Is Marginal Bone Loss around Oral Implants the

Result of a Provoked Foreign Body Reaction?

Tomas Albrektsson, MD, PhD, RCPSG;*, Christer Dahlin, DDS, PhD;*, Torsten Jemt, DDS, PhD;,||
Lars Sennerby, DDS, PhD; Alberto Turri, DDS, PhD cand;*,|| Ann Wennerberg, DDS, PhD

ABSTRACT
Background: When a foreign body is placed in bone or soft tissue, an inflammatory reaction inevitably develops. Hence,
osseointegration is but a foreign body response to the implant, which according to classic pathology is a chronic
inflammatory response and characterized by bone embedding/separation of the implant from the body.
Purpose: The aim of this paper is to suggest an alternative way of looking at the reason for marginal bone loss as a
complication to treatment rather than a disease process.
Materials and Methods: The present paper is authored as a narrative review contribution.
Results: The implant-enveloping bone has sparse blood circulation and is lacking proper innervation in clear contrast to
natural teeth that are anchored in bone by a periodontal ligament rich in blood vessels and nerves. Fortunately, a
balanced, steady state situation of the inevitable foreign body response will be established for the great majority of
implants, seen as maintained osseointegration with no or only very little marginal bone loss. Marginal bone resorption
around the implant is the result of different tissue reactions coupled to the foreign body response and is not primarily
related to biofilm-mediated infectious processes as in the pathogenesis of periodontitis around teeth. This means that
initial marginal bone resorption around implants represents a reaction to treatment and is not at all a disease process.
There is clear evidence that the initial foreign body response to the implant can be sustained and aggravated by various
factors related to implant hardware, patient characteristics, surgical and/or prosthodontic mishaps, which may lead to
significant marginal bone loss and possibly to implant failure. Admittedly, once severe marginal bone loss has
developed, a secondary biofilm-mediated infection may follow as a complication to the already established bone loss.
Conclusions: The present authors regard researchers seeing marginal bone loss as a periodontitis-like disease to be on
the wrong track; the onset of marginal bone loss around oral implants depends in reality on a dis-balanced foreign body
response.
KEY WORDS: bone loss, dental implants, foreign body reaction, osseointegration, peri-implantitis

INTRODUCTION
*Department of Biomaterials, Gteborg University, Gteborg,
Sweden; Department of Prosthodontics, Malm University,
Osseointegration was discovered when working with
Malm, Sweden; Department of Oral& Maxillofacial Surgery, NU implants in research animals1 at the very same
Hospital Group, Trollhttan, Sweden; Department of Prosthetic laboratory of the Gteborg University where the senior
Dentistry/ Dental Material Science, University of Gteborg,
Gteborg, Sweden; ||The Brnemark Clinic, Public Dental Health authors behind this publication were once trained. The
Service, Gteborg, Sweden; Department of Oral and Maxillofacial discovery was made around 1962, and it has meant an
Surgery, Gteborg University, Gteborg, Sweden enormous advancement for clinical treatment of oral
Reprint requests: Professor Tomas Albrektsson, Department of implants. The advent of osseointegration represented a
Biomaterials, Sahlgrenska Academy, PO Box 412, Gteborg SE true clinical breakthrough; for the first time ever,
405 30, Sweden; e-mail: [email protected]
reliable long-term clinical results of oral implants were
2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. reported.13 As a reflection of the substantial
DOI 10.1111/cid.12142 contribution to clinical development we have seen with
oral

1
2 Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research, Volume *, Number *, 2013

Figure 1 Events occurring when an oral implant is placed in the jaw bone. A foreign body reaction is inevitable; good clinical results
follow the establishment of a foreign body equilibrium. However, the equilibrium may be disturbed by unsuitable implants, improper
clinical handling, various adverse patient factors, remnants of cement or new loading situations which, acting together, may result in
marginal bone loss around the implant. A reestablishment of the foreign body equilibrium is possible, but if this does not occur,
implants will lose gradually more bone and may eventually fail.

implants, thousands and thousands again of patients maintain the foreign body equilibrium represented by
have benefitted from osseointegration. Although no osseointegration.
reliable documentation exists, it has been estimated When an oral implant is to be placed in bone (Figure
that approximately 12 million osseointegrated oral 1), the sequence starts by preparing the defect. Surgical
implants are placed annually in a global perspective. In preparation results in breakage of blood vessels,
the light of this tremendous clinical success, the destruction of bone tissue with a necrotic border zone
dissection of osseointegration under a critical inevitably developing,4 and an acute inflammatory
histopathological analysis is indeed a delicate task. response following. The latter is an important step in the
Our aim is (1) to describe histopathological and healing cascade leading to the preferred bony anchorage
clinical events when an implant is placed in the mandible of the implant. Thereafter, two possible events follow the
or maxilla of patients, (2) to discuss different suggested placement of the implant: Either a foreign body response
mechanisms behind marginal bone loss around oral develops, characterized by a chronic inflammatory
implants, (3) to perform a resum of previous research response with the implant shielded off from the rest of the
efforts on implants and foreign body responses to them, organism by an enveloping bone tissue layer that
(4) to critically analyze whether threats to gradually condenses,5 or, for reasons not fully known, the
osseointegration such as the initiation of marginal bone foreign body response results in the implant being
loss is a mirror image of what happens to teeth, and embedded (encapsulated) in soft tissues, thereby
(5) to summarize how we, from a clinical aspect, best representing a primary clinical failure. The latter problem
is
 Osseointegration as a Foreign Body Reaction 3

A B C

Figure 2 The foreign body response around any oral implant may be noticeable in radiograms of successful implants. In A, the
implant is seen immediately after placement. In B, we see the same implant at 2 years after placement with a clear condensation
around it. C depicts the same implant at 8 years with a condensed bone layer found in many foreign body situations.

rare with modern implants placed by trained clinicians example, if nearby teeth have failed. This late dis-
but was a more common problem in the infancy of balance may lead to marginal bone loss and
osseointegration.1 The following events may likewise micromovements as well as an increasing inflammatory
follow two possible routes: the foreign body equilibrium response in the same manner as seen with the early dis-
with a mild chronic inflammation (that we call balance. However, a dis-balance, whether early or late,
osseointegration) or a resulting early dis-balance where need not result in clinical failure; for example, in the
bone resorption dominates over bone formation and case of removed cement particles in soft tissues another
where the inevitable chronic inflammatory state is foreign body equilibrium may result, if with some bone
activated. In contrast, the foreign body equilibrium is resorption around the implant. Infection is a late
characterized by a steady state situation in the bone and response to already dis-balanced implants. It cannot at
only a mild chronic inflammation. By time, the bone all be com-pared to the infection seen around teeth that
encapsulated implant will be covered by an increasingly we term periodontitis. The question in the implant case
thicker bone layer, especially observed at the crestal part is whether infection really has any true implications for
of the implant6 (Figure 2) Similar encapsulation of the fate of the implant. In contrast, in the good clinical
foreign bodies may be observed in primitive animals such case, osseointegration remains undisturbed, that is, a
as the pearl oyster or fruit fly. 7 There is evidence from the continued balance in form of foreign body equilibrium,
literature that the unwanted dis-balance is triggered by which has been documented over 20 years or more in
using nonoptimal implant designs, traumatic clinical oral implantology.10
handling, and by placing implants in anatomically and/or
medically compromised sites of patients,8 with other Alternative Mechanisms behind
words it represents a clinical complication not a disease Marginal Bone Resorption
process. Furthermore, systemic, general health aspects The authors of the present paper see marginal bone loss
have been associated with this unfavorable response in around oral implants as a consequence of an aggravated
the peri-implant bone.9 In the case of a continued foreign foreign body response inevitable when placing foreign
body response equilibrium, all is fine from a clinical materials in bone. It is, in fact, impossible to understand
standpoint, whereas the dis-balance situation results in original reasons for marginal bone loss without realizing
marginal bone loss with time, possibly leading to the histopathological background: the role of the type of
micromovements of the implant.8 Lamentably, there are foreign body reaction that we term osseointegration.
cases where a late dis-balance occurs, for example, Foreign body reactions are commonly described to a
genetic disposition, because of developing systemic number of different types of implants placed in the body
disease of the patient to remnants of cement particles in but have, for one reason or the other, been so far more or
the soft tissues or to a new loading situation, for less ignored in the dental implant literature with the
4 Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research, Volume *, Number *, 2013

exception of some pioneering papers by the late summarize. The first investigators incriminating foreign
German pathologist Karl Donath.5,11 body reactions as important cofactors in the response to a
Marginal bone loss around oral implants has been bacterial expositions were Elek and Conen.22 These
reported in most clinical follow-up studies. In the authors infected sutures (foreign bodies) with cocci
majority of cases, marginal bone loss is a process most bacteria in human volunteers and reported a dramatic
pronounced during the first year after placement, reduction of the minimum inoculum required to produce
probably as an adaptive response to healing and loading pus compared to the situation where the stitches were
that will not threaten implant anchorage and is not immediately removed from the tissues. They reported
necessarily of predictive values for later changes of the orange size infectious tumors and high fever reactions
bone level.12 However, in other cases, more rapid bone in patients with the sutures but also an understandable
loss may develop that represents a hazard for long-term difficulty to recruit new volunteering patients to further
survival of the implant. For many clinicians, bone test foreign body reactions. Their work inspired animal
resorption is seen as more or less synonymous to a studies reporting minor or no problems when mice were
biofilm-mediated infectious disease peri-implantitis.13 injected subcutaneously with staphylococci in contrast to
We believe this is misconceived there is, in fact, no a demonstrated bacterial multiplication at the suture
proper evidence that progressing bone resorption sites.23,24
generally is initiated by any form of an infectious disease With respect to foreign body reactions to implants,
process. This was also the notion when peri-implantitis 25
Bos analyzed failed hip joints finding evidence of
(originally coined by Levignac14 and Mombelli et al.15)
such reactions, and Thiele and colleagues26 described
became an accepted term at the first European Work-shop
foreign body reaction to resorbable polylactide screws
on Periodontology in 1993.16 The term peri-implantitis used for fixation purposes. In oral implantology, the
was then agreed upon as a general name for destructive potential problem of foreign body reactions has been
peri-implant inflammatory processes. In line with this, we
largely overlooked. Anderson and Rodriguez27 have
see late significant bone loss as an unfavorable change of
summarized foreign body reactions to biomaterials in a
the clinical balance between the foreign body response
recent overview. The immune complement is
and external impact/or internal host response factors. 17 dependent on a protein reaction that is the first part of
Having said this, if a purulent infection is present, the immune system that recognizes foreign bodies
microorganisms may be involved but not necessarily the entering the body.28 The injury inevitable when drilling
cause for marginal bone resorption, as also pointed out by
in bone elicits an inflammatory cell infiltration that
Mombelli and Dcaillet.18 We are not alone in this further results in monocyte adhesion and macrophage
critical attitude toward peri-implantitis as a primarily differentiation followed by macrophage fusion into
infectious disease. Koka and Zarb19 suggested that when foreign body giant cell formation.27 Foreign body giant
implants lose their marginal bone support, the term cells are routinely seen at oral implant interfaces11
osseoseparation should be used to separate marginal bone (Figure 3). Complement activation is likely to amplify
loss from any particular disease process. We concur with the inflammatory reaction. Adherent macrophages and
these authors about the lack of evidence behind any foreign body giant cells are known to lead to
development of a disease as the starting point of marginal degradation of biomaterials with subsequent implant
bone loss, as do Becker20 and Chvartszaid and Koka21 failure. Adherent macrophages on biomaterials may
who neither see any convincing evidence pointing to become activated in an attempt to phagocytose the
specific bacteria starting the process of marginal bone implant, so called frustrated phagocytosis. It is possible
resorption. that the clinical events may be influenced by materials
surface properties such as chemistry and topography;27
On Foreign Body Responses to Implants
furthermore, nanotopography has been found to
Pioneering research efforts on possible side effects of the attenuate immune complement activation.28
foreign body response have involved deliberate injections In oral implantology, it seems essential to identify
of bacteria in sites with or without the presence of a host-related as well as external risk factors for the later
foreign body. The research may be far away from the development of marginal bone loss that may jeopardize
world of oral implants but is nevertheless important to future ossseointegration of the implant. Certainly, once
 Osseointegration as a Foreign Body Reaction 5

dysfunction due to hereditary problems or smoking,

and clinical shortcomings in form of poor surgery and
poor prosthodontics or occlusal overload.3,8,3134
Typical to problems related to these factors is that the
summed effect of them is more negative than would be
assumed if one analyzed each one of them separately
a summation effect.3538 These problems can be
exemplified by experience from a recently used oral
implant system where clinical recommendations in
form of grinding down the implant in situ and then
loading it directly were not in accordance with above-
suggested biological recommendations.39

What Is an Appropriate Term for Foreign Body

Figure 3 Foreign body giant cells are routinely found in the Reactions Leading to Marginal Bone Loss?
interface of oral implants.
A day of reckoning for so called peri-implantitis is well
overdue, and it is time to expunge the term from routine
peri-implantitis with or without infection has been use.40 We concur with these authors if peri-implantitis is
manifested, research must be directed how to, if regarded synonymous to a disease process. However, one
possible, treat the condition. However, this is not a characteristic of the foreign body reaction is that it results
simple endeavor, and the treatment of choice may be in a chronic inflammation. With long-term successful
critically discussed.29,30 implants, this chronic inflammation would be of a very
When an oral implant is placed, chemistry, physical minor magnitude and hardly noticeable in the clinic.
state, and electrochemical potential of the material However, when marginal bone resorption has developed
determine the severity of the chronic inflammatory around an implant, the inflammation may be more
response.11 Even a relatively stable material such as noticeable and may eventually be further compromised by
commercially pure titanium elicits a foreign body plaque accumulation and infection. A Google search on
response in the tissues, exemplified by what we call the suffix -itis informs that the ending is used in
osseointegration. It is true that osseointegration has been pathological terms that denote inflammation. Because an
a positive contribution because so stabilized implants inflammatory response is characteristic of any oral
may remain in the body over long periods of time and, for implant as part of a foreign body response that is further
example, serve as anchorage elements for a dental activated in case of tissue disbalance, we believe that the
prosthesis, which in no way is in opposition to that the term peri-implantitis is quite appropriate, even if it is not
basic body reaction is one of a foreign body type. The a primary disease at all. In fact, the tissue sequel is a
implanted object is in a delicate balance to avoid rapid or complication because of a clinically unfavorable dis-
late rejection; what will decide the outcome is dependent balanced foreign body reaction that is the starting point of
on the summed reactions to it.3,31 the pathological process, nothing else.
More than 30 years ago, it was found imperative to
more or less simultaneously control six different factors To further elaborate on the inflammatory aspect,
3 another dogma that needs to be addressed is the presence
for proper osseointegration. These factors were (1) the
biocompatibility, (2) the design and (3) the sur-face of the of suppuration or pus adjacent to implants. This has been
implant, (4) the status of the host bed, (5) the surgical and taken as direct evidence of an ongoing infectious process
(6) the loading conditions. In fact, there is evidence 8 that adjacent to the respective implants, and subsequent active
marginal bone resorption may follow disturbance of these anti-infectious clinical measures have been proposed.
factors including material shortcomings However, if you look more closely at the definition of
(nonbiocompatible materials), implant design errors suppuration from an immunologic standpoint and as part
resulting in high levels of marginal bone resorption, too of the complement activation, it is by definition of pus:
rough or too smooth surfaces, patient A fluid product of inflammation
6 Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research, Volume *, Number *, 2013

consisting of a liquid containing leucocytes and the the soft tissue margin. Bacterial leakage from the inter-
debris of dead cells and tissue elements liquefied by face between the implant body and the abutment has
the proteolytic and histolytic enzymes (leukoprotease) been another incriminated source for infectious
that are elaborated by polymorphonuclear developments (for review see Qian et al.8).
leucocytes.41 Hence, suppuration is part of an The notion that biofilm-mediated infection is the
unspecific inflammatory reaction toward foreign cause for marginal bone loss at implants derives from
bodies where bacteria are only one of several possible extrapolations of findings from experimental and clinical
causes for the immunologic complement activation. studies on implants and teeth. For instance, it has been
demonstrated that the presence of a biofilm on implant
Mixing of Two Conceptually Different Entities components at the soft tissue margin induces an
Tooth versus Foreign Body Response inflammation and that this inflammation can be reduced
Peri-implantitis as a disease entity builds on several by removing the biofilm.42 Histology from dog studies
postulates. One such postulate is that the implant and has demonstrated a similar size and composition of the
tooth are similar entities and hence, the pathogenesis of inflammatory infiltrate as a response to a biofilm
peri-implantitis is identical to that of periodontitis. formation at teeth and implants after 3 weeks.43
Another postulate claims a situation free from Accordingly, the postulate of a similarity between
inflammation at the implant in analogy with what can be implants and teeth seems a far-fetched one from a bio-
expected at natural teeth, a situation that can be logical perspective (Figure 4.). The successful implant
questioned in the light of the chronic foreign body has an interface of bone tissue, with only minor
inflammation that is inevitable around oral implants. vascularization and almost total lack of innervation in
Furthermore, claims are related to the origin of the contrast to the tooth with an abundant vascularization
involved microorganisms to be either an infection from and innervation of the periodontal ligament. Donath5
the time of implant placement or a biofilm-mediated pointed out that the bone tissues around an implant
infection originating from
Figure 4 The tooth is anchored in a periodontal ligament characterized by rich innervation and blood perfusion. This is in sharp
contrast to the implant that is anchored in foreign body bone with very sparse innervation and blood flow.
 Osseointegration as a Foreign Body Reaction 7

are devoid of an independent blood circulation in into a healthy organism. This is also in line with
contrast to the gingiva of the tooth with a subepithelial Mombelli and Dcaillet18 who concluded that
and dentogingival plexus. Possibly, blood vessels are microorganisms may be present but not necessarily the
formed at the outer border of the bone capsule by time. cause of peri-implantitis. Recent associations between
Further-more, the implant is stable (ankylotic), systemic factors and bone loss open up for alternative
whereas the tooth is mobile. The dentogingival factors that may disrupt the favorable biological balance. 9
complex with its specialized tissues is the result of Another interesting observation follows inspection of
evolution, whereas the implant is constructed by tissue breakdown because of the alleged disease peri-
outside technology. Clini-ally there is a difference in implantitis where commonly, but not always, even craters
the tissue reaction to the pathogenic flora. The gingiva seem to have formed in the birds eye view (Figure 5). A
of a natural tooth shows all the signs of inflammation pure disease would in all probability result in a much
with a raised secular fluid rate, while this is not the more uneven anatomy of the defect. What we see instead
case in the mucosa around an implant . . . where the is an even bone resorption presenting defined distances
sulcular fluid rate is not elevated.5 between the bone rims and the implant margins,
We concur with Chvartszaid and colleagues31 that indicative of a combined problem that may involve not
similar tissue reactions to the greatly different interfacial only inflammation/infection but also a foreign body
situations around an implant and a tooth seem most response that acts in combination with these other
unlikely. Not very surprisingly, the anatomical image of mechanisms defining the final distance from the implant
bone resorption due to periodontitis or peri-implantitis that is affected by the bone resorption; that is, what is
differs from one another, in many situations with very resorbed may be predominantly, if not exclusively, the
wide bone craters being typical for the implant but not for foreign body bone, whereas resorption of the properly
the tooth. When long-term, follow-up implant systems vascularized host bone is potentially lacking.
have been analyzed with respect to subgingival The disease explanation is furthermore most
microbiota and compared to the outcome with the natural unlikely in view of numerous clinical situations
dentition, it was concluded in one study that subgingival documented with subsequent marginal bone loss (for
plaque samples from implants did not reach the review see Qian et al.8). It seems difficult, if not
concentration of pathogens, even after 12 years of impossible, to couple such clinically observed marginal
function. Furthermore, bone levels were stable with bone loss to a disease. This is exemplified by the
minimal bone resorption, and the presence of correlation between individual clinicians and higher
periopathogens did not necessarily result in bone loss.44 failure rates as well as
A very interesting observation that strongly supports the
hypothesis that marginal bone loss around implants could
be linked more to a foreign body reaction and not having
an infectious origin was recently described by Becker and
colleagues45 who compared transcriptome profiling using
mRNA from patients suffering from either peri-
implantitis or periodontitis. A gene ontology analysis
revealed various pathways. In peri-implantitis tissues, the
regulation of transcripts related primarily to innate
immune responses and defense responses while in
periodontitis bacterial response systems prevailed.
When peri-implant tissue destruction occurs, little is
known about the initiating process, one academic
periodontist wrote recently.46 Kochs postulate47,48 with
the suggested revision by Fredericks and Relman49 has Figure 5 In many clinical cases of peri-implantitis with
not been demonstrated applicable to oral implants; the advanced bone resorption, we have observed that even bone
microorganism allegedly involved in peri-implantitis has craters may form if inspected in the birds eye view. It is
possible that the even borders appear when the anchoring
not been found causing disease when introduced foreign body bone has been resorbed, whereas adjacent richly
vascularized bone is more resistant to resorption.
8 Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research, Volume *, Number *, 2013

higher levels of marginal bone resorption compared to respectively 2.65% maxillary and 1.53% mandibular
their peers, despite them using the same implant failures between 2003 to 2010. This considerable drop
system.32,33 A particular approach, to use ligatures to in maxillary failure rates coincided with the transition
elicit bone resorption and infection,50 is another from machined to TiUnite surfaces. The list of
example of a foreign body response, or rather two compromising factors where improved early results
foreign body responses. Here, we have the initial have been seen to modern, moderately rough surfaces
foreign body response to the implant, then another includes patient smoking, the use of short implants,
foreign body in form of the ligature that is added to the previous irradiation, or bone grafting (for review see
implants, and it is not at all surprising that such a Qian et al.8).
combined provocation will result in adverse tissue We realize that improved surgical skills may
reactions in the form of marginal bone loss. With time, positively influence clinical results in comparisons
the inflammatory response worsens and a between previously and more recently published
suprainfection may occur in what may be described as papers, even if we regard the improved early success
secondary peri-implantitis.8 rates with maxillary implants as described by Olsson
and collegues52 to point to a clear positive contribution
How to Best Maintain a Foreign
from the new surfaces; improvements were too rapid to
Body Equilibrium
be explained in any other way. We further realize that
In fact, most clinical efforts have been directed to many other factors than those discussed in the present
maintaining osseointegration; that is, succeeding with Review may influence implant survival/failure
having an undisturbed, if with signs of mild chronical including over instrumentation and high occlusal loads
inflammation, foreign body equilibrium. From a strict to mention but a few.
clinical results point of view, we have gradually improved However, to decide the best surface, we cannot
clinical outcome of implants compared to the pioneering necessarily use figures on levels of marginal bone
days of osseointegration.1,51 This clinical improvement is contact to different surfaces because we do not know
due to a combination of improved clinical handling and, the ideal such percentage of bone to implant contact. A
possibly, to new improved implant types. Having said stronger initial bone response need not be coupled to
this, modern simplifications in the form of possibilities improved long-term clinical outcome, instead it may
for a direct loading of implants represent a indicate a stronger foreign body reaction compared
simultaneously increased clinical risk because the foreign with that found to other implants, and the only way to
body equilibrium may be disturbed during this early find out whether this reaction is positive or negative
phase of function. This risk may be substantial if patients would seem to be scrutiny of long-term clinical data.
with poor bone beds are treated by poorly trained
clinicians, an example of combined effects that may Concluding Remarks
8
disturb osseointegration. The osseointegrated interface remains in a very delicate
From the perspective of increasing early implant balance where adverse individual tissue reactions may
success rates, the response is simple: moderately rough combine with the foreign body reaction to cause
surfaces outperform minimally rough ones (such as unwanted sequel in form of marginal bone loss or implant
turned [machined] Branemark implants) and rough failure. The locus resistentiae minoris created by the
implants (such as old plasma sprayed ones). Jimbo and foreign body reaction5355 has resulted in a series of
51
Albrektsson compared five-year clinical outcomes for events potentially leading to implant failure.
machined and moderately rough implants with a This reasoning implies the necessity of clinical
significantly enhanced failure rate for maxillary implants control of the implant situation. Learned and skillful
of the former. Olsson and colleagues52 analyzed the early clinicians would simply have better a clinical outcome
failure rate of implants placed at the Branemark clinic than their counterparts because they will minimize setting
between 1986 and 2010. A total of 35.444 implants were off a cascade of triggering factors that may combine with
inserted with a mean incidence of early first implant the foreign body reactions to cause implant problems. The
failure between 1986 and 2002 being 8.95% in the fact that the clinical problem of marginal bone resorption
maxilla and 1.84% in the mandible compared with is related to by whom and how
 2. Adell R, Lekholm U, Rockler B, Brnemark PI. Osseo-
integrated implants in the treatment of edentulousness. A
15-year follow up study. Int J Oral Surg 1981; 6:387416.
the implant is placed makes attempted consensus
statements such as assuming the frequency of peri-
implantitis to be 20% of all treated patients
meaningless.56

CONCLUSIONS
(1) There is no evidence found in the literature that
the basic mechanism behind marginal bone loss
to oral implants is related to periodontitis like
lesions.
(2) The initial reaction to an oral implant is of a
foreign body nature of which osseointegration is
an example.
(3) The foreign body reaction inevitable when
placing an oral implant may combine with
various implant, clinician and patient-related
factors to result in marginal bone loss and/or
implant failure.
(4) The foreign body reaction presents with a locus
resistentiae minoris characterized by an increased
vulnerability for the osseointegrated implant.
(5) Secondarily, a worsened inflammatory response
or even infection may develop as a complication,
further threatening the implant longevity.
(6) The use of controlled implants and skillful
clinicians result in very good, long-term results
of osseointegrated oral implants with a due, long-
term balance of the foreign body response.
(7) Patient factors such a hereditary disease,
consumption of certain drugs, or smoking habits
may represent a threat to increased marginal
bone loss despite control of implant and clinician
factors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to Professors Peter Thomsen
and Pentti Tengwall, Department of Biomaterials,
University of Gteborg for their advice and for giving
valuable comments to this paper prior to submission.
We are further indebted to the Sylvn Foundation that
has supported this research project economically.

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