Report: Quantum

Computing
Course: Computer Architecture and
Organization
By:
Muhammad Shoaib (1112205)
Muhammad Muneeb ()
Asfand yar Ahmed (1112204)

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 Acknowledgement
We would like to express our profound gratitude and deep
regards to our guide Mr. Amar Khan for his exemplary
guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement
throughout the course.

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Table of Contents
Introduction
page#04

History
page#04

Basis:
page#04

Bits Vs. qubits

page#04

Potential
page#05

Quantum de-coherence
page#06

Developments
page#06

D-Wave System
page#09

Conclusion
page#10

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References
page#10

Introduction:
A quantum computer (also known as a quantum supercomputer) is
a computation device that makes direct use of quantum-mechanical phenomena,
such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum
computers are different from digital computers based on transistors. Whereas
digital computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits), quantum
computation uses quantum properties to represent data and perform operations on
these data.

History:
The field of quantum computing was first introduced by Yuri Manin in
1980 and Richard Feynman in 1982. A quantum computer with spins as quantum
bits was also formulated for use as a quantum space-time in 1969.

Basis:
A classical computer has a memory made up of bits, where each bit represents
either a one or a zero. A quantum computer maintains a sequence of qubits. A
single qubit can represent a one, a zero, or any quantum superposition of these
two qubit states; moreover, a pair of qubits can be in any quantum superposition of
4 states, and three qubits in any superposition of 8. In general, a quantum computer
with qubits can be in an arbitrary superposition of up to different states
simultaneously (this compares to a normal computer that can only be in one of
these states at any one time). A quantum computer operates by setting the
qubits in a controlled initial state that represents the problem at hand and by
manipulating those qubits with a fixed sequence of quantum logic gates. The

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sequence of gates to be applied is called a quantum algorithm. The calculation ends
with measurement of all the states, collapsing each qubit into one of the two pure
states, so the outcome can be at most classical bits of information.

An example of an implementation of qubits for a quantum computer could start with

the use of particles with two spin states: "down" and "up" (typically written
and , or and ).

Bits Vs. qbits:

A quantum computer with a given number of qubits is fundamentally different
from a classical computer composed of the same number of classical bits. For
example, to represent the state of an n-qubit system on a classical computer would
require the storage of 2n complex coefficients. Although this fact may seem to
indicate that qubits can hold exponentially more information than their classical
counterparts, care must be taken not to overlook the fact that the qubits are only in
a probabilistic superposition of all of their states. This means that when the final
state of the qubits is measured, they will only be found in one of the possible
configurations they were in before measurement. Moreover, it is incorrect to think of
the qubits as only being in one particular state before measurement since the fact
that they were in a superposition of states before the measurement was made
directly affects the possible outcomes of the computation.

For example: Consider first a classical computer that operates on a three-

bit register. The state of the computer at any time is a probability distribution over
the different three-bit strings000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111. If it is a
deterministic computer, then it is in exactly one of these states with probability 1.
However, if it is a probabilistic computer, then there is a possibility of it being in
any one of a number of different states.

Potential:
Integer factorization is believed to be computationally infeasible with an
ordinary computer for large integers if they are the product of few prime
numbers (e.g., products of two 300-digit primes). By comparison, a quantum
computer could efficiently solve this problem using Shor's algorithm to find its
factors. This ability would allow a quantum computer to decrypt many of
the cryptographic systems in use today, in the sense that there would be
a polynomial time (in the number of digits of the integer) algorithm for solving the

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problem. In particular, most of the popular public key ciphers are based on the
difficulty of factoring integers (or the related discrete logarithm problem, which can
also be solved by Shor's algorithm), including forms of RSA. These are used to
protect secure Web pages, encrypted email, and many other types of data. Breaking
these would have significant ramifications for electronic privacy and security.

However, other existing cryptographic algorithms do not appear to be broken by

these algorithms. Some public-key algorithms are based on problems other than the
integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems to which Shor's algorithm
applies, like the McEliece cryptosystem based on a problem in coding
theory. Lattice-based cryptosystems are also not known to be broken by quantum
computers, and finding a polynomial time algorithm for solving the dihedral hidden
subgroup problem, which would break many lattice based cryptosystems, is a well-
studied open problem. It has been proven that applying Grover's algorithm to break
a symmetric (secret key) algorithm by brute force requires time equal to roughly
2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly
2n in the classical case, meaning that symmetric key lengths are effectively halved:
AES-256 would have the same security against an attack using Grover's algorithm
that AES-128 has against classical brute-force search. Quantum cryptography could
potentially fulfill some of the functions of public key cryptography.

Besides factorization and discrete logarithms, quantum algorithms offering a more

than polynomial speedup over the best known classical algorithm have been found
for several problems, including the simulation of quantum physical processes from
chemistry and solid state physics, the approximation of Jones polynomials, and
solving Pell's equation. No mathematical proof has been found that shows that an
equally fast classical algorithm cannot be discovered, although this is considered
unlikely. For some problems, quantum computers offer a polynomial speedup. The
most well-known example of this is quantum database search, which can be solved
by Grover's algorithm using quadratically fewer queries to the database than are
required by classical algorithms. In this case the advantage is provable. Several
other examples of provable quantum speedups for query problems have
subsequently been discovered, such as for finding collisions in two-to-one functions
and evaluating NAND trees. Grover's algorithm can also be used to obtain a
quadratic speed-up over a brute-force search for a class of problems known as NP-
complete.

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 Quantum de-coherence:
One of the greatest challenges is controlling or removing quantum de-
coherence. This usually means isolating the system from its environment as
interactions with the external world cause the system to de-cohere. However, other
sources of de-coherence also exist. Examples include the quantum gates, and the
lattice vibrations and background nuclear spin of the physical system used to
implement the qubits. De-coherence is irreversible, as it is non-unitary, and is
usually something that should be highly controlled, if not avoided.

Developments:
There are a number of quantum computing models, distinguished by the basic
elements in which the computation is decomposed. The four main models of
practical importance are:

Quantum gate array (computation decomposed into sequence of few-

qubit quantum gates)

One-way quantum computer (computation decomposed into sequence of

one-qubit measurements applied to a highly entangled initial state or cluster state)

Adiabatic quantum computer or computer based on Quantum

annealing (computation decomposed into a slow continuous transformation of an
initial Hamiltonian into a final Hamiltonian, whose ground states contains the
solution)

Topological quantum computer (computation decomposed into the braiding

of anyons in a 2D lattice)

The Quantum Turing machine is theoretically important but direct implementation of

this model is not pursued. All four models of computation have been shown to be
equivalent to each other in the sense that each can simulate the other with no more
than polynomial overhead.

For physically implementing a quantum computer, many different candidates are

being pursued, among them (distinguished by the physical system used to realize
the qubits):

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 Superconductor-based quantum computers (including SQUID-based quantum
computers) (qubit implemented by the state of small superconducting circuits
(Josephson junctions))

Trapped ion quantum computer (qubit implemented by the internal state of

trapped ions)

Optical lattices (qubit implemented by internal states of neutral atoms

trapped in an optical lattice)

Electrically defined or self-assembled quantum dots (e.g. the Loss-DiVincenzo

quantum computer or) (qubit given by the spin states of an electron trapped in the
quantum dot)

Quantum dot charge based semiconductor quantum computer (qubit is the

position of an electron inside a double quantum dot)

Nuclear magnetic resonance on molecules in solution (liquid-state NMR)

(qubit provided by nuclear spins within the dissolved molecule)

Solid-state NMR Kane quantum computers (qubit realized by the nuclear spin
state of phosphorus donors in silicon)

Electrons-on-helium quantum computers (qubit is the electron spin)

Cavity quantum electrodynamics (CQED) (qubit provided by the internal state

of atoms trapped in and coupled to high-finesse cavities)

Molecular magnet

Fullerene-based ESR quantum computer (qubit based on the electronic spin of

atoms or molecules encased in fullerene structures)

Optics-based quantum computer (Quantum optics) (qubits realized by

appropriate states of different modes of the electromagnetic field, e.g.)

Diamond-based quantum computer (qubit realized by the electronic or

nuclear spin of Nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond)

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 BoseEinstein condensate-based quantum computer

Transistor-based quantum computer string quantum computers with

entrainment of positive holes using an electrostatic trap

Rare-earth-metal-ion-doped inorganic crystal based quantum

computers (qubit realized by the internal electronic state of dopantsin optical fibers)

The large number of candidates demonstrates that the topic, in spite of rapid
progress, is still in its infancy. But at the same time, there is also a vast amount of
flexibility.

In 2001, researchers were able to demonstrate Shor's algorithm to factor the

number 15 using a 7-qubit NMR computer.

In 2005, researchers at the University of Michigan built a semiconductor chip that

functioned as an ion trap. Such devices, produced by
standard lithography techniques, may point the way to scalable quantum computing
tools. An improved version was made in 2006. In 2009, researchers at Yale
University created the first rudimentary solid-state quantum processor. The two-
qubit superconducting chip was able to run elementary algorithms. Each of the two
artificial atoms (or qubits) were made up of a billion aluminum atoms but they acted
like a single one that could occupy two different energy states.

Another team, working at the University of Bristol, also created a silicon-based

quantum computing chip, based on quantum optics. The team was able to
run Shor's algorithm on the chip. Further developments were made in
2010. Springer publishes a journal ("Quantum Information Processing") devoted to
the subject.

In April 2011, a team of scientists from Australia and Japan made a breakthrough
in quantum teleportation. They successfully transferred a complex set of quantum
data with full transmission integrity achieved. Also the qubits being destroyed in
one place but instantaneously resurrected in another, without affecting their
superpositions.

In 2011, D-Wave Systems announced the first commercial quantum annealer on the
market by the name D-Wave One. The company claims this system uses a 128 qubit
processor chipset. On May 25, 2011 D-Wave announced that Lockheed
Martin Corporation entered into an agreement to purchase a D-Wave One

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system. Lockheed Martin and the University of Southern California (USC) reached an
agreement to house the D-Wave One Adiabatic Quantum Computer at the newly
formed USC Lockheed Martin Quantum Computing Center, part of USC's Information
Sciences Institute campus in Marina del Rey. D-Wave's engineers use an empirical
approach when designing their quantum chips, focusing on whether the chips are
able to solve particular problems rather than designing based on a thorough
understanding of the quantum principles involved. This approach was liked by
investors more than by some academic critics, who said that D-Wave had not yet
sufficiently demonstrated that they really had a quantum computer. Such criticism
softened once D-Wave published a paper in Naturegiving details, which critics said
proved that the company's chips did have some of the quantum mechanical
properties needed for quantum computing.

During the same year, researchers working at the University of Bristol created an
all-bulk optics system able to run an iterative version of Shor's algorithm. They
successfully managed to factorize 21.

In September 2011 researchers also proved that a quantum computer can be made
with a Von Neumann architecture (separation of RAM).

In November 2011 researchers factorized 143 using 4 qubits.

In February 2012 IBM scientists said that they had made several breakthroughs in
quantum computing with superconducting integrated circuits that put them "on the
cusp of building systems that will take computing to a whole new level."

In April 2012 a multinational team of researchers from the University of Southern

California, Delft University of Technology, the Iowa State University of Science and
Technology, and the University of California, Santa Barbara, constructed a two-qubit
quantum computer on a crystal of diamond doped with some manner of impurity,
that can easily be scaled up in size and functionality at room temperature. Two
logical qubit directions of electron spin and nitrogen kernels spin were used. A
system which formed an impulse of microwave radiation of certain duration and the
form was developed for maintenance of protection against de-coherence. By means
of this computer Grover's algorithm for four variants of search has generated the
right answer from the first try in 95% of cases.

In September 2012, Australian researchers at the University of New South Wales

said the world's first quantum computer was just 5 to 10 years away, after
announcing a global breakthrough enabling manufacture of its memory building

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blocks. A research team led by Australian engineers created the first working
"quantum bit" based on a single atom in silicon, invoking the same technological
platform that forms the building blocks of modern day computers, laptops and
phones.

In October 2012, Nobel Prizes were presented to David J. Wineland and Serge
Haroche for their basic work on understanding the quantum world - work which may
eventually help make quantum computing possible.

In November 2012, the first quantum teleportation from one macroscopic object to
another was reported.

In February 2013, a new technique Boson Sampling was reported by two groups
using photons in an optical lattice that is not a universal quantum computer but
which may be good enough for practical problems. Science Feb 15, 2013.

In May 2013, Google Inc announced that it was launching the Quantum Artificial
Intelligence Lab, to be hosted by NASAs Ames Research Center. The lab will house a
512-qubit quantum computer from D-Wave Systems, and the USRA (Universities
Space Research Association) will invite researchers from around the world to share
time on it. The goal being to study how quantum computing might advance
machine learning.

D-Wave Systems:
D-Wave Systems, Inc. is a quantum computing company, based
in Burnaby, British Columbia. On May 11, 2011, D-Wave System announced D-Wave
One, labeled "the world's first commercially available quantum computer,"
operating on a 128 qubit chip-set using quantum annealing to solve optimization
problems. In May 2013 it was announced that a collaboration
between NASA, Google and the Universities Space Research Association (USRA)
launched a Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab using a 512 qubit D-Wave Two that
would be used for research into machine learning, among other fields of study.

The D-Wave One was built on early prototypes such as D-Wave's Orion Quantum
Computer. The prototype was a 16-qubit quantum annealing processor,
demonstrated on February 13, 2007 at the Computer History Museum in Mountain
View, California. D-Wave demonstrated what they claimed to be a 28-qubit quantum
annealing processor on November 12, 2007. The chip was fabricated at NASA's Jet
Propulsion Lab's micro devices lab in Pasadena, California.

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 D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris (former chair of board), Geordie Rose
(CTO and former CEO), Bob Wiens (former CFO), and Alexandre Zagoskin (former VP
Research and Chief Scientist). Farris taught an entrepreneurship course at UBC
(University of British Columbia), where Rose obtained his Ph.D. and Zagoskin was
a postdoctoral fellow. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which
used d-wave superconductors.

Conclusion:
A new 'world record' has been set in the world of Quantum computing after
experts were able to create a quantum memory and then maintain it in that state
for nearly 40mins at room temperature. Currently the only quantum computers
available for purchase rely on extremely cold temperaturesjust above the toasty
side of absolute zero, or about 450 degrees Fahrenheitand they sell for about $10
million apiece. Google and NASA share one made by D-Wave.

Although quantum computing is still in its infancy, experiments have been

carried out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very
small number of qubits (quantum bits). Both practical and theoretical research
continues, and many national governments and military funding agencies support
quantum computing research to develop quantum computers for both civilian and
national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.

References:

http://www.howstuffworks.com/quantum-computer.htm
http://www.dwavesys.com/en/dw_homepage.html
http://www.slashgear.com/scientists-run-quantum-computer-for-39-minutes-at-room-temperature-16305663
http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/quantum_computers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer

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