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Power Electronics

This document discusses power electronics, which is the application of solid-state electronics to control and convert electric power. It covers the history and development of power electronics devices from mercury arc valves to modern semiconductors like transistors and thyristors. The document also discusses different types of power converters and their applications in areas like motor drives, power transmission systems, and renewable energy.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
91 views14 pages

Power Electronics

This document discusses power electronics, which is the application of solid-state electronics to control and convert electric power. It covers the history and development of power electronics devices from mercury arc valves to modern semiconductors like transistors and thyristors. The document also discusses different types of power converters and their applications in areas like motor drives, power transmission systems, and renewable energy.

Uploaded by

josgau
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Powerelectronics

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Powerelectronicsistheapplicationofsolidstateelectronicstothecontrol
andconversionofelectricpower.

Thefirsthighpowerelectronicdevicesweremercuryarcvalves.In
modernsystemstheconversionisperformedwithsemiconductorswitching
devicessuchasdiodes,thyristorsandtransistors,pioneeredbyR.D.
Middlebrookandothersbeginninginthe1950s.Incontrasttoelectronic
systemsconcernedwithtransmissionandprocessingofsignalsanddata,in
powerelectronicssubstantialamountsofelectricalenergyareprocessed.
AnAC/DCconverter(rectifier)isthemosttypicalpowerelectronics
devicefoundinmanyconsumerelectronicdevices,e.g.televisionsets,
personalcomputers,batterychargers,etc.Thepowerrangeistypically
fromtensofwattstoseveralhundredwatts.Inindustryacommon
applicationisthevariablespeeddrive(VSD)thatisusedtocontrolan
inductionmotor.ThepowerrangeofVSDsstartfromafewhundredwatts
andendattensofmegawatts.
AnHVDCthyristorvalvetower
Thepowerconversionsystemscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothetypeof 16.8mtallinahallatBalticCable
theinputandoutputpower ABinSweden
ACtoDC(rectifier)
DCtoAC(inverter)
DCtoDC(DCtoDCconverter)
ACtoAC(ACtoACconverter)

Contents
1 History
2 Devices
3 DC/ACconverters(inverters) Abatterychargerisanexampleofa
3.1 Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter pieceofpowerelectronics
3.2 Singlephasefullbridgeinverter
3.3 Threephasevoltagesourceinverter
3.4 Currentsourceinverters
3.5 Multilevelinverters
4 AC/ACconverters
5 Simulationsofpowerelectronicsystems
6 Applications
6.1 Inverters
6.2 Smartgrid
7 Notes
8 References
9 Externallinks

History
Powerelectronicsstartedwiththedevelopmentofthemercuryarcrectifier.
InventedbyPeterCooperHewittin1902,itwasusedtoconvertalternating
current(AC)intodirectcurrent(DC).Fromthe1920son,research
continuedonapplyingthyratronsandgridcontrolledmercuryarcvalvesto
powertransmission.UnoLammdevelopedamercuryvalvewithgrading
electrodesmakingthemsuitableforhighvoltagedirectcurrentpower
transmission.In1933seleniumrectifierswereinvented.[1]

In1947thebipolarpointcontacttransistorwasinventedbyWalterH.
BrattainandJohnBardeenunderthedirectionofWilliamShockleyatBell
Labs.In1948Shockley'sinventionofthebipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)
improvedthestabilityandperformanceoftransistors,andreducedcosts.
Bythe1950s,higherpowersemiconductordiodesbecameavailableand APCspowersupplyisanexampleof
startedreplacingvacuumtubes.In1956thesiliconcontrolledrectifier apieceofpowerelectronics,whether
(SCR)wasintroducedbyGeneralElectric,greatlyincreasingtherangeof insideoroutsideofthecabinet
powerelectronicsapplications.[2]

Bythe1960stheimprovedswitchingspeedofbipolarjunctiontransistorshadallowedforhighfrequencyDC/DC
converters.In1976powerMOSFETsbecamecommerciallyavailable.In1982theInsulatedGateBipolar
Transistor(IGBT)wasintroduced.

Devices
Thecapabilitiesandeconomyofpowerelectronicssystemaredeterminedbytheactivedevicesthatareavailable.
Theircharacteristicsandlimitationsareakeyelementinthedesignofpowerelectronicssystems.Formerly,the
mercuryarcvalve,thehighvacuumandgasfilleddiodethermionicrectifiers,andtriggereddevicessuchasthe
thyratronandignitronwerewidelyusedinpowerelectronics.Astheratingsofsolidstatedevicesimprovedin
bothvoltageandcurrenthandlingcapacity,vacuumdeviceshavebeennearlyentirelyreplacedbysolidstate
devices.

Powerelectronicdevicesmaybeusedasswitches,orasamplifiers.[3]Anidealswitchiseitheropenorclosedand
sodissipatesnopoweritwithstandsanappliedvoltageandpassesnocurrent,orpassesanyamountofcurrent
withnovoltagedrop.Semiconductordevicesusedasswitchescanapproximatethisidealpropertyandsomost
powerelectronicapplicationsrelyonswitchingdevicesonandoff,whichmakessystemsveryefficientasvery
littlepoweriswastedintheswitch.Bycontrast,inthecaseoftheamplifier,thecurrentthroughthedevicevaries
continuouslyaccordingtoacontrolledinput.Thevoltageandcurrentatthedeviceterminalsfollowaloadline,
andthepowerdissipationinsidethedeviceislargecomparedwiththepowerdeliveredtotheload.

Severalattributesdictatehowdevicesareused.Devicessuchasdiodesconductwhenaforwardvoltageisapplied
andhavenoexternalcontrolofthestartofconduction.Powerdevicessuchassiliconcontrolledrectifiersand
thyristors(aswellasthemercuryvalveandthyratron)allowcontrolofthestartofconduction,butrelyonperiodic
reversalofcurrentflowtoturnthemoff.Devicessuchasgateturnoffthyristors,BJTandMOSFETtransistors
providefullswitchingcontrolandcanbeturnedonoroffwithoutregardtothecurrentflowthroughthem.
Transistordevicesalsoallowproportionalamplification,butthisisrarelyusedforsystemsratedmorethanafew
hundredwatts.Thecontrolinputcharacteristicsofadevicealsogreatlyaffectdesignsometimesthecontrolinput
isataveryhighvoltagewithrespecttogroundandmustbedrivenbyanisolatedsource.

Asefficiencyisatapremiuminapowerelectronicconverter,thelossesthatapowerelectronicdevicegenerates
shouldbeaslowaspossible.
Devicesvaryinswitchingspeed.Somediodesandthyristorsaresuitedforrelativelyslowspeedandareusefulfor
powerfrequencyswitchingandcontrolcertainthyristorsareusefulatafewkilohertz.DevicessuchasMOSFETS
andBJTscanswitchattensofkilohertzuptoafewmegahertzinpowerapplications,butwithdecreasingpower
levels.Vacuumtubedevicesdominatehighpower(hundredsofkilowatts)atveryhighfrequency(hundredsor
thousandsofmegahertz)applications.Fasterswitchingdevicesminimizeenergylostinthetransitionsfromonto
offandback,butmaycreateproblemswithradiatedelectromagneticinterference.Gatedrive(orequivalent)
circuitsmustbedesignedtosupplysufficientdrivecurrenttoachievethefullswitchingspeedpossiblewitha
device.Adevicewithoutsufficientdrivetoswitchrapidlymaybedestroyedbyexcessheating.

Practicaldeviceshavenonzerovoltagedropanddissipatepowerwhenon,andtakesometimetopassthroughan
activeregionuntiltheyreachthe"on"or"off"state.Theselossesareasignificantpartofthetotallostpowerina
converter.

Powerhandlinganddissipationofdevicesisalsoacriticalfactorindesign.Powerelectronicdevicesmayhaveto
dissipatetensorhundredsofwattsofwasteheat,evenswitchingasefficientlyaspossiblebetweenconductingand
nonconductingstates.Intheswitchingmode,thepowercontrolledismuchlargerthanthepowerdissipatedinthe
switch.Theforwardvoltagedropintheconductingstatetranslatesintoheatthatmustbedissipated.Highpower
semiconductorsrequirespecializedheatsinksoractivecoolingsystemstomanagetheirjunctiontemperature
exoticsemiconductorssuchassiliconcarbidehaveanadvantageoverstraightsiliconinthisrespect,and
germanium,oncethemainstayofsolidstateelectronicsisnowlittleusedduetoitsunfavorablehightemperature
properties.

Semiconductordevicesexistwithratingsuptoafewkilovoltsinasingledevice.Whereveryhighvoltagemustbe
controlled,multipledevicesmustbeusedinseries,withnetworkstoequalizevoltageacrossalldevices.Again,
switchingspeedisacriticalfactorsincetheslowestswitchingdevicewillhavetowithstandadisproportionate
shareoftheoverallvoltage.Mercuryvalveswereonceavailablewithratingsto100kVinasingleunit,
simplifyingtheirapplicationinHVDCsystems.

Thecurrentratingofasemiconductordeviceislimitedbytheheatgeneratedwithinthediesandtheheat
developedintheresistanceoftheinterconnectingleads.Semiconductordevicesmustbedesignedsothatcurrentis
evenlydistributedwithinthedeviceacrossitsinternaljunctions(orchannels)oncea"hotspot"develops,
breakdowneffectscanrapidlydestroythedevice.CertainSCRsareavailablewithcurrentratingsto3000amperes
inasingleunit.

DC/ACconverters(inverters)
DCtoACconvertersproduceanACoutputwaveformfromaDCsource.Applicationsincludeadjustablespeed
drives(ASD),[[uninterruptiblepowersupply]|uninterruptiblepowersupplies]](UPS),FlexibleACtransmission
systems(FACTS),voltagecompensators,andphotovoltaicinverters.Topologiesfortheseconverterscanbe
separatedintotwodistinctcategories:voltagesourceinvertersandcurrentsourceinverters.Voltagesource
inverters(VSIs)arenamedsobecausetheindependentlycontrolledoutputisavoltagewaveform.Similarly,
currentsourceinverters(CSIs)aredistinctinthatthecontrolledACoutputisacurrentwaveform.

DCtoACpowerconversionistheresultofpowerswitchingdevices,whicharecommonlyfullycontrollable
semiconductorpowerswitches.Theoutputwaveformsarethereforemadeupofdiscretevalues,producingfast
transitionsratherthansmoothones.Forsomeapplications,evenaroughapproximationofthesinusoidalwavefor
ofACpowerisadequate.Whereanearsinusoidalwaveformisrequired,theswitchingdevicesareoperatedmuch
fasterthanthedesiredoutputfrequency,andthetimetheyspendineitherstateiscontrolledsotheaveragedoutput
isnearlysinusoidal.Commonmodulationtechniquesincludethecarrierbasedtechnique,orPulsewidth
modulation,spacevectortechnique,andtheselectiveharmonictechnique.[4]

Voltagesourceinvertershavepracticalusesinbothsinglephaseandthreephaseapplications.SinglephaseVSIs
utilizehalfbridgeandfullbridgeconfigurations,andarewidelyusedforpowersupplies,singlephaseUPSs,and
elaboratehighpowertopologieswhenusedinmulticellconfigurations.ThreephaseVSIsareusedinapplications
thatrequiresinusoidalvoltagewaveforms,suchasASDs,UPSs,andsometypesofFACTSdevicessuchasthe
STATCOM.Theyarealsousedinapplicationswherearbitraryvoltagesarerequiredasinthecaseofactivepower
filtersandvoltagecompensators.[4]

CurrentsourceinvertersareusedtoproduceanACoutputcurrentfromaDCcurrentsupply.Thistypeofinverter
ispracticalforthreephaseapplicationsinwhichhighqualityvoltagewaveformsarerequired.

Arelativelynewclassofinverters,calledmultilevelinverters,hasgainedwidespreadinterest.Normaloperationof
CSIsandVSIscanbeclassifiedastwolevelinverters,duetothefactthatpowerswitchesconnecttoeitherthe
positiveortothenegativeDCbus.Ifmorethantwovoltagelevelswereavailabletotheinverteroutputterminals,
theACoutputcouldbetterapproximateasinewave.Itisforthisreasonthatmultilevelinverters,althoughmore
complexandcostly,offerhigherperformance.[5]

EachinvertertypediffersintheDClinksused,andinwhetherornottheyrequirefreewheelingdiodes.Eithercan
bemadetooperateinsquarewaveorpulsewidthmodulation(PWM)mode,dependingonitsintendedusage.
Squarewavemodeofferssimplicity,whilePWMcanbeimplementedseveraldifferentwaysandproduceshigher
qualitywaveforms.[4]

VoltageSourceInverters(VSI)feedtheoutputinvertersectionfromanapproximatelyconstantvoltagesource.[4]

Thedesiredqualityofthecurrentoutputwaveformdetermineswhichmodulationtechniqueneedstobeselected
foragivenapplication.TheoutputofaVSIiscomposedofdiscretevalues.Inordertoobtainasmoothcurrent
waveform,theloadsneedtobeinductiveattheselectharmonicfrequencies.Withoutsomesortofinductive
filteringbetweenthesourceandload,acapacitiveloadwillcausetheloadtoreceiveachoppycurrentwaveform,
withlargeandfrequentcurrentspikes.[4]

TherearethreemaintypesofVSIs:

1.Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter
2.Singlephasefullbridgeinverter
3.Threephasevoltagesourceinverter

Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter

Thesinglephasevoltagesourcehalfbridgeinverters,aremeantforlower
voltageapplicationsandarecommonlyusedinpowersupplies.[4]Figure9
showsthecircuitschematicofthisinverter.

Lowordercurrentharmonicsgetinjectedbacktothesourcevoltagebythe
operationoftheinverter.Thismeansthattwolargecapacitorsareneeded
forfilteringpurposesinthisdesign.[4]AsFigure9illustrates,onlyone
Figure8:TheACinputforanASD.
switchcanbeonattimeineachlegoftheinverter.Ifbothswitchesinaleg
wereonatthesametime,theDCsourcewillbeshortedout.
Inverterscanuseseveralmodulationtechniquestocontroltheirswitching
schemes.ThecarrierbasedPWMtechniquecomparestheACoutput
waveform,vc,toacarriervoltagesignal,v.Whenvcisgreaterthanv,
S+ison,andwhenvcislessthanv,Sison.WhentheACoutputisat
frequencyfcwithitsamplitudeatvc,andthetriangularcarriersignalisat
frequencyfwithitsamplitudeatv,thePWMbecomesaspecial
sinusoidalcaseofthecarrierbasedPWM.[4]Thiscaseisdubbedsinusoidal
pulsewidthmodulation(SPWM).Forthis,themodulationindex,or
FIGURE9:SinglePhaseHalf
amplitudemodulationratio,isdefinedasma=vc/v.
BridgeVoltageSourceInverter

Thenormalizedcarrierfrequency,orfrequencymodulationratio,is
calculatedusingtheequationmf=f/fc.

Iftheovermodulationregion,ma,exceedsone,ahigherfundamentalACoutputvoltagewillbeobserved,butat
thecostofsaturation.ForSPWM,theharmonicsoftheoutputwaveformareatwelldefinedfrequenciesand
amplitudes.Thissimplifiesthedesignofthefilteringcomponentsneededforthelowordercurrentharmonic
injectionfromtheoperationoftheinverter.Themaximumoutputamplitudeinthismodeofoperationishalfofthe
sourcevoltage.Ifthemaximumoutputamplitude,ma,exceeds3.24,theoutputwaveformoftheinverterbecomes
asquarewave.[4]

AswastrueforPWM,bothswitchesinalegforsquarewavemodulationcannotbeturnedonatthesametime,as
thiswouldcauseashortacrossthevoltagesource.TheswitchingschemerequiresthatbothS+andSbeonfora
halfcycleoftheACoutputperiod.[4]ThefundamentalACoutputamplitudeisequaltovo1=vaN=2vi/.

Itsharmonicshaveanamplitudeofvoh=vo1/h.

Therefore,theACoutputvoltageisnotcontrolledbytheinverter,butratherbythemagnitudeoftheDCinput
voltageoftheinverter.[4]

Usingselectiveharmonicelimination(SHE)asamodulationtechniqueallowstheswitchingoftheinverterto
selectivelyeliminateintrinsicharmonics.ThefundamentalcomponentoftheACoutputvoltagecanalsobe
adjustedwithinadesirablerange.SincetheACoutputvoltageobtainedfromthismodulationtechniquehasodd
halfandoddquarterwavesymmetry,evenharmonicsdonotexist.[4]Anyundesirableodd(N1)intrinsic
harmonicsfromtheoutputwaveformcanbeeliminated.

Singlephasefullbridgeinverter

Thefullbridgeinverterissimilartothehalfbridgeinverter,butithasanadditionallegtoconnecttheneutralpoint
totheload.[4]Figure3showsthecircuitschematicofthesinglephasevoltagesourcefullbridgeinverter.

Toavoidshortingoutthevoltagesource,S1+andS1cannotbeonatthesametime,andS2+andS2alsocannot
beonatthesametime.Anymodulatingtechniqueusedforthefullbridgeconfigurationshouldhaveeitherthetop
orthebottomswitchofeachlegonatanygiventime.Duetotheextraleg,themaximumamplitudeoftheoutput
waveformisVi,andistwiceaslargeasthemaximumachievableoutputamplitudeforthehalfbridge
configuration.[4]
States1and2fromTable2areusedtogeneratetheACoutputvoltagewith
bipolarSPWM.TheACoutputvoltagecantakeononlytwovalues,either
ViorVi.Togeneratethesesamestatesusingahalfbridgeconfiguration,a
carrierbasedtechniquecanbeused.S+beingonforthehalfbridge
correspondstoS1+andS2beingonforthefullbridge.Similarly,Sbeing
onforthehalfbridgecorrespondstoS1andS2+beingonforthefull
bridge.Theoutputvoltageforthismodulationtechniqueismoreorless
sinusoidal,withafundamentalcomponentthathasanamplitudeinthe
linearregionoflessthanorequaltoone[4]vo1=vab1=vima.

FIGURE3:SinglePhaseVoltage
UnlikethebipolarPWMtechnique,theunipolarapproachusesstates1,2,
SourceFullBridgeInverter
3and4fromTable2togenerateitsACoutputvoltage.Therefore,theAC
outputvoltagecantakeonthevaluesVi,0orV[1]i.Togeneratethese
states,twosinusoidalmodulatingsignals,VcandVc,areneeded,asseen
inFigure4.

VcisusedtogenerateVaN,whileVcisusedtogenerateVbN.The
followingrelationshipiscalledunipolarcarrierbasedSPWM
vo1=2vaN1=vima.

ThephasevoltagesVaNandVbNareidentical,but180degreesoutof
phasewitheachother.Theoutputvoltageisequaltothedifferenceofthe
twophasevoltages,anddonotcontainanyevenharmonics.Therefore,if
FIGURE4:CarrierandModulating mfistaken,eventheACoutputvoltageharmonicswillappearat
SignalsfortheBipolarPulsewidth normalizedoddfrequencies,fh.Thesefrequenciesarecenteredondouble
ModulationTechnique thevalueofthenormalizedcarrierfrequency.Thisparticularfeatureallows
forsmallerfilteringcomponentswhentryingtoobtainahigherquality
outputwaveform.[4]

AswasthecaseforthehalfbridgeSHE,theACoutputvoltagecontainsnoevenharmonicsduetoitsoddhalfand
oddquarterwavesymmetry.[4]

Threephasevoltagesourceinverter

SinglephaseVSIsareusedprimarilyforlowpowerrangeapplications,
whilethreephaseVSIscoverbothmediumandhighpowerrange
applications.[4]Figure5showsthecircuitschematicforathreephaseVSI.

Switchesinanyofthethreelegsoftheinvertercannotbeswitchedoff
simultaneouslyduetothisresultinginthevoltagesbeingdependentonthe
respectivelinecurrent'spolarity.States7and8producezeroACline
voltages,whichresultinAClinecurrentsfreewheelingthrougheitherthe
upperorthelowercomponents.However,thelinevoltagesforstates1
through6produceanAClinevoltageconsistingofthediscretevaluesof
Vi,0orVi.[4]
FIGURE5:ThreePhaseVoltage
SourceInverterCircuitSchematic
ForthreephaseSPWM,threemodulatingsignalsthatare120degreesout
ofphasewithoneanotherareusedinordertoproduceoutofphaseload
voltages.InordertopreservethePWMfeatureswithasinglecarriersignal,thenormalizedcarrierfrequency,mf,
needstobeamultipleofthree.Thiskeepsthemagnitudeofthephasevoltagesidentical,butoutofphasewith
eachotherby120degrees.[4]Themaximumachievablephasevoltage
amplitudeinthelinearregion,malessthanorequaltoone,is
vphase=vi/2.Themaximumachievablelinevoltageamplitudeis
Vab1=vab3/2

TheonlywaytocontroltheloadvoltageisbychangingtheinputDC
voltage.

FIGURE6:ThreePhaseSquare Currentsourceinverters
WaveOperationa)SwitchStateS1b)
SwitchStateS3c)S1Outputd)S3 CurrentsourceinvertersconvertDC
Output currentintoanACcurrent
waveform.Inapplicationsrequiring
sinusoidalACwaveforms,magnitude,frequency,andphaseshouldallbe
controlled.CSIshavehighchangesincurrentovertime,socapacitorsare
commonlyemployedontheACside,whileinductorsarecommonly
employedontheDCside.[4]Duetotheabsenceoffreewheelingdiodes,the
powercircuitisreducedinsizeandweight,andtendstobemorereliable
thanVSIs.[5]Althoughsinglephasetopologiesarepossible,threephase
CSIsaremorepractical.
FIGURE7:ThreePhaseCurrent
Initsmostgeneralizedform,athreephaseCSIemploysthesame SourceInverter
conductionsequenceasasixpulserectifier.Atanytime,onlyone
commoncathodeswitchandonecommonanodeswitchareon.[5]

Asaresult,linecurrentstakediscretevaluesofii,0andii.Statesare
chosensuchthatadesiredwaveformisoutputandonlyvalidstatesare
used.Thisselectionisbasedonmodulatingtechniques,whichinclude
carrierbasedPWM,selectiveharmonicelimination,andspacevector
techniques.[4]

CarrierbasedtechniquesusedforVSIscanalsobeimplementedforCSIs,
resultinginCSIlinecurrentsthatbehaveinthesamewayasVSIline
voltages.Thedigitalcircuitutilizedformodulatingsignalscontainsa
Figure8:SynchronizedPulse
switchingpulsegenerator,ashortingpulsegenerator,ashortingpulse
WidthModulationWaveformsfora
distributor,andaswitchingandshortingpulsecombiner.Agatingsignalis
ThreePhaseCurrentSourceInverter
producedbasedonacarriercurrentandthreemodulatingsignals.[4] a)CarrierandModulatingSignalsb)
S1Statec)S3Stated)Output
Ashortingpulseisaddedtothissignalwhennotopswitchesandno
Current
bottomswitchesaregated,causingtheRMScurrentstobeequalinalllegs.
Thesamemethodsareutilizedforeachphase,however,switching
variablesare120degreesoutofphaserelativetooneanother,andthecurrentpulsesareshiftedbyahalfcycle
withrespecttooutputcurrents.Ifatriangularcarrierisusedwithsinusoidalmodulatingsignals,theCSIissaidto
beutilizingsynchronizedpulsewidthmodulation(SPWM).Iffullovermodulationisusedinconjunctionwith
SPWMtheinverterissaidtobeinsquarewaveoperation.[4]

ThesecondCSImodulationcategory,SHEisalsosimilartoitsVSIcounterpart.Utilizingthegatingsignals
developedforaVSIandasetofsynchronizingsinusoidalcurrentsignals,resultsinsymmetricallydistributed
shortingpulsesand,therefore,symmetricalgatingpatterns.Thisallowsanyarbitrarynumberofharmonicstobe
eliminated.[4]Italsoallowscontrolofthefundamentallinecurrentthroughtheproperselectionofprimary
switchingangles.Optimalswitchingpatternsmusthavequarterwaveand
halfwavesymmetry,aswellassymmetryabout30degreesand150
degrees.Switchingpatternsareneverallowedbetween60degreesand120
degrees.Thecurrentripplecanbefurtherreducedwiththeuseoflarger
outputcapacitors,orbyincreasingthenumberofswitchingpulses.[5]

Thethirdcategory,spacevectorbasedmodulation,generatesPWMload
linecurrentsthatequalloadlinecurrents,onaverage.Validswitching
statesandtimeselectionsaremadedigitallybasedonspacevector
transformation.Modulatingsignalsarerepresentedasacomplexvector
usingatransformationequation.Forbalancedthreephasesinusoidal
signals,thisvectorbecomesafixedmodule,whichrotatesatafrequency,
.Thesespacevectorsarethenusedtoapproximatethemodulatingsignal. Figure9:SpaceVector
Ifthesignalisbetweenarbitraryvectors,thevectorsarecombinedwiththe RepresentationinCurrentSource
zerovectorsI7,I8,orI9.[4]Thefollowingequationsareusedtoensurethat Inverters
thegeneratedcurrentsandthecurrentvectorsareonaverageequivalent.

Multilevelinverters

Arelativelynewclasscalledmultilevelinvertershasgainedwidespread
interest.NormaloperationofCSIsandVSIscanbeclassifiedastwolevel
invertersbecausethepowerswitchesconnecttoeitherthepositiveorthe
negativeDCbus.[5]Ifmorethantwovoltagelevelswereavailabletothe
inverteroutputterminals,theACoutputcouldbetterapproximateasine
wave.[4]Forthisreasonmultilevelinverters,althoughmorecomplexand
costly,offerhigherperformance.[5]Athreelevelneutralclampedinverter
isshowninFigure10.

Controlmethodsforathreelevelinverteronlyallowtwoswitchesofthe
FIGURE10:ThreeLevelNeutral fourswitchesineachlegtosimultaneouslychangeconductionstates.This
ClampedInverter allowssmoothcommutationandavoidsshootthroughbyonlyselecting
validstates.[5]ItmayalsobenotedthatsincetheDCbusvoltageisshared
byatleasttwopowervalves,theirvoltageratingscanbelessthanatwo
levelcounterpart.

Carrierbasedandspacevectormodulationtechniquesareusedformultileveltopologies.Themethodsforthese
techniquesfollowthoseofclassicinverters,butwithaddedcomplexity.Spacevectormodulationoffersagreater
numberoffixedvoltagevectorstobeusedinapproximatingthemodulationsignal,andthereforeallowsmore
effectivespacevectorPWMstrategiestobeaccomplishedatthecostofmoreelaboratealgorithms.Duetoadded
complexityandnumberofsemiconductordevices,multilevelinvertersarecurrentlymoresuitableforhighpower
highvoltageapplications.[5]Thistechnologyreducestheharmonicshenceimprovesoverallefficiencyofthe
scheme.

AC/ACconverters
ConvertingACpowertoACpowerallowscontrolofthevoltage,frequency,andphaseofthewaveformappliedto
aloadfromasuppliedACsystem.[6]Thetwomaincategoriesthatcanbeusedtoseparatethetypesofconverters
arewhetherthefrequencyofthewaveformischanged.[7]AC/ACconverterthatdon'tallowtheusertomodifythe
frequenciesareknownasACVoltageControllers,orACRegulators.ACconvertersthatallowtheusertochange
thefrequencyaresimplyreferredtoasfrequencyconvertersforACtoACconversion.Underfrequencyconverters
therearethreedifferenttypesofconvertersthataretypicallyused:cycloconverter,matrixconverter,DClink
converter(akaAC/DC/ACconverter).

ACvoltagecontroller:ThepurposeofanACVoltageController,orACRegulator,istovarytheRMSvoltage
acrosstheloadwhileataconstantfrequency.[6]ThreecontrolmethodsthataregenerallyacceptedareON/OFF
Control,PhaseAngleControl,andPulseWidthModulationACChopperControl(PWMACChopperControl).[8]
Allthreeofthesemethodscanbeimplementednotonlyinsinglephasecircuits,butthreephasecircuitsaswell.

ON/OFFControl:Typicallyusedforheatingloadsorspeedcontrolofmotors,thiscontrolmethodinvolves
turningtheswitchonfornintegralcyclesandturningtheswitchoffformintegralcycles.Becauseturning
theswitchesonandoffcausesundesirableharmonicstobecreated,theswitchesareturnedonandoffduring
zerovoltageandzerocurrentconditions(zerocrossing),effectivelyreducingthedistortion.[8]
PhaseAngleControl:Variouscircuitsexisttoimplementaphaseanglecontrolondifferentwaveforms,such
ashalfwaveorfullwavevoltagecontrol.Thepowerelectroniccomponentsthataretypicallyusedare
diodes,SCRs,andTriacs.Withtheuseofthesecomponents,theusercandelaythefiringangleinawave
whichwillonlycausepartofthewavetobeinoutput.[6]
PWMACChopperControl:Theothertwocontrolmethodsoftenhavepoorharmonics,outputcurrent
quality,andinputpowerfactor.InordertoimprovethesevaluesPWMcanbeusedinsteadoftheother
methods.WhatPWMACChopperdoesishaveswitchesthatturnonandoffseveraltimeswithinalternate
halfcyclesofinputvoltage.[8]

Matrixconvertersandcycloconverters:Cycloconvertersarewidelyusedinindustryforactoacconversion,
becausetheyareabletobeusedinhighpowerapplications.Theyarecommutateddirectfrequencyconvertersthat
aresynchronisedbyasupplyline.Thecycloconvertersoutputvoltagewaveformshavecomplexharmonicswith
thehigherorderharmonicsbeingfilteredbythemachineinductance.Causingthemachinecurrenttohavefewer
harmonics,whiletheremainingharmonicscauseslossesandtorquepulsations.Notethatinacycloconverter,
unlikeotherconverters,therearenoinductorsorcapacitors,i.e.nostoragedevices.Forthisreason,the
instantaneousinputpowerandtheoutputpowerareequal.[9]

SinglePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconverters:SinglePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconvertersstarted
drawingmoreinterestrecentlybecauseofthedecreaseinbothsizeandpriceofthepowerelectronics
switches.Thesinglephasehighfrequencyacvoltagecanbeeithersinusoidalortrapezoidal.Thesemightbe
zerovoltageintervalsforcontrolpurposeorzerovoltagecommutation.
ThreePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconverters:Therearetwokindsofthreephasetosinglephase
cycloconverters:3to1halfwavecycloconvertersand3to1bridgecycloconverters.Bothpositiveand
negativeconverterscangeneratevoltageateitherpolarity,resultinginthepositiveconverteronlysupplying
positivecurrent,andthenegativeconverteronlysupplyingnegativecurrent.

Withrecentdeviceadvances,newerformsofcycloconvertersarebeingdeveloped,suchasmatrixconverters.The
firstchangethatisfirstnoticedisthatmatrixconvertersutilizebidirectional,bipolarswitches.Asinglephasetoa
singlephasematrixconverterconsistsofamatrixof9switchesconnectingthethreeinputphasestothetreeoutput
phase.Anyinputphaseandoutputphasecanbeconnectedtogetheratanytimewithoutconnectinganytwo
switchesfromthesamephaseatthesametimeotherwisethiswillcauseashortcircuitoftheinputphases.Matrix
convertersarelighter,morecompactandversatilethanotherconvertersolutions.Asaresult,theyareableto
achievehigherlevelsofintegration,highertemperatureoperation,broadoutputfrequencyandnaturalbi
directionalpowerflowsuitabletoregenerateenergybacktotheutility.

Thematrixconvertersaresubdividedintotwotypes:directandindirectconverters.Adirectmatrixconverterwith
threephaseinputandthreephaseoutput,theswitchesinamatrixconvertermustbebidirectional,thatis,they
mustbeabletoblockvoltagesofeitherpolarityandtoconductcurrentineitherdirection.Thisswitchingstrategy
permitsthehighestpossibleoutputvoltageandreducesthereactivelinesidecurrent.Therefore,thepowerflow
throughtheconverterisreversible.Becauseofitscommutationproblemandcomplexcontrolkeepitfrombeing
broadlyutilizedinindustry.

Unlikethedirectmatrixconverters,theindirectmatrixconvertershasthesamefunctionality,butusesseparate
inputandoutputsectionsthatareconnectedthroughadclinkwithoutstorageelements.Thedesignincludesa
fourquadrantcurrentsourcerectifierandavoltagesourceinverter.Theinputsectionconsistsofbidirectional
bipolarswitches.Thecommutationstrategycanbeappliedbychangingtheswitchingstateoftheinputsection
whiletheoutputsectionisinafreewheelingmode.Thiscommutationalgorithmissignificantlylesscomplexity
andhigherreliabilityascomparedtoaconventionaldirectmatrixconverter.[10]

DClinkconverters:DCLinkConverters,alsoreferredtoasAC/DC/ACconverters,convertanACinputtoan
ACoutputwiththeuseofaDClinkinthemiddle.MeaningthatthepowerintheconverterisconvertedtoDC
fromACwiththeuseofarectifier,andthenitisconvertedbacktoACfromDCwiththeuseofaninverter.The
endresultisanoutputwithalowervoltageandvariable(higherorlower)frequency.[8]Duetotheirwideareaof
application,theAC/DC/ACconvertersarethemostcommoncontemporarysolution.Otheradvantagesto
AC/DC/ACconvertersisthattheyarestableinoverloadandnoloadconditions,aswellastheycanbedisengaged
fromaloadwithoutdamage.[11]

Hybridmatrixconverter:HybridmatrixconvertersarerelativelynewforAC/ACconverters.Theseconverters
combinetheAC/DC/ACdesignwiththematrixconverterdesign.Multipletypesofhybridconvertershavebeen
developedinthisnewcategory,anexamplebeingaconverterthatusesunidirectionalswitchesandtwoconverter
stageswithoutthedclinkwithoutthecapacitorsorinductorsneededforadclink,theweightandsizeofthe
converterisreduced.Twosubcategoriesexistfromthehybridconverters,namedhybriddirectmatrixconverter
(HDMC)andhybridindirectmatrixconverter(HIMC).HDMCconvertthevoltageandcurrentinonestage,while
theHIMCutilizesseparatestages,liketheAC/DC/ACconverter,butwithouttheuseofanintermediatestorage
element.[12][13]

Applications:Belowisalistofcommonapplicationsthateachconverterisusedin.

ACVoltageController:LightingControlDomesticandIndustrialHeatingSpeedControlofFan,Pumpor
HoistDrives,SoftStartingofInductionMotors,StaticACSwitches[6](TemperatureControl,Transformer
TapChanging,etc.)
Cycloconverter:HighPowerLowSpeedReversibleACMotorDrivesConstantFrequencyPowerSupply
withVariableInputFrequencyControllableVARGeneratorsforPowerFactorCorrectionACSystem
IntertiesLinkingTwoIndependentPowerSystems.[6]
MatrixConverter:Currentlytheapplicationofmatrixconvertersarelimitedduetononavailabilityof
bilateralmonolithicswitchescapableofoperatingathighfrequency,complexcontrollawimplementation,
commutationandotherreasons.Withthesedevelopments,matrixconverterscouldreplacecycloconverters
inmanyareas.[6]
DCLink:Canbeusedforindividualormultipleloadapplicationsofmachinebuildingandconstruction.[11]

Simulationsofpowerelectronicsystems
PowerelectroniccircuitsaresimulatedusingcomputersimulationprogramssuchasPLECS,PSIMand
MATLAB/simulink.Circuitsaresimulatedbeforetheyareproducedtotesthowthecircuitsrespondundercertain
conditions.Also,creatingasimulationisbothcheaperandfasterthancreatingaprototypetousefortesting.[14]

Applications
Applicationsofpowerelectronicsrangeinsizefromaswitchedmode
powersupplyinanACadapter,batterychargers,audioamplifiers,
fluorescentlampballasts,throughvariablefrequencydrivesandDCmotor
drivesusedtooperatepumps,fans,andmanufacturingmachinery,upto
gigawattscalehighvoltagedirectcurrentpowertransmissionsystemsused
tointerconnectelectricalgrids.Powerelectronicsystemsarefoundin
virtuallyeveryelectronicdevice.Forexample:

DC/DCconvertersareusedinmostmobiledevices(mobilephones,
Outputvoltageofafullwave
PDAetc.)tomaintainthevoltageatafixedvaluewhateverthe
rectifierwithcontrolledthyristors
voltagelevelofthebatteryis.Theseconvertersarealsousedfor
electronicisolationandpowerfactorcorrection.Apoweroptimizer
isatypeofDC/DCconverterdevelopedtomaximizetheenergyharvestfromsolarphotovoltaicorwind
turbinesystems.
AC/DCconverters(rectifiers)areusedeverytimeanelectronicdeviceisconnectedtothemains(computer,
televisionetc.).ThesemaysimplychangeACtoDCorcanalsochangethevoltagelevelaspartoftheir
operation.
AC/ACconvertersareusedtochangeeitherthevoltagelevelorthefrequency(internationalpoweradapters,
lightdimmer).InpowerdistributionnetworksAC/ACconvertersmaybeusedtoexchangepowerbetween
utilityfrequency50Hzand60Hzpowergrids.
DC/ACconverters(inverters)areusedprimarilyinUPSorrenewableenergysystemsoremergencylighting
systems.MainspowerchargestheDCbattery.Ifthemainsfails,aninverterproducesACelectricityatmains
voltagefromtheDCbattery.Solarinverter,bothsmallerstringandlargercentralinverters,aswellassolar
microinverterareusedinphotovoltaicsasacomponentofaPVsystem.

Motordrivesarefoundinpumps,blowers,andmilldrivesfortextile,paper,cementandothersuchfacilities.
Drivesmaybeusedforpowerconversionandformotioncontrol.[15]ForACmotors,applicationsincludevariable
frequencydrives,motorsoftstartersandexcitationsystems.[16]

Inhybridelectricvehicles(HEVs),powerelectronicsareusedintwoformats:serieshybridandparallelhybrid.
Thedifferencebetweenaserieshybridandaparallelhybridistherelationshipoftheelectricmotortotheinternal
combustionengine(ICE).Devicesusedinelectricvehiclesconsistmostlyofdc/dcconvertersforbatterycharging
anddc/acconverterstopowerthepropulsionmotor.Electrictrainsusepowerelectronicdevicestoobtainpower,
aswellasforvectorcontrolusingpulsewidthmodulation(PWM)rectifiers.Thetrainsobtaintheirpowerfrom
powerlines.Anothernewusageforpowerelectronicsisinelevatorsystems.Thesesystemsmayusethyristors,
inverters,permanentmagnetmotors,orvarioushybridsystemsthatincorporatePWMsystemsandstandard
motors.[17]

Inverters

Ingeneral,invertersareutilizedinapplicationsrequiringdirectconversionofelectricalenergyfromDCtoACor
indirectconversionfromACtoAC.DCtoACconversionisusefulformanyfields,includingpowerconditioning,
harmoniccompensation,motordrives,andrenewableenergygridintegration.

Inpowersystemsitisoftendesiredtoeliminateharmoniccontentfoundinlinecurrents.VSIscanbeusedas
activepowerfilterstoprovidethiscompensation.Basedonmeasuredlinecurrentsandvoltages,acontrolsystem
determinesreferencecurrentsignalsforeachphase.Thisisfedbackthroughanouterloopandsubtractedfrom
actualcurrentsignalstocreatecurrentsignalsforaninnerlooptotheinverter.Thesesignalsthencausethe
invertertogenerateoutputcurrentsthatcompensatefortheharmoniccontent.Thisconfigurationrequiresnoreal
powerconsumption,asitisfullyfedbythelinetheDClinkissimplyacapacitorthatiskeptataconstantvoltage
bythecontrolsystem.[4]Inthisconfiguration,outputcurrentsareinphasewithlinevoltagestoproduceaunity
powerfactor.Conversely,VARcompensationispossibleinasimilarconfigurationwhereoutputcurrentsleadline
voltagestoimprovetheoverallpowerfactor.[5]

Infacilitiesthatrequireenergyatalltimes,suchashospitalsandairports,UPSsystemsareutilized.Inastandby
system,aninverterisbroughtonlinewhenthenormallysupplyinggridisinterrupted.Powerisinstantaneously
drawnfromonsitebatteriesandconvertedintousableACvoltagebytheVSI,untilgridpowerisrestored,oruntil
backupgeneratorsarebroughtonline.InanonlineUPSsystem,arectifierDClinkinverterisusedtoprotectthe
loadfromtransientsandharmoniccontent.AbatteryinparallelwiththeDClinkiskeptfullychargedbythe
outputincasethegridpowerisinterrupted,whiletheoutputoftheinverterisfedthroughalowpassfiltertothe
load.Highpowerqualityandindependencefromdisturbancesisachieved.[4]

VariousACmotordriveshavebeendevelopedforspeed,torque,andpositioncontrolofACmotors.Thesedrives
canbecategorizedaslowperformanceorashighperformance,basedonwhethertheyarescalarcontrolledor
vectorcontrolled,respectively.Inscalarcontrolleddrives,fundamentalstatorcurrent,orvoltagefrequencyand
amplitude,aretheonlycontrollablequantities.Therefore,thesedrivesareemployedinapplicationswherehigh
qualitycontrolisnotrequired,suchasfansandcompressors.Ontheotherhand,vectorcontrolleddrivesallowfor
instantaneouscurrentandvoltagevaluestobecontrolledcontinuously.Thishighperformanceisnecessaryfor
applicationssuchaselevatorsandelectriccars.[4]

Invertersarealsovitaltomanyrenewableenergyapplications.Inphotovoltaicpurposes,theinverter,whichis
usuallyaPWMVSI,getsfedbytheDCelectricalenergyoutputofaphotovoltaicmoduleorarray.Theinverter
thenconvertsthisintoanACvoltagetobeinterfacedwitheitheraloadortheutilitygrid.Invertersmayalsobe
employedinotherrenewablesystems,suchaswindturbines.Intheseapplications,theturbinespeedusuallyvaries
causingchangesinvoltagefrequencyandsometimesinthemagnitude.Inthiscase,thegeneratedvoltagecanbe
rectifiedandtheninvertedtostabilizefrequencyandmagnitude.[4]

Smartgrid

Asmartgridisamodernizedelectricalgridthatusesinformationandcommunicationstechnologytogatherand
actoninformation,suchasinformationaboutthebehaviorsofsuppliersandconsumers,inanautomatedfashionto
improvetheefficiency,reliability,economics,andsustainabilityoftheproductionanddistributionof
electricity.[18][19]

Electricpowergeneratedbywindturbinesandhydroelectricturbinesbyusinginductiongeneratorscancause
variancesinthefrequencyatwhichpowerisgenerated.Powerelectronicdevicesareutilizedinthesesystemsto
convertthegeneratedacvoltagesintohighvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC).TheHVDCpowercanbemoreeasily
convertedintothreephasepowerthatiscoherentwiththepowerassociatedtotheexistingpowergrid.Through
thesedevices,thepowerdeliveredbythesesystemsiscleanerandhasahigherassociatedpowerfactor.Wind
powersystemsoptimumtorqueisobtainedeitherthroughagearboxordirectdrivetechnologiesthatcanreduce
thesizeofthepowerelectronicsdevice.[20]

Electricpowercanbegeneratedthroughphotovoltaiccellsbyusingpowerelectronicdevices.Theproducedpower
isusuallythentransformedbysolarinverters.Invertersaredividedintothreedifferenttypes:central,module
integratedandstring.CentralconverterscanbeconnectedeitherinparallelorinseriesontheDCsideofthe
system.Forphotovoltaic"farms",asinglecentralconverterisusedfortheentiresystem.Moduleintegrated
convertersareconnectedinseriesoneithertheDCorACside.Normallyseveralmodulesareusedwithina
photovoltaicsystem,sincethesystemrequirestheseconvertersonbothDCandACterminals.Astringconverteris
usedinasystemthatutilizesphotovoltaiccellsthatarefacingdifferentdirections.Itisusedtoconvertthepower
generatedtoeachstring,orline,inwhichthephotovoltaiccellsareinteracting.[20]
Powerelectronicscanbeusedtohelputilitiesadapttotherapidincreaseindistributedresidential/commercial
solarpowergeneration.GermanyandpartsofHawaii,CaliforniaandNewJerseyrequirecostlystudiestobe
conductedbeforeapprovingnewsolarinstallations.Relativelysmallscalegroundorpolemounteddevicescreate
thepotentialforadistributedcontrolinfrastructuretomonitorandmanagetheflowofpower.Traditional
electromechanicalsystems,suchascapacitorbanksorvoltageregulatorsatsubstations,cantakeminutestoadjust
voltageandcanbedistantfromthesolarinstallationswheretheproblemsoriginate.Ifvoltageonaneighborhood
circuitgoestoohigh,itcanendangerutilitycrewsandcausedamagetobothutilityandcustomerequipment.
Further,agridfaultcausesphotovoltaicgeneratorstoshutdownimmediately,spikingdemandforgridpower.
Smartgridbasedregulatorsaremorecontrollablethanfarmorenumerousconsumerdevices.[21]

Inanotherapproach,agroupof16westernutilitiescalledtheWesternElectricIndustryLeaderscalledfor
mandatoryuseof"smartinverters".ThesedevicesconvertDCtohouseholdACandcanalsohelpwithpower
quality.Suchdevicescouldeliminatetheneedforexpensiveutilityequipmentupgradesatamuchlowertotal
cost.[21]

Notes
1.Thompson,M.T."Notes01"(http://www.thompsonrd.com/NOTES%2001%20INTRODUCTION%20TO%20POWER%
20ELECTRONICS.pdf)(PDF).IntroductiontoPowerElectronics.ThompsonConsulting,Inc.
2.Kharagpur."PowerSemiconductorDevices"(http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Powe
r%20Electronics/PDF/L1(SSG)(PE)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf)(PDF).EEIIT.Retrieved25March2012.
3.MuhammadH.Rashid,POWERELECTRONICSHANDBOOKDEVICES,CIRCUITS,ANDAPPLICATIONSThird
EditionThestructureintroducedinthisworkisamultilevelinverter,whichusesSeparateDCSources.Themultilevel
inverterusingcascadedinverterwithSDCSsynthesizesadesiredvoltagefromseveralindependentsourcesofDC
voltages,whichmaybeobtainedfrombatteries,fuelcells,orsolarcells.Thisconfigurationrecentlybecomesvery
popularinACpowersupplyandadjustablespeeddriveapplications.Thisnewinvertercanavoidextraclampingdiodes
orvoltagebalancingcapacitors.ButterworthHeinemann,2007ISBN9780123820365
4.Rashid,M.H.(2001).PowerElectronicsHandbook.AcademicPress.pp.225250.
5.Trzynadlowski,A.M.(2010).IntroductiontoModernPowerElectronics.Wiley.pp.269341.
6.Rahsid,M.H.(2010).PowerElectronicsHandbook:Devices,Circuits,andApplications.Elsevier.pp.147564.
ISBN9780123820365.
7.Skvarenina,T.L.(2002).ThepowerelectronicshandbookIndustrialelectronicsseries.CRCPress.pp.94140.
ISBN9780849373367.
8.Rashid,M.H.(2005).DigitalpowerelectronicsandapplicationsElectronics&Electrical.AcademicPress.ISBN9780
120887576.
9.Tolbert,L.M."CYCLOCONVERTERS"(http://www.scribd.com/sagar%20jaiswal/d/18197288Cycloconverters).
UniversityofTennessee.Retrieved23March2012.
10.Klumpner,C."PowerElectronics2"(http://hermes.eee.nott.ac.uk/teaching/h5cpe2/).Retrieved23March2012.
11.Vodovozov,V(2006).Electronicengineering.ISBN9789985690390.
12.LipoKim,Sul(2000)."AC/ACPowerConversionBasedonMatricConverterTopologywithUnidirectionalSwitches".
IEEETransactionsonIndustryApplications.36(1):139145.doi:10.1109/28.821808(https://doi.org/10.1109%2F28.82
1808).
13.WheelerWijekoon,Klumpner(July2008)."ImplementationofaHybridAC/ACDirectPowerConverterwithUnity
VoltageTransferRatio".IEEETransactionsonPowerElectronics.23(4):19181986.doi:10.1109/tpel.2008.924601(htt
ps://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftpel.2008.924601).
14.Khader,S."THEAPPLICATIONOFPSIM&MATLAB/SIMULINKINPOWERELECTRONICSCOURSES"(htt
p://www.psut.edu.jo/sites/educon/program/contribution1139_b.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved25March2012.
15.Bose,BimalK.(SeptemberOctober1993)."PowerElectronicsandMotionControlTechnologyStatusandRecent
Trends".IEEE.
16.Bose,BimalK.(February2009)."PowerElectronicsandMotorDrivesRecentProgressandPerspective".IEEE.
17.Yano,MasaoShigeryAbeEiichiOhno(2004)."HistoryofPowerElectronicsforMotorDrivesinJapan".IEEE.
18.D.J.Hammerstrometal."PacificNorthwestGridWiseTestbedDemonstrationProjects,PartI.OlympicPeninsula
Project"(http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL17167.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved
20140115.
19.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy."SmartGrid/DepartmentofEnergy"(http://energy.gov/oe/technologydevelopment/smartgr
id).Retrieved20120618.
20.Carrasco,JuanManuelLeopoldoGarciaFranqueloJanT.BialasieweczEduardoGalvanRamonC.PortilloGuisado
Ma.AngelesMartinPratsJoseIgnacioLeonNarcisoMorenoAlfonso(August2006)."PowerElectronicSystemsfor
theGridIntegrationofRenewableSources:ASurvey".IEEE.53(4):1002.doi:10.1109/tie.2006.878356(https://doi.org/
10.1109%2Ftie.2006.878356).
21.LaMonica,Martin(20140121)."PowerElectronicsCouldHelpGridandSolarPowerGetAlong|MITTechnology
Review"(http://www.technologyreview.com/news/523386/powerelectronicssmoothsolartransition/).
Technologyreview.com.Retrieved20140122.

References
IssaBatarseh,"PowerElectronicCircuits"byJohnWiley,2003.
S.K.Mazumder,"HighFrequencyInverters:FromPhotovoltaic,Wind,andFuelCellbasedRenewableand
AlternativeEnergyDER/DGSystemstoBatterybasedEnergyStorageApplications",BookChapterin
PowerElectronicshandbook,EditorM.H.Rashid,AcademicPress,Burlington,Massachusetts,2010.
V.Gureich"ElectronicDevicesonDiscreteComponentsforIndustrialandPowerEngineering",CRCPress,
NewYork,2008,418p.
Editor:Semikron,Authors:Dr.UlrichNicolai,Dr.TobiasReimann,Prof.JrgenPetzoldt,JosefLutz:
ApplicationManualIGBTandMOSFETpowermodules,1.edition,ISLEVerlag,1998,ISBN3932633
245onlineversion(http://www.sindopower.com/ApplicationManualoxid/)
R.W.Erickson,D.Maksimovic,FundamentalsofPowerElectronics,2ndEd.,Springer,2001,ISBN0
792372700[1](http://ecee.colorado.edu/copec/book/SecEd.html)
ArendtWintrichUlrichNicolaiWernerTurskyTobiasReimann(2010),Applikationshandbuch2010(htt
p://www.powerguru.org/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_Applikationshandbuch_Leist
ungshalbleiter.pdf)(PDFVersion)(inGerman)(2.ed.),ISLEVerlag,ISBN9783938843567
ArendtWintrichUlrichNicolaiWernerTurskyTobiasReimann(2011),ApplicationManual2011(http://w
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onductors.pdf)(PDFVersion)(inGerman)(2.ed.),ISLEVerlag,ISBN9783938843666

Externallinks
InteractivePowerElectronicsSeminar(iPES)(http://www.ipes.ethz.c
WikimediaCommonshas
h/ipes/e_index.html)
mediarelatedtoPower
Powerguru.org(http://www.powerguru.org/)powerelectronics electronics.
knowledgebasewithtrainingmaterial(PowerGuru)
LoadPowerSourcesforPeakEfficiency,byJamesColotti,publishedinEDN1979October5(http://www.ie
ee.li/pdf/essay/load_power_sources_for_peak_efficiency_edn_1979_10_05.pdf)
PowerElectronicsSimulationTool(http://www.geckosimulations.com/geckocircuits.html)
DCDCconvertersOnlineSimulation(http://www.cirvirlab.com/index.php/tutorials/168dcdcconverterso
nlinesimulator.html)

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