Control Systems , Lecture04

brahim Beklan Kkdemiral

Yldz Teknik niversitesi

2015

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Transfer Functions

 The output response of a system is the sum of two responses: the

forced response and the natural response.
 Many techniques, such as solving a differential equation or taking
the inverse Laplace transform, enable us to evaluate this output
response but these techniques are laborious and time-consuming.
 The concept of poles and zeros, fundamental to the analysis and
design of control systems, simplifies the evaluation of a systems
response.

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Poles and Zeros

Poles
The poles of a transfer function are
 the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the
transfer function to become infinite
 any roots of the denominator of the transfer function

Zeros
The zeros of a transfer function are
 the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the
transfer function to become zero
 any roots of the numerator of the transfer function

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Example

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Conclusions

 A pole of the input function generates the form of the forced

response (that is, the pole at the origin generated a step function
at the output).
 A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the natural
response (that is, the pole at 5 generated e 5t ).
 A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response of the
form e t , where is the pole location on the real axis. Thus,
the farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis, the faster
the exponential transient response will decay to zero.

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Example
Given the system of Figure, write the output, c(t), in general terms.

By inspection, each system pole generates an exponen- tial as part of

the natural response. The inputs pole generates the forced response.
Thus,
K1 K2 K3 K4
C (s) = + + +
s s +2 s +4 s +5
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get

c(t) = [K1 + K2 e 2t + K3 e 4t + K4 e 5t ]1(t)

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First Order Systems
A first-order system without zeros can be described by the transfer
function

If the input is a unit step, where R(s) = 1/s, the Laplace transform of
the step response is
a
C (s) = R(s)G (s) =
s(s + a)
c(t) = [1 e at ]1(t)
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First Order Systems: Significance of a
When t = 1/a
c(1/a) = 0.63

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Rise Time, Tr
Rise time is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9
of its final value.
2.2
Tr =
a

Settling Time, Ts
Settling time is defined as the time for the response to reach, and stay
within, 2% of its final value
4
Ts = 4 Time Constant =
a

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2nd order Systems

 Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order

system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed
and described.
 Lets consider a typical 2nd order system
b
G (s) =
s 2 + as + b
By assigning appropriate values to parameters a and b, we can
show all possible second-order transient responses. The unit step
response then can be found using C (s) = R(s)G (s), where
R(s) = 1/s, followed by a partial-fraction expansion and the inverse
Laplace transform.

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Different responses of a 2nd order System

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Different responses of a 2nd order System

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2nd order Systems
Overdamped responses
 Poles: Two real at 1 and 2
 Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants equal to
the reciprocal of the pole locations, or c(t) = K1 e 1 t + K2 e 2 t

Underdamped responses
 Poles: are complex and at d jd
 Natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential envelope
whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the poles real
part. The radian frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency
of oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of the poles, or
c(t) = Ae d t cos(d t )
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2nd order Systems
Critically damped responses
 Poles: Two real poles at 1
 Natural response: One term is an exponential whose time
constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole location. Another
term is the product of time, t, and an exponential with time
constant equal to the reciprocal of the pole location, or
c(t) = K1 e 1 t + K2 te 2 t

Undamped responses
 Poles: Two imaginary at j1
 Natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian frequency
equal to the imaginary part of the poles, or c(t) = A cos(1 t )
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4 different responses

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Exercise

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General 2nd Order System

Natural Frequency, n
The natural frequency of a second-order system is the frequency of
oscillation of the system without damping. For example, the frequency
of oscillation of a series RLC circuit with the resistance shorted would
be the natural frequency.

Damping Ratio

Exponential decay frequency 1 Natural Period (seconds)

= =
Natural frequenc y(rad/sec) 2 Exponential Time Constant

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Consider a 2nd order system
b
G (s) =
s2 + as + b
Without damping, poles be on the j axis, and the response would be
an undamped sinusoid. For the poles to be purely imaginary, a = 0:
b
G (s) =
s2 +b
By definition, the natural frequency, n , is the frequency of oscillation
of this system.
n = b
Hence b = n2

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Now what is the term a?
Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles have a real
part, , equal to a/2. The magnitude of this value is then the
exponential decay frequency

Exponential decay frequency || a/2

= = =
Natural frequenc y(rad/sec) n n

= a = 2n
Our general second-order transfer function finally looks like this:

n2
G (s) =
s 2 + 2n s + n2

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Example

Given the transfer function

36
G (s) =
s2 + 4.2s + 36
Find and n
Solution

n = 6, 2n = 4.2 = = 0.35

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2nd Order System Pole Locations

 Now that we have defined z and vn, let us relate these quantities to
the pole location. Solving for the poles of the transfer function

n2
G (s) =
s 2 + 2n s + n2

yields p
s1,2 = n n 1 2

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Pole Locations vs

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Example

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Underdamped Second-Order Systems

 Now that we have generalized the second-order transfer function in

terms of and n , let us analyze the step response of an
underdamped second-order system
 Not only will this response be found in terms of z and vn, but more
specifications indigenous to the underdamped case will be defined.
 A detailed description of the underdamped response is necessary for
both analysis and design

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Underdamped Second-Order Systems...
Let us begin by finding the step response for the general second-order
system. Assume < 1 and
n2 K1 K2 s + K3
C (s) = G (s)R(s) = = + 2
s(s 2 + 2n s + n2 ) s s + 2n s + n2

(s + n ) + 2 n 1 2
p
1 1
C (s) =
s (s + n ) + n2 (1 2 )
2

Taking the Inverse Laplace Transform yields

!
p p
c(t) = 1 e n t cos(n 1 2 t) + p sin(n 1 2 t)
1 2
1 p p
=1 p e n t cos(n 1 2 t ), = tan1 (/ 1 2 )
1 2
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c(n t) for different values of

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Performance Specifications for a 2nd Order System
Rise Time, Tr
The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final value
to 0.9 of the final value.

Peak Time, Tp
The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.

Percent overshoot, %OS

The amount that the waveform overshoots the steady- state, or final,
value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state
value.

Settling Time, Ts
The time required for the transients damped oscillations to reach and
stay within 2% of the steady-state value.
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Performance Specifications for a 2nd Order System

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Evaluation of Tp
Tp is found by differentiating c(t) iand finding the first zero crossing
after t = 0.
n2
L{c(t)} = sC (s) =
s 2 + 2n s + n2
p
n n 1 2
n2 1 2
= =
(s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 ) (s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 )

Therefore
n p
c(t) = p e n t sin(n 1 2 t)
1 2
p
c(t) = 0 = n 1 2 t = n n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Tp = p
n 1 2
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Evaluation of %OS
Percent Overshoot is defined as
cmax cfinal
%OS = 100
cfinal

The term cmax is found by evaluating c(t) at the peak time, c(Tp ).

!
(/ 1 2 )
cmax = c(Tp ) = 1 e cos + p sin )
1 2

2
cmax = 1 + e (/ 1 )
Since cfinal = 1, we have

1 2 )
%OS = e (/ 100
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Evaluation of %OS
For a given %OS, the required can be calculated by
ln(%OS/100)
=q
2 + ln2 (%OS/100)

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Evaluation of Ts
 In order to find the settling time, we must find the time for which
c(t) reaches and stays within 2% of the steady-state value, cfinal .
 Using our definition, the settling time is the time it takes for the
amplitude of the decaying sinusoid to reach 0.02, or
1
e n t p = 0.02
1 2
p
ln(0.02 1 2 )
Ts =
n
 You can verify that the numerator varies from 3.91 to 4.74 as
varies from 0 to 0.9. Hence, a good approximation is
4
Ts
n
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Evaluation of Tr
A precise analytical relationship between rise time and damping ratio,
, cannot be found.

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Evaluation of Tr

But for 0.3 0.8, a good approximation is

2.16 + 0.6
Tr
n

 For a fixed , response is faster for a larger n and

 For a fixed n , response is faster for a smaller

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How the response changes by the locations of poles?

Tp = =
d
n 1 2

4
Ts = n

cos =

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How the response changes by the locations of poles?

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How the response changes by the locations of poles?

 Tp is inversely proportional to the imaginary part of the pole. Since

horizontal lines on the s-plane are lines of constant imaginary value,
they are also lines of constant peak time.
 Settling time is inversely proportional to the real part of the pole.
Since vertical lines on the s-plane are lines of constant real value,
they are also lines of constant settling time.
 Finally, since = cos , radial lines are lines of constant . Since
percent overshoot is only a function of , radial lines are thus lines
of constant percent overshoot, %OS

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How Pole Locations Affect Peak Time?

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How Pole Locations Affect Overshoot?

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How Pole Locations Affect Overshoot?

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EX: Given the pole locations, calculate , n , Tp ,
%OS, and Ts

 = cos = cos[arctan(7/3)] =
0.394

 n = 72 + 32 = 7.616

 Tp = d = 0.449sec.
= 7

2
 %OS = e (/ 1 ) 100 =
26%
4 4
 Ts = d = 3 = 1.333sec.

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Exercise
Given the system shown in figure, find J and D to yield 20%
overshoot and a settling time of 2 seconds for a unit step input T (t).

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System Response with Additional Poles

 Now that we have analyzed systems with two poles, how does the
addition of another pole affect the response?
 The formulas describing percent overshoot, settling time, and peak
time were derived only for a system with two complex poles and no
zeros.
 If a system has more than two poles or has zeros, we cannot use
the formulas to calculate the performance specifications that we
derived.
 Under certain conditions, a system with more than two poles or
with zeros can be approximated as a second-order system that has
just two complex dominant poles.

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Consider a system having 3 poles:
 Consider a three-pole system with complex poles and a third pole
on the real axis.
 Assume the poles are at
p
p1,2 = n jn 1 2 , p3 = r

 the step response of the system can be determined from a

partial-fraction expansion.
A B(s + n ) + C d D
C (s) = + 2 2
+
s (s + n ) + d s + r
 In time-domain:
h i
c(t) = A + e n t (B cos d t + C sin d t) + De r t 1(t)
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System Responses for different locations of r

 We shall consider 3 different scenarios:

 For Case I, r = r1 and is not much larger than n ;
 For Case II, r = r2 and is much larger than n
 For Case III, r =

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System Responses for different locations of r ...

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 If r is not much greater than n (Case I), the real poles
transient response will not decay to insignificance at the peak time
or settling time generated by the second-order pair. In this case, the
exponential decay is significant, and the system cannot be
represented as a second-order system.

How much farther from the dominant poles does the third pole
have to be for its effect on the second-order response to be
negligible?
The exponential decay is negligible after five time constants. Thus, if
the real pole is five times farther to the left than the dominant poles,
we assume that the system is represented by its dominant
second-order pair of poles.

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Example
Consider the following 3 systems and lets evaluate the step responses
24.542
T1 (s) =
s 2 + 4s + 24.542
254.2
T2 (s) = 2
(s + 10)(s + 4s + 24.542)
73.626
T3 (s) =
(s + 3)(s 2 + 4s + 24.542)
Step responses are

c1 (t) = 1 1.09e 2t cos(4.532t 23.8 )

c2 (t) = 1 0.29e 10t 1.189e 2t cos(4.532t 53.34 )
c3 (t) = 1 1.14e 3t 0.707e 2t cos(4.532t + 78.63 )

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Example...

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System Response With Zeros
 Now that we have seen the effect of an additional pole, let us add a
zero to the second-order system
(s + a)
T (s) =
(s + b)(s + c)
 We add a real-axis zero to a two-pole system. The zero will be
added first in the left half-plane and then in the right half-plane and
its effects noted and analyzed.
 Starting with a two-pole system with poles at 1 j2.828, we
consecutively add zeros at 3, 5, and 10.
 We can see that the closer the zero is to the dominant poles, the
greater its effect on the transient response. As the zero moves away
from the dominant poles, the response approaches that of the
two-pole system.
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System Response With Zeros

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Some MATLAB Code

deng=[1 2 9];
Ta=tf([1 3]*9/3,deng);
Tb=tf([1 5]*9/5,deng);
Tc=tf([1 10]*9/10,deng);
T=tf(9,deng);
step(T,Ta,Tb,Tc)
text(0.5,0.6, no zero )
text(0.4, 0.7, zero at-10 )
text(0.35, 0.8, zero at -5 )
text(0.3,0.9, zero at -3 )

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If zero moves to RHP
we obtain a non-minimum-phase system

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