of applications lifted to 75% of full lift at the maximum lifting speed and
is by operating the machine on a duty cycle in which the then lowered. (75% lift is stipulated from a safety aspect).
maximum acceleration is achieved with the shortest dis- The machine is then driven under full throttle opening back
tance, attaining maximum engine speed and retardation. to the starting point where another three-point turning is car-
ried out following by a lift and lower cycle. This cycle is
Coolant clearance tests should be carried out with a machine
repeated until stabilized water and engine oil temperatures
of the range representative of the most demanding in respect
are obtained and maintained for at least 15 minutes.
of the coolant system. It is also essential to ensure that the
operator is proficient and fully conversant with the operation When the application is fitted with a Torque Converter
of the machine, and be fully capable of operating the machine Transmission the transmission oil temperature must also
to its maximum capacity, thereby ensuring that the test cycle stabilize. If the converter can be used as an additional brak-
is representative of the most demanding conditions. ing power this must be used in addition to the standard brak-
ing system in bringing the machine to a stop at each end of
In order to load the machine adequately, but also bearing in
the test track, thus indicating maximum heat rejection from
mind safety in testing, it is recommended that the machine
the transmission.
be loaded to 75% of its rated capacity and that the test load
is properly secured. Experience confirms that the speed of Side loaders and straddle carriers
operation is more critical than the actual load carried and,
The test procedure is basically the same as for forklift trucks,
due to accidents experienced in combining speed of opera-
i.e., the load is lifted and lowered at each end of the test
tion with full load, the 75% load factor is recommended.
track, but the direction of travel is simply reversed without
Test track executing a three-point turn.
Due to the variation in the design of these machines and COOLING TEST CRANES
capacities it is not possible to stipulate the actual length of
the test track, the criteria being to meet the duty cycle General
referred to above. For general guidance however, the fol- Mobile self-propelled cranes
lowing table gives an indication of typical track length require-
ments for stimulation of typical operation of various capacities Normally the engine power requirements for the lifting
of machine. and slewing cycles are low in respect of self-propelled
mobile vehicles.
Machine type and Typical test The maximum engine power requirement is generally uti-
rated capacity track length lized driving the crane.
(Kilograms) (Meters)
The cooling test should therefore be carried out with the
Forklift trucks: machine operating under the most severe load cycle.
1000-2500 15
2500-4500 25 Truck mounted cranes
5500-7000 40 With these applications the engine is generally used to
7000-30000 50 power the operation of the crane in lifting and slewing.
Rough terrain trucks:
The cooling test should therefore be carried out with the
2000-3500 35
machine operating under the most demanding power
Side loaders and requirement until stabilized temperatures are attained.
straddle carriers:
1400-2000 30 Test Procedure
2000-2500 60 The application must be prepared for tests and instrumented
2500-5000 80 as detailed in paragraphs INSTRUMENTATION, and
5000 upwards 95 RECORDING POINTS. The induction restriction and exhaust
193
back pressure must be checked and recorded with the
engine developing its maximum power at the rated speed.
194
Engine Installation
Appraisal Report
Application : ___________________________
Date : ___________________________
Reference : ___________________________
Completed By : ___________________________
195
LEGAL STATUS
The following information is recorded as applicable at the date of visit and installation approval is
only to be used as an opinion on the suitability of the engine for the application.
The manufacturer and customer are reminded that it is their responsibility to ensure compliance with
the requirements of the Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 and any other applicable legislation, both
nationally and internationally, in relation to the engine installation applicable to the equipment concerned.
In giving notice of approval in respect of the installation, the Power Center or Distributor does not
assume such responsibilities on behalf of the manufacturer or customer and while engine installation
approval and advice is an opinion given in good faith, no liability can be accepted for any error therein
and the manufacturer and customer must act and insure accordingly.
196
APPLICATION APPRAISAL SUMMARY
Customer _______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Address ________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Engine Type ___________________________________________ * Engine No. ___________________________________________
Operational Limits:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
197
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
198
Fuel System Section 6.
Belt Drives from Front End Section 10. Axial Drives from Front End Section 11.
199
Gear Driven Auxiliaries Timing Case Section 12. Back End Drive Arrangements Section 13.
200
INSTALLATION APPRAISAL DATA SHEET
Customer: Date:
Contacts:
1.1 Application:
Model:
1.2 Duties:
1.3 Territory:
Altitude Range:
1.7 Ratings:
Project No.:
201
APPLICATION DESCRIPTION/SKETCH ETC.
2.1 Dimensions
Overall length:
Wheel base:
Overall height:
2.2 Weights
Type of drive:
Gear ratios:
3.1 Front:
3.2 Rear:
Vibration Level
202
ENGINE MOUNTINGS REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 6.
A1 D1 G
A2 D2 H
B E J
C F
203
INDUCTION SYSTEM REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 8.
4.12 Comments:
204
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 12.
Battery starter:
Battery earth:
Starter earth:
Unaided:
Aided:
5.16 Comments:
205
FUEL SYSTEM REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 10.
Position: Visibility:
6.12 Comments:
7.9 Comments:
206
EXHAUST SYSTEM REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 9.
8.2 Silencer
Type: Size:
Location: Supports:
8.9 Comments:
9.11 Comments:
207
BELT DRIVE FROM FRONT OF ENGINE REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 5.
Crankshaft/Water Pump/Alternator:
Type of belt:
From: To:
Pulley centers:
Type of belt:
From: To:
Pulley centers:
10.6 Comments:
11.5 Comments:
208
GEAR DRIVEN AUXILIARIES TIMING CASE REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 5.
12.1 12.2
A B
Type of drive
Position
Mounting
Unit
Make
Type
Usage
Ratio to engine speed
Pressure setting
Volume flow
Power requirement
Is scheme approved by Caterpillar?
12.3 12.4
C D
Type of drive
Position
Mounting
Unit
Make
Type
Usage
Ratio to engine speed
Pressure setting
Volume flow
Power requirement
Is scheme approved by Caterpillar?
12.5 Comments:
209
BACK END/DRIVE ARRANGEMENT REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 4.
Weight:
Position of C.G.:
13.12 Usage:
13.13 Comments:
210
COOLING SYSTEM REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 7. (If SOS quote Code Reference only)
A D G K
B E H L
C F J M
Number of blades:
Type: Construction:
14.5 Indicate on sketch position and diameter of top and bottom connections and filler
14.6 Position of air cooled/water cooled oil coolers. Indicate size, type etc.
(Not applicable if oil cooler is supplied fitted to engine.)
211
COOLING SYSTEM (Continued)
14.8 Type of coolant system posivent, remote header tank etc. Provide sketch:
14.12 Comments:
15.3 Aeration:
Draw down:
15.6 Comments:
212
APPLICATION COOLING TESTS REFER TO C.I.M. SECTION 15.
16.8 Comments:
17.7 Exhaust:
17.9 Ambient:
17.11 Comments:
213
COOLANT CLEARANCE
Maximum temperature:
SERVICEABILITY
19.1 Dipstick:
19.7 Battery:
19.14 Tappets:
19.15 Injectors:
214
Major Assemblies
19.23 Engine:
19.24 Comments:
APPROVAL
20.2 Does the application meet the required Caterpillar Engines standard?
215
COOLING TEST Date: _____________________________
Comments: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
216
LEBH0149
LEBH0149
INSTALLATION GUIDE
Materials and specifications are
LEBH0149 subject to change without notice. PRINTED IN U.S.A.