MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES OF THE ORIGIN OF DEVANAGARI SCRIPT

INTRODUCTION

Of all the achievements of the human mind, the alphabet as termed in English or
akshar as termed in the script of the Indian national language Devanagari, is the most
momentous! McMurtrie argues that, We use the letters of our alphabet everyday with the
utmost ease and unconcern, taking them almost as much for granted as the air we breathe. We
do not realize that each of these letters is at our service today, only as the result of a long and
laboriously slow process of evolution in the age old art of writing (qtd.in Zapf 9; Wakankar
33). The letter is the key that makes invisible knowledge visible throughout the existence of
time. The letter is the carrier of indelible, indestructible and conspicuously reflectively
sparkling torch for sparkling visual manifestation of understanding and realization
(Krishnamurthy 33).

Devanagari is an ancient Indian script. This paper probes in to the why, how and
whereof aspects of the origin of the script Devanagari, which has references in Indian
culture and history dating right back to the Vedic period.

In a personal interview, Mukund W. Gokhale clarifies that the Indian letter is called
an akshar. This word has the following meanings. Akshar is the combination of Devanagari
A + the word kshara, which comes to mean the non-perishable or immortal. Akshar also
includes the two words aksha (which means an eye in Sanskrit) + ra (derived from the words
ramaniya /ramanare), denoting something that is pleasant or beautiful to the eyes. Further on,
the word akshar denotes all the vowels beginning from a and concluding with the consonant
ksha which are pleasing to the eyes. Moreover, the combination of swar (vowels), vyanjana
(consonants) and swar vyanjana (vowels along with the consonants) used in the process of
writing, is called an akshar.

All the knowledge which mankind has acquired and will continue to acquire has been
unveiled to us by letter forms. These letter forms when woven into a sequence are known as a
script. A script has the power to transfer ideas, concepts and thoughts from the writers brain,
with the writers perspective, to an audience irrespective of gender, age, religion, nationality
and time.

Thousands of years ago in India, the akshar or alphabet was etched with a pointed
tool on tada-patra (palm-leaves found in abundance in South India) or bhurja-patra (the bark

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of the birch tree from North India), and then smeared with lamp soot for visibility. Hence, the
Indian script is termed as a lipi, derived from the Sanskrit word lip i.e. to smear (Joshi 128).

The purpose of language is to communicate, both verbally as well as visually, with

scripts that are symbolic in nature. The visual characteristic enables us to identify an A from
Z or a comma from an exclamation mark. The fundamental purpose of writing is to convey
ideas, but man was a designer long before he started writing.

The inherent urge to make things look better and the artistic execution of written
expression have through the ages produced some of the most beautiful writing styles of the
world: well-proportioned Roman letters on the Trojans column in Rome; the inscription
plate above the entrance to the interior; well executed cuneiform signs of the Sumerians; well
defined writings of the Indus valley; well- spaced and arranged hieroglyphs of the Egyptians,
well- structured and spirited sign of the Chinese, well- mannered Persian/Arabic writings of
the Middle East; and the well- defined writings of the Indus valley. These examples
invariably reflect not only the culture of these places, but also the structural, spatial, technical
considerations as well as the high aesthetic standards of the people at that time (Joshi 125).

One of the most interesting findings are those of James Princep, an Anglo-Indian
scholar, wherein he sees a connection between Sanskrit (a language of the Indian origin) and
Roman. He states, even now while we are quite raw in the study, we might almost dare to
advance that the oldest Greek was nothing more than Sanskrit turned topsy-turvey.

BACKGROUND OF THIS STUDY

Writing, in some or the other language, comes to us so easily that we seldom wonder
about the origin of the scripts. How and when did the Roman A or the Devanagari akshar
come into existence? Did they exist ever since the Adam age or were they discovered much
later? Were the alphabets always as we write them today or have they undergone an evolution
process? If so, how did have they evolved through various stages?

The focus on Devanagari has emerged from the intriguing name itself. Deva means
God and nagari means a city or a place.

As far as the Roman script goes, it is easier to comprehend that the origin must be in
Rome, hence Roman. But, how does the script Devanagari connect to the city of the Gods

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as the name suggests? Why is it not manav-nagari (the city of man)? Acharya Vinoba Bhave
termed Devanagari as Loknagari, which means from the city of man.

Ojha in his book, Pracheen Bharatiya Lipimala refers to the work of R.Shyam
Shastri having written an elaborate article The fundamentals of the origin of the Devanagari
script. Shyam Shastri has tried to prove that before the statues were carved of various deities,
they used to be worshiped with a language of signs which comprised of many circles and
square shapes in the centre of a place called Devanagar, hence the name Devanagari (29,
30).

Devanagari is said to be a script that enables one to write any language in the world.
Today it is used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Pali, Ardhamagdhi, Nepali, Rajasthani,
Awadhi, Bhilli, Bihari, Brajbhasha, Chattisgadi, Gadhwali, Gondi (Vidarbha, Gadchiroli,
Baitul, Chindwada and Mandala languages), Santhali etc.(Gokhale. Personal interview).

The letter form has become the most influential factor in the present environment of print
culture. While the content aspect of the written language is taught, learned and researched,
the formal aspect of visual dimension of the written language needs equal research. Although
several diverse perspectives of the origin of this script have evolved, there is little unanimous
discussion on this matter and its significance. This history and in particular the link between
visual representation and language is worth investigating.

BRAHMI (an ancient Indian script)

In ancient times, a script called Brahmi was widely used. Created by Lord Brahma
himself (Ojha 1), Brahmi script or lipi is actually the ancient form of nagari (Devanagari)
lipi. Although it is not known when the name nagai came into existence, during the tantric
age, the name nagar was found in use (Ojha 15).

There are several problems connected with learning the origin and developments of
Indian scripts, much like the early history of India that is still imperfectly known. With
emphasis and focus on the human voice as the transmitter of knowledge, Hindu grammarians
disapproved of reliability on writing, and hence a strong oral culture prevailed.

Maheshwari sutras (the root of Indian grammar) are the link to the Brahmi lipi. They
include the sequential depiction of all the vowels and consonants in the form of crescents.

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The Indian script must have been completed atleast a thousand years before Christ. Brahmi
evolved from the signs of crescents (Hebbar 8).

The nagari or Devanagari alphabet hence descended from the Brahmi script
sometime around the 11th century C.E. It was originally adapted to write Sanskrit but later
was adapted to write many languages (Wakankar 27, 28).Devanagari is unique for having a
design and phonetic similitude.

The Hindus had lost all knowledge of the mother-script Maheshwari (Proto-Brahmi).
Its simple and unambiguous technique remained unknown until the patient and painstaking
European missionaries collected thousands of old inscriptions and studied them, and at last
James Princep succeeded in decoding the Asokan Brahmi letters in 1837 (Wakankar 3).

L.S. Wakankar, in his book Devanagari lipi, udgam, vikaas va sambhavana (in
Marathi), has illustrated his view. He believed that all the languages of the world have their
origin in the Indian Crescental Maheshwari.

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Fig.1. Wakankar,L.S. Evolution of various scripts. Devanagari lipi-udgam,vikaas va
sambhavana. Bahishal Shikshan Mandal, Pune. 1986. p.13.Print.

The CONNECTION BETWEEN FORM and SOUND

Before one delves into the details of the various perspectives of the origin of the script
Devanagari however, it is necessary to understand the basic Hindu philosophy in brief,
especially the relation between form and sound.

Renowned Physicist Hans Jenny (1968) states, The more one studies these things,
the more one realizes that sound is the creative principle. It must be regarded as primordial.
No single phenomenal category can be claimed as the aboriginal principle. We cannot state
what came first, was it the numbers or symmetry? These are categorical properties which are
implicit in what brings forth and what is brought forth. By using them in description we
approach the heart of the matter. They are not themselves the creative power. This power is
inherent in tone, in sound.

A mythological story from the Rig veda states that sound was created by Lord
Nataraja when he danced the Tandav (the cosmic dance of Shiva). But this sound would
vanish in the air because it did not have a form. When form was given to sound, akshars (the
non-perishable) or letters were born. They originate from our vocal chords. Five contractual
places in our mouth were used to give them an identity. Gutturals (Kanthya), lingual
(Talavya), palatals (Murdhanya), labials (Aushthya) and dentals (Dantya) are the five
phonetic regions that have been identified (Wakankar 39).

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Fig.2. Wakankar,L.S.Devanagari lipi-udgam,vikaas va sambhavana. Phonetic Regions.
Bahishal Shikshan mandal, Pune. 1986. p.39. Print.

The Indian sages mastered this relationship between the various forms of existence
and sound. The sacred Indian scriptures such as the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedasare
based on the idea of converting existence into the form of sound so that one can let existence
reverberate within oneself by uttering a certain sound. By having mastery over sound, one
also has mastery over form. The method of preserving the purity of Vedas has been so
ingenious and exacting that even after thousands of years the content of the Vedas is with us.

This relationship between form and sound is referred to as mantra. When a thought is
put in the form of auditory contemplation, it is called a mantra. When this is given a formal
structure or technique that is visual in nature, it becomes a tantra. And if we make this
form some kind of a machine, then it becomes a yantra (Bhelke. Personal interview).

Maheshwari-sutras are considered to be the root of Indian grammar. The origin of

Devanagari has been presented through two different schools of thought viz. the Mantra and
the Tantra perspectives.

MANTRA PERSPECTIVE

Shiva-Maheshwara is the most popular deity of South India; and is also the earliest of
grammarians, followed by Bruhaspati, Indra and lastly Panini. The categories of sounds

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(Dhvani-gana) were given by Maheshwara Shiva to sages like Sanaka and others, when they
came to him for protecting the branches which were dwindling in the interlude of His cosmic
dance at Chidambaram. Sanaka and other sages had come to Maheshwara for acquiring some
device to save the Vedas from being lost. Maheshwara was pleased with the concern the
sages expressed. In response, he struck his damaru (drum like musical instrument) first nine
and then five- a total of fourteen times- to create a sound which had the form of crescents.
NatarajaShiva-Maheshwara gave 9+5 = 14 categories of sound, called Shivasutras, by
striking his trinklet damaru. The KashikaSutra states:

Nrittavasaane Nataraja rajao,

Nanaad dhakkam nav-panch vaaram,
Uddhartukamah sanakadi siddhan,
Etadvimarshe Shivasutrajalam.
This is also mentioned in grammatical Karika. The fourteen Maheshwari-sutras are
the basis of Paninis phonetic letters.
Table 1. Reconstruction of the Maheshwari Graphemes by A.B.Walawalkar.

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Source: Naik, B.S. Typography of Devanagari. Vol.1. Directorate of Languages,
Bombay.1971. Fig.7. p.50. Print.

In a metaphoric manner, the following gaatha or hymn explains the various stages
that the grammar created by Maheshwara (Lord Shiva) went through in order to reach us
today.
The Gaatha appreciates the ingenuity of Panini stating-

Samudravata vyakranam Maheshwara ,

Tadartha kumbhodharanam Bruhaspatau ,
Tadbhagacchhashatam Purandare ,
Kushagrah bindutpatiti Panini.

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This can be translated to

While Maheshwaras grammar was like a vast ocean, Bruhaspati (another ancient
Indian grammarian) reduced it to the size of a half pitcher. Indra (Purandara) reduced it to a
hundredth size, but Panini made it like a drop falling from the tip of the blade of a grass.

Bruhaspatis grammar is totally lost, but Indras grammar is indicated in later texts;
Taittariya Samhita which says the speech goes away and away to get lost. It is said to be
uncontrollable. So the Gods asked Indra to bring it into some discipline by giving it a unique
form (Vi-Akriti).Indra accepted with the condition that he will have air as his partner and so
the task was undertaken jointly by Indra-Vayu. He gave it unique forms. From then it was
known as visible language (Wakankar L.S. 83).

Panini learnt these sutras directly from Maheshwara. He elaborated the study of
letters based on phonetics and prescribed a standard course in addition for the students in
lower and higher standards, with his Ashtadhyayee text. Since then, India has studied the
Indian alphabet as per the classic tabulation of varnamala now in vogue. Due to the
precision, only Paninis grammar survived and others were entirely lost. From Paninis
Ashtadhyayee, it is presumed that in ancient India people were well used to reading and
writing (Wakankar 119).

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVANAGARI

It is interesting to observe how the Hindu origins of sound have contributed to the
visual representation of the script, especially with reference to the simple form of a circle. All
the akshars of this script have originated by bi-secting or tri-secting a circle.The circle is a
symbol of the Sun, the centre of all life and energy and symbol of eternity. As such, it is the
source of all power (Aryan 47).

All the akshars of Maheshwari script are constructed from these basic 5 crescents
(also see Table 2).

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Fig.3.Wakankar,L.S.Formation of Devanagari akshar from a circle.Devanagari lipi-
udgam,vikaas va sambhavana. Bahishal Shikshan Mandal, Pune. 1986. p.14.Print.

Another reason for circle as the prime shape could also be the fact that the ends of
Maheshwaras damaru (musical instrument) are circular.

The structural elements of Devanagari akshar include an inherent vertibar, the cursive
crescent form in all letters based on the impact of Shivas damarus arcs, top line on all
akshars except the mystic Aum, and the matra which is the vertical representative vowel
mark (Wakankar 8).When the akshars are read vertically, it is said to be the Maheshwari
method of reading; when read in the horizontal line, it is the Paninian manner of reading.

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Table 2. Indicates the verticle Graphic grouping of Pre-PaninianMaheshwari and the
horizontal phonetic groupting after Paninis grammar Ashtadhyayi.

Source: Wakankar, L.S. Ganesh Vidya: The Traditional Indian Approach to Phonetic
Writing. Script Study Group- Bombay .Tata Press Ltd.1968.n.pg. Print.

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The Graphic rationale in letter - design of Devanagari is as follows.

Table 3: Graphic Rationale in Letter Design of Devanagari

Source: Wakankar, L.S. Ganesh Vidya: The Traditional Indian Approach to Phonetic
Writing. Script Study Group- Bombay. Tata Press Ltd.1968. p. 11. Print.

In the first column, the design of the consonants is made up of only one basic
crescent. In the second column, consonants have one crescent and one aspirate sign attached.
The design of the consonants in column three has two basic crescents. The design in the
fourth column is created by two crescents and one aspirate sign. The fifth column nasal letters
are formed by adding a circle (nasal sign) to the basic crescent of the first column (Wakankar
39).

Further on, the Devanagari consonants are half or halant to begin with and are also

pronounced likewise in brief. It is only after the addition of the vowel , similar to a,
that the consonant becomes a complete clearly pronouncable consonant. In Devanagari the

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vowel-signs or matras are written in the form of straight strokes. Initially a small verticle
stroke was adpoted to denote inherent a which was developed to indicate other vowels by
grammarians, to indicate the distincttion between the vowels and vowel-signs joining with
consonants to form akshar (Naik 99) (convoluted sentence). The inclusion of the vowel a
has intriguing references in the Vedic texts. This leads us to the understanding of the ancient
Indian scribes beginning with Brahmanaspati Ganapati.

THE GANESHA TRADITION

One of the perspectives of understanding the design and form of the script is from the
Ganesha tradition, which is derived from various cultural and mythological scriptures.
Ganesha or Ganapatiis the popular elephant headed Hindu god. He is referred to as the first
scribe.In his article The art of writing in the Rigvedic period, Wakankar argues the three
prime attributes related to the creation of the Devanagari akshar:

1) Brahamanaspati Ganapati (Rig Veda): creator of the ganas

2) Ganapati (Atharva-sheersham): creator of the vertibar

3) Padma-Purana: reference to the head line

1.Brahamanaspati Ganapati (Rig Veda): creator of the ganas

Ganesha, the first in the school of Vedic scribes is the Lord of Categories (Gana).
Rigveda calls him Ganapati, lord of Gana (sound categories),poet of poets, senior to
Brahmana, and Brahmanaspati (Rig.2.23.1). Ganesha-Keelaka says in clear terms that
Ganesha incised writing and gave it to Prajapati (the potter), inspired by the mantras of
Shiva enunciated earlier.The creator of forms from the sound categories was
Bramanaspati who devised Maheshwari phonography before the existing Vedas were
composed by the Rishis. The circular shape comes from the Sun whom they prayed to with
the Gayatri Mantra-

Aum tatsaviturvarenyam, bhargo devasya dheemahi, dheyoyonah prachodayaat

(We adore the Sun, the great abode of God.

May he inculcate in our minds the great divine wisdom.)

The circle encompasses the whole universe-

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 Akhanda madala kaaram, vyaptam yena chara-charam

To Brahmanaspati Ganapati is dedicated the hymn-

Gananaam tva Ganapati havamahe

Kavim kavinamupamashravastamam
Jyeshtharajam Brahmana Brahmanapat
Aanashrunvam nuutibhi seed saadanam
(Oh master of the categorized sounds, Brahmanaspati, I offer you this hymn. Oh poet among
poets, elder than Brahma, listen to this new composition and protect me).

These hymns seems to indicate that the crescent script (ardhendulasitam) was
designed by Ganesha. Vowels and consonants were determined by the grammarians before
their designs were finalized.

2.Ganapati (Atharva-sheersham): creator of the vertibar

Ganapati was the scribe who helped Vyasa in writing his famous epic, Bharata, after
the Mahabharata war. The contribution of this scribe can be understood from the literary
evidence that he might have introduced the vertibar in every akshar to represent the inherent
sound of the A-vowel in it. Mention of the vertibar as akaro madhyama roopam,( I am
akaar and am the centre of each akshar ) is found in Ganapati Atharva Sheersha, which is
an Upanishad of Atharva Veda.

Moreover, in the Bhagawad Gita, an appendix of the Mahabharata, Lord Krishna

expresses that I am the A-kaar in every akshar(Aksharnaam akaroasmi).

There exist three types of vertibars viz. the mid-bar, end -bar and top-bar.

Mid bar letter-forms: (Madhay dandit akshare) The following Aksharas are included in this

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category.

Top bar letter-forms: (Sheersha dandit akshare) The following Akshars are included in this
category.

End bar letter forms: (Antya dandit akshare) The following akshars are included in this
category.

The following three akshars, not included in the categories above

comprise of the name of Lord Ganesha.

Only in these three, the consonantal crescent does not touch the vowelic vertibar, which
can be interpreted as to indicate the presence of Ganesha the deity in our speech and writing.
This script is therefore also called Ganesha-Vidya (i.e. knowledge of Ganesha).

3. Padma-Purana : Reference of the head line

Padma-Purana states that Shiva taught grammar to Rama of Ayodhya- an entire chapter
Shiva-Raghava-Samvad is devoted to this incident.It was written on palm-leaves and in
Devalipi-Bharati (the pre-Asokan phonography named Maheshwari). In this chapter it is
stated that all akshars except Om will have a head-line (shiro-rekha) (Wakankar 103).

In the early years of the rise of the king Chandra Gupta; he trained a batch of Nagar
Brahmins from Varanasi in his new style which he names Devanagari after Kashi, (the
Devanagar), which was used for writing of Mahabharata at Naimisharanya near Laxmanpur
(modern Lucknow). This style of writing Devalipi-Bharati was recommended for writing
Puranas, as mentioned in Padma Purana, Patal Khanda, chapter 100, recommending the use
of shiro-rekha on every letter except Om.

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From the Devalipi Bharati evolved the Gupta, Kutila, Siddhamatrika and Devanagari-
Nandinagari styles (Wakankar, 105).

TANTRA VIDYA PERSPECTIVE

A. Bindu-sphota

Bindu-sphota i.e. explosion of the bindu, is the theory of evolution of akshars, as

presented by the agam tantra. The tradition of the agama and tantra has evolved an
independent scheme of acquisition of occult powers through mantras, formed out of the basic
syllables named as mantra-matrkas. This phenomena is based on the ardha-nareeshwara
concept of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. WhileShiva represents the spandan or the
throb of the universe, Parvati his consort is the shakti or the energy essential to sustain this
throb. Ardhanareeshwara is graphically represented by a bindu or a dot wherein the left half
symbolizes Shiva and the right halfParvati. This school of thought states that all letter forms
have been derived by the explosion of this bindu and hence this is termed as bindu-sphota.
The chart depicts the manner in which the Devanagari letter forms have been created in this
perspective. The meaning of the shloka mentioned in the beginning is-

In the case of explosion of the dot, when a linear sketch is done as per the
description in the book Varnodharatantra, and thereafter when the alphabets a to ha
take shape. This exhibits the tabular display.

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Fig. 4. Krishnashram Swami. Formation of Devanagari akshar by bindu-sphota (explosion
of the bindu). Devanagari Lipimulyam. N.pag.

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 B. Iconography of Alphabets (Visualization of alphabets in divine form)

Apte argues that visualization of abstract concepts in some concrete form has been an age
old human temptation. The Purusasukta of the Rigveda which embodies a vivid
personification of the cosmic soul appears to have been regarded as a source of sanction for
similar attempts by seers contributing to other numerous fields of knowledge. In the field of
literature, Shabda Brahman is regarded as the ultimate principle behind all literary activity; as
such Shabda Brahman is placed on par with the pure Brahmana (cosmic soul). The process
of cosmic evolution emanating from the ParaBrahman through Prakriti, Mahat, Ahamkara,
(translation?) five gross and subtle elements, sense organs, mind, etc., finds a parallel in the
process of evolution of the literary universe emerging from Shabda Brahman through the
medium of basic sounds: vowels, consonants etc., multiplied by permutations and
combinations. Each unit of the alphabet is regarded as possessing some special power of its
own. Moreover, these are defined in feminine form for meditation and worship, for the
woman is the mother, the one who creates life by giving birth. Similarly, an akshar
enables the writer to create or give birth to literature or poetry. These mental visualization
are found described in verses known as Rupa- dhyana-Shlokas, in a tantra text known as
Siddhi-Sabara Tantra.

Some salient features of these forms are as under:

1. Each letter is often given a name by a word containing that letter at the initial
position e.g. Ajamukhi, Iladevi,Rtadhama, Anjanabha etc.
2. Each goddess has its own complexion; red, black, fair or golden etc. and
garments of various shades.

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Fig.5. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

3. Some of these forms are multi-faced, the number of faces being four, six, ten etc.

4. Some of these forms assume non-human faces; Akaradevi for instance, is goat-
faced (in order to depict the oneness of the cosmos).

5. Each form has varying number of hands- two to twenty- holding various weapons
and other objects, or exhibiting some mudra (gesture), vara (blessing), abhaya (fearlessness)
etc.

6. These goddesses have vehicles of their own in the form of birds or animals: swan,
peacock, elephant, lion, etc. These deities normally wear a strong and terrifying look, because
they represent powerful mantraShaktis (power of Vedic chants) (Apte 26).

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* Refer Appendix p.33.for the illustrations of all akshar deities and the translations of shlokas.

C. Isana-Shiva- Sutras (Tantric grouping of written alphabets)

Fig. 6. Apte,P. P.Isana-Shiva-Sutras (Tantric grouping if written alphabet).Caltis 85.p.28.

Print.

Isana-Shiva-Gurudeva-Paddhati (11th century C.E) is a tantric text with Shaiva bias.

Chapter 52 of the Mantrapada, of this book is entitled Yuddha-jaitra-karmavidhi or the war-
victory-rite. Many a times, we use the phrase the pen is mightier than the sword. This
phenomenon is in the similar league. The formation of various mantras to gain victory over
the enemy is elaborately explained in the chapter. The preliminary part of the formation of
mantras is the suitable grouping of the written alphabets. Like in the Paninian grouping of
sound into Shivasutras, the source here too is Lord Shiva.Shiva is supposed to have 5 forms
(pancha-murti). Suparna(Lord Vishnus carrier) created five birds assuming the body of five-
fold groups of alphabets based on the written or script form. Metaphors of five birds: 1)
Syena or Kantaka i.e. a hawk or falcon. 2) Pingala or sisu-uluka i.e. an owl. 3) Karandavai.e.
a duck 4) Sarasa i.e. a swan and 5) Barhi or Sikhi i.e. a peacock, were chosen, with each bird
to guide a group of eight letters-2 vowels and 6 consonants- as per their gait. The sixth group
of nine letters is left anonymous and described as unguided by the gait of any bird (Pakshi-

20
cara-vihina). We do not know what script was present in the mind of the originator of this
scheme when the idea of choosing a particular bird was conceived. These groups take
positions on the east, west, north, south and centre directions. A specialized scheme of
classification of script alphabets is proposed, apparently aimed at formulation of mantras to
gain victory over the enemy. The text further elaborates the scheme of writing the syllables in
a diagram showing inimical pairs of creatures including encircled lotuses prescribed for
writing of mantras.

This grouping could aptly be termed as Isana-Siva-Sutras on the lines of Paninis

Siva-Sutras, and could be said to complement those by supplying an aspect of script to the
phonetic (Apte, 1984).

INFERENCES AND OBSERVATIONS

1)Wakankar L.S. argues that the Indian grammarian analysed sounds and the parts of
the mouth which take part in their articulation, as well as the manner in which sounds can be
continuous (vowels) and those that are created through vocal stops (consonants). Whereas the
Semites made use of only the consonants for writing, Indian grammarians had elaborated the
basic vowels and their mode of modulating the realizations of consonants into their
modulated series. The Ionic Greeks must have learnt the role of vowels, and added them to
the Semetic consonants, and these came to the Romans through the Etruscans (69).

He further elaborates, both Roman and Devanagari are alphabetic, but in Devanagari
in each phonetic molecule there co-exists one alpha and one beta radical whereas Roman is
less able to represent satisfactorily languages of Europe. Devanagari is phonetically much
more reflective of basic human sounds. The following charts (about Phonetic periodicity in
both) shows the superiority of phonologically sufficient reflex of Devanagari over Roman
which has many gaps which have resulted in its inefficiency and spelling-ridden character
(69).

Hence an extremely significant observation on examining the phonetic chart, which could
serve as an explanation for the frequent need to rote learn spellings in English. The
limitations in the Roman - phonetic chart in palatals, linguals, gutturals, labials and nasals,
could be taken as insufficiencies of the language and script, which are further brought to
light when compared to the complete phonetic Devanagari chart.

21
Table 4. Phoenetic Graph

VOWELS LABIALS GUTTARALS PALATALS LINGUALS DENTALS NASALS

A B . C D . .
E F GH . . . .
I (J) . K . . L MN
O P Q . R ST .
U VW X Y Z . .

Source: Wakankar, L.S.Phonetic Graph. Phoenetic periodicity in Greco-Latin.Caltis

84.p.64.Print.

2) Modi elaborates, that the vertibar of inherent A Vowel is a must in every akshar or
syllable, and it may occur in one of the three following forms: (i) Mid-bar (marked
yellow),(ii) Top-bar (marked green), (iii) End-bar (marked blue).

Table 5. The complete Devanagari graph.

Source: Modi, Gopal Krishna. On Conjunct Letters.(i) Mid-bar ii) Top-bar (iii) End-bar .Caltis
84. p.84. Print.

3] In continuation to the above inference, what is obvious is the difference in the number of
alphabets in Roman and Devanagari. In Roman letters, capitals and small are just 26 in
number.

22
In Devanagari on the other hand,

Stand- alone vowels (Swar).18 (few of them are seldom used in present times).

Vowelisation signs (Matra).........17

Conjuncts.33

Combinations and conjuncts..Innumerable

(Wakankar 70).

4] Another interesting observation is regarding the basis of the letter being a crescent in
mantra and tantra perspectives. However, the number of crescents in every letter form varies
between the two perspectives, as indicated by the table below.

Table 6: Fundamental strokes in Paninis Bharati-Brahmi (Crescents)

23
 Source: Naik, B.S. Typography of Devanagari. Crescent chart by A.B. Walawalakr. Vol.1.
Directorate of Languages, Bombay.1971. Fig.26. p.96. Print.
Hebbar, Pandit Ganapatishastry.Baharatiya lipinche maulik ekroop. Bindusphot crescents.
Maharashtra Rajya Sahitya aani Sanskrutik Mandal, edi.first.1988.Chitra-vibhaag plates 19,
20. Print.

24
4. Another essential observation is that whether one looks at the Maheshwari crescent or the
Bindu-sphota, the iconographic representations or the Isana-Shiva-Gurudeva paddhati, all
of these are dogmas. If there has to be scientific acceptance of these dogmas, especially the
Maheshwari crescents, application of cymatics to justify and validate the conversion of
sound to form viz. the conversion of the sound of the damaru to crescents, is an area in need
of further scientific research and analysis, in order to lend greater credibility to this
perspective.

5. Evidence of the Akshar-Devis in Indian temples:

Situated in North Gujarat is the Minakshi Temple at Ambaji. This temple was built by Shri
Shankaracharya Jayendra Saraswatiji of Kanchi Kamakoti.
This ancient temple is a place of holy pilgrimage to the Hindu goddess Maa Amba, and is
popular in the scriptures as a Shaktipeeth.

The idols of akshar-deities surround the main sanctum sanctorum. There are 52 small
temples, each with the idol of an individual deity. The temple of Goddess Ambaji is based on
a Shree Yantra. The yantras in these Shaktipeeths are worshipped as per the rituals of tantric
scriptures.It is said that there are 51 letters in this yantra. One is prohibited to look at this
yantra with open eyes, and therefore the priest also worships the yantra blind folded. This
yantra is considered to be a Kalpavruksha(i.e. the Hindu mythological heavenly tree that
fulfils all desires).There is no idol of the Goddess in the Ambaji temple, but a Visva Yantra is
worshipped.

Besides the Ambaji temple, there is evidence of the akshar-devis even at the temple of Riddhi
Siddhi Devi in Ujjain. Similar photographs of akshar-deities adorn the dome of the temples as
paintings. Each letter (akshar) has a deity and a shloka starting with the same is seen even in
this temple.

Obervations By A.B. Walawalkar About Devanagaris Design Logic And Origin

Walawalkars cresental theory explains the basic laws of Maheshwari Sootras. In

1932, A.B. Walawalkar discovered certain insights about the Devanagari script-

1. The letters were created from the letters

by mere addition of a small circle to them, to indicate nasalization.

25
 2. A vertibar is a common factor in each Devanagari letter which is indicated clearly by
Krishna in the Bhagawad Geeta, X, 33

(I am the vertibar of A-Kar in each Akshar).

3. Comparative epigraphic chart indicated that the graphic forms with top bar Sheersha
dandit), have not changed much for centuries and
that the position of the vertibars determines the logical rules for making full letters
into their half forms, thus without an exception all Akshars get grouped into three
categories, mid-bar, end-bar,top-bar.
4. Apart from the headline and vertibar the remaining portions of the graphics of
Akshars are made up of logical crescents (ardhendulasitam) which are grouped
according to the order of the Maheshwari Sootras 914.
5. Maheshwari sutras are graphical groups of letters.
6. All aspirate forms

( kha cha ta tha pha ) and

(gha jha dha dha bha) were created from the respective

in-aspirate letter forms

(ka cha ta ta pa ) and (ga ja da da ba)

by addition of an aspirate-crescent in variant positions to avoid confusion in instant

recognition.

7. These are the key to the abbreviation used by Panini in the famous grammar
Ashtadhyayi (Wakankar 68).

26
LIMITATIONS OF DEVANAGARI

1. Till date, no methodology has been standardized for the designing of Indian letter
forms.
2. There is no source to identify the pronunciation and pitch of sound of a particular
character, and hence knowledge of intonation is a limitation. It can change the
meaning and syntax of contextual representation. Eg. Ka in anger, in love, in
enthusiasm will vary (Gokhale, personal interview).

SUMMARY and CONCLUSION

This research derives a lot from ancient cultural history, with intersections and
overlaps between various subjects ranging from fine arts to philosophy, aesthetics, cultural
studies, history, anthropology, scriptology, cymatics and also meta-physics.

Indias ancient history is still contemplated. Due to the multiplicity of rulers and
invasions and nature of Indian writing, sequential records are hard to find. Yet, whatever has
been understood is very significant. Though both the schools of thought i.e. the mantra
perspective and the tantra perspective seem equally unique, there is no consensus on either
one by the scholarly community and academicians.

The evolution of the phonetical component and visual form of Devanagari seems
interesting, but there seems to be no link between the two. Although the consonants do have a
point of contact in our mouth, it is difficult to see any form of the sound of the damaru as
claimed by the sages. Both sound and form are distinctively unique. There is need for
further research to identify the link between the two.

Ganapati Atharvasheersha states the importance of a as akaaro madhyama

roopam, due to which it is difficult to ascertain whether it is Ganesha or Krishna being the
centre of the letters. Nevertheless, it firmly states the importance of the vowel a. If viewed
in a meta-physical manner and seen as the presence of the super cosmic spirit, irrespective of
whether it is Ganesha or Krishna, it gives greater clarity.

It is difficult to mention the exact duration of the Bharati/Devalipi and Brahmi.

Walawalkar states (98) that the Indian alphabet was complete in the second millennium B.C.
and the Brahmi letters had taken traditional forms over a thousand years before Panini. Proof

27
of which is extant in the Djokha seal (2400 B.C.) and later in Babylonian tablet (sixth century
B.C.E.), both found beyond Indias frontiers.

As there is limited research on the Devanagari script, there is a lack of clarity on

certain topics. For instance, how many vowels does Devanagari comprise of? Some state 12,
some, 16, 18 and some even 20! Comparatively, the mantra perspective has greater clarity in
origin and design compared to the later evolved tantra perspective.

Though many are intrigued by the evolution and the mythological stories associated to
the origin of akshars, academicians state that these should be viewed poetically and not
literally. The dance of Shiva and the striking of the damaru need to be understood with a
poetic context. These were probably stories created to communicate to the masses the sanctity
of learning scriptures or scripts and to convince them that learning these should be pursued
with sincerity.

It is easy to see the design and uniqueness of form of the Devanagari script. But, it is
difficult for us living in the twenty first century to reverse the wheels of time and gather
evidence as to what Ganesha, Panini or Krishna are said to have said and done.

Devanagari is vowel dominant whereas the Greco-Roman script is consonant

dominant.

It is essential for one to know about and take pride in their origin and cultural
heritage. This paper contributes to creating awareness and generating knowledge of the origin
of the letter forms of the Indian national script. Although still debated and discussed, it is the
first document which presents all the perspectives in a comprehensive and consolidated form.
What is extremely evident is that ever since man has lived on this planet, he has been trying
to align his analytical, logical, and intellectual left brain with his poetic, creative and abstract
right brain. A challenge which continues even in the 21st century!

28
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ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig.5 a. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

33
Fig.5 b. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

34
Fig.5 c. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

35
 Fig.5 d. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

36
Fig.5 e. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

37
Fig.5 f. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms).

Rupa-dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

38
Fig.5 g. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

39
Fig.5 h. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

40
Fig.5 i. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

41
Fig.5 j. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

42
Fig.5 k. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyana-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

43
Fig.5 l. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

44
Fig.5 m. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

45
Fig.5 n. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

46
Fig.5 o. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

47
Fig.5 p. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

48
Fig.5 q. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

49
Fig.5 r. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

50
Fig.5 s. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

51
Fig.5t. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

52
Fig.5u. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

53
Fig.5v. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

54
Fig.5w. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

55
Fig.5w. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

56
Fig.5x. Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-
dhyan a-ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

57
Fig.5y. (Apte, 1984)

Apte, P.P. Iconography of Alphabets* (Visualization of alphabets in Divine forms). Rupa-dhyan a-

ratnavali.Ed. Hyderabad,1981.p.117-136.Shloka nos.136-186. Caltis 84. p.26-32. Print.

58
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59