INTERNATIONAL IS0

STANDARD 1100-1
Second edition
1996-02-I 5

Measurement of liquid flow in open

channels -
Part 1:
Establishment and operation of a gauging
station

Mesurage de d6bit des liquides dans /es canaux dkouverts -

Partie I: &ablissement et exploitation dune station hydrom&ique

Reference number
IS0 1100-l :I 996(E)
IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

Foreword

IS0 (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide

federation of national standards bodies (IS0 member bodies). The work
of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through IS0
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for
which a technical committee has been established has the right to be
represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental
and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. IS0
collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission
(I EC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.

Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are

circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an International
Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting
a vote.

International Standard IS0 1100-I was prepared by Technical Committee

lSO/TC 113, Hydrometric determinations, Subcommittee SC 1, Velocity
area methods.

This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition

(IS0 1100-I :I 981) which has been technically revised.

IS0 1100 consists of the following parts, under the general title Meas-
urement of liquid flow in open channels:

- Part 7: Establishment and operation of a gauging station

- Part 2: Determination of the stage-discharge relation

Annex A of this part of IS0 1100 is for information only.

0 IS0 1996
All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this publication may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and
microfilm, without permission in writing from the publisher.
International Organization for Standardization
Case Postale 56 l CH-1211 Geneve 20 l Switzerland
Printed in Switzerland

ii
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD Q ISO IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

Measurement of liquid flow in open channels -

Part 1: .
Establishment and operation of a aauaina station

1 Scope IS0 1000: 1992, SI units and recommendations for the

use of their multiples and of certain other units.

1.1 This part of IS0 1100 deals with the establish- IS0 1070:1992, Liquid flow measurement in open
ment and operation of a gauging station for the channels - Slope-area method.
measurement of stage or discharge, or both, of a lake,
reservoir, river or artificial open channel. IS0 1 IOO-2:1982, Liquid flow measurement in open
channels - Part 2: Determination of the stage-
discharge rela Con.
1.2 Requirements are specified for stage and for
stage-discharge stations in natural channels and IS0 3454:1983, Liquid flow measurement in open
stations with artificial structures, for direct discharge channels - Direct depth sounding and suspension
measurement and for measurement under ice condi- equlpmen t.
tions.
IS0 3846:1989, Liquid flow measurement in open
channels by weirs and flumes - Rectangular broad-
2 Normative references
crested weirs.
The following standards contain provisions which,
IS0 3847:1977, Liquid flow measurement in open
through reference in this text, constitute provisions
channels by weirs and flumes - End-depth method
of this part of IS0 II 00. At the time of publication, the
for estimation of flow in rectangular channels with a
editions indicated were valid. All standards are subject free 0 verfall.
to revision, and parties to agreements based on this
part of IS0 1100 are encouraged to investigate the IS0 4359:1983, Liquid flow measurement in open
possibility of applying the most recent editions of the channels - Rectangular, trapezoidal and U-shaped
standards indicated below. Members of IEC and IS0 flumes.
maintain registers of currently valid International
Standards. IS0 4360:1984, Liquid flow measurement in open
channels by weirs and flumes - Triangular profile
IS0 31 :I992 Quantities and units, all parts. weirs.
ISO 748:---I), Measurement of liquid flow in open IS0 4369:1979, Measurement of liquid flow in open
channels - Velocity-area methods. channels - Moving-boat method.

ISO 772:-J, Measurement of liquid flow in open

channels - Vocabulary and symbols.

1) To be published. (Revision of IS0 748:1979)

2) To be published. (Revision of IS0 772:1988)
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

IS0 437311995, Measurement of liquid flow in open 5 Stage-discharge gauging stations

channels - Water--level measuring devices. (natural channels)
IS0 4375:1979, Measurement of liquid flow in open
channels - Cableway system for stream gauging.
5.1 Principle
IS0 4377:1990, Liquid flow measurement in open
channels - Flat-V weirs. Water levels (stages) of rivers, lakes or reservoirs are
used in delineating flood hazard areas, and in the de-
IS0 6416:1992, Measurement of liquid flow in open sign of structures in or near rivers, lakes or reservoirs.
channels - Measurement of discharge by the ultra-
The stage or water level of a stream or lake is the
sonic (acoustic) method.
height of the water surface above an established da-
IS0 8368: 1985, Liquid flow measurement in open tum plane.
channels - Guidelines for the selection of flow
Water-level records are obtained by systematic ob-
gauging structures.
servations of a reference gauge, or from a water-level
sensor.
lSO/TR 9123:1986, Liquid flow measurements in
open channels - Stage-fall-discharge relations. When records of water level in streams are to be
used as a basis for computation of discharge, the re-
IS0 9196: 1992, Liquid flow measurement in open
lation between stage and discharge should be deter-
channels - Flow measurements under ice
mined.
conditions.
In a stable channel with appropriate control of the
IS0 9213:1992, Measurement of total discharge in downstream water level, a single relation may exist
open channels - Electromagnetic method using a between stage and discharge. In this case, the re-
full-channel-width coil. lation shall be determined from discharge measure-
ments at selected stages throughout the range of
IS0 9555-l :I 994, Measurement of liquid flow in open stage experienced at the station.
channels - Tracer dilution methods for the measure-
ment of steady flow - Part 1: General. Discharges can be determined using either velocity-
area methods according to IS0 748, tracer dilution
IS0 9555-2: 1992, Measurement of liquid flow in open methods according to IS0 9555-1, IS0 9555-2,
channels - Tracer dilution methods for the measure- IS0 9555-3 or IS0 9555-4, or ultrasonic methods us-
ment of steady flow - Part 2: Radioactive tracers. ing a temporary installation (see IS0 6416).

IS0 9555-3:1992, Measurement of liquid flow in open In the case where no single relation exists between
channels - Tracer dilution methods for the measure- stage and discharge, a relation may exist between the
ment of steady flow - Part 3: Chemical tracers. surface slope or fall, stage and discharge which may
require the establishment of a second stage (slope)
IS0 9555-4: 1992, Measurement of liquid flow in open gauge. Relations shall then be established on the ba-
channels - Tracer dilution methods for the measure- sis of these three factors, and discharge shall be de-
ment of steady flow - Part 4: Fluorescent tracers. termined from measurements of surface slope and
stage (see IS0 1070 or lSO/TR 9123 as appropriate).

3 Definitions 5.2 Main elements of a gauging station

For the purposes of this part of IS0 1100, the defi- The main elements required for establishing the his-
nitions and symbols given in IS0 772 apply. torical records of discharge in a stream from water-
level records are as follows:

- choice of control section or reach (see 5.2.1);

4 Units of measurement
- stage-measuring device (see 5.2.2);
The units of measurement used in this part of
IS0 1100 are SI units in accordance with the appro- - stage-sensing and -recording device (see 5.2.3 and
priate parts of IS0 31 and IS0 1000. 5.2.5);

2
0 IS0 IS0 11004:1996(E)

- discharge-measuring section (or reach) (see 5.2.2.1 Vertical and inclined staff gauges
5.2.6).
Vertical and inclined staff gauges shall meet the
For a stage-measuring station, the aim of which is to functional requirements described in IS0 4373, which
establish stage records only, see 5.2.2 to 5.2.4. may be briefly summarized as follows.

5.2.1 Control section (or reach) a) The graduations of a staff gauge shall be clearly,
accurately and permanently marked directly on a
A control section or control reach of a channel is a smooth surface. The numerals shall be distinct
natural or artificial section or reach whose physical and placed so that an ambiguous reading is not
characteristics are measured and used to determine likely.
the relation between stage (or stage and slope) and
discharge. b) The gauges shall be durable and easy to maintain.
The material shall have a low coefficient of ex-
A control section is one in which any change in the pansion, and shall be resistant to alternating wet
downstream stage does not affect the upstream and dry conditions and to wear or fading of the
stage. Whatever the discharge in the control section, markings.
a critical stage can always be recorded. In a control
reach no critical stage can be recorded. A control c) The gauges shall be placed near the bank, in an
section may be natural (e.g. a rock outcrop or sandbar) easily accessible position, so that water level can
or artificial (e.g. a weir, flume or culvert). be read from the shortest possible distance.

The sensitivity of a control section or reach shall be d) The gauges shall be simple to install and use.
such that any significant change in discharge shall re-
sult in either e) The gauges shall be placed in a calm area, as
close as possible to, and preferably in the same
- a measurable change in stage (for control cross-section as, the stage sensor, without how-
sections), or ever affecting stage at this level. When the am-
plitude of variation of stage can exceed the
- a measurable change in stage at one extremity of capacity of a staff gauge, other additional ele-
the control reach, and a measurable change in ments may be installed in the same cross-
surface slope between the two extremities. sectional area, normal to the direction of flow.
In order to establish a stable stage-discharge relation,
the control section or reach shall be stable, i.e. no 5.2.2.2 Other devices
change shall occur over time in its physical character-
istics. In some cases, a reference-point gauge with a device
for locating the water level with respect to the refer-
Several control sections may be considered for dis- ence may be substituted for a vertical or inclined
charge measurement for one gauging station. gauge.
Under given discharge conditions, the presence of a Needle gauges may be used when level variation is
downstream weir may create a water level which small (I m max.) and when the water surface is sta-
submerges an upstream weir used as a control sec- ble .
tion. This downstream weir may then be considered
as the new control section. When it is not possible to install vertical or inclined
gauges, wire-weight gauges may be used if a struc-
5.2.2 Stage-measuring devices ture exists permitting their installation over the water.

Stage-sensing and -measuring devices are the basic The functional requirements and conditions of instal-
elements of the equipment for measuring and re- lation of these gauges are specified in IS0 4373.
cording stage. They shall be stable.

A vertical or inclined staff g auge shall be located near 5.2.2.3 Gauge-zero elevation (see IS0 4373)
the stage sensor, to act as the refere nce gauge.
The establishment of the gauge zero shall be chosen
The water level indicated by the stage sensor should so as to avoid negative readings. To ensure that the
follow the water level indicated by the reference gauge zero remains the same over the duration of the
gauge. station operation, care shall be taken to ensure that it

3
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

is fixed low enough, especially for sites where scour expensive or impractical. The principle of the sensor
is severe. consists of discharging a small flow of compressed
gas into a tube, the free end (orifice) of which has
The zero of the gauge shall be correlated with a na- been placed in the water and fixed at an elevation
tional datum through a station benchmark. The gauge below the level to be measured. The sensor at the
zero and the other gauge divisions should be checked opposite end of the tube detects the pressure of the
annually with respect to this benchmark. gas, which is proportional to the head of water above
the orifice. Servomanometer and servo beam balance
This procedure allows replacement of the gauge in devices are some of the mechanisms employed in
case of destruction and maintenance of the same
which pressure is detected, and a strip chart recording
stage-discharge relation provided the control section
or electrical signal is obtained through a servometer.
is not modified. At least two independent station Pressure transducers of appropriate range and accu-
benchmarks should be established so that the gauge racy based on a piezoresistive principle, quartz crystal
zero can be conveniently recovered if one of the or other type may also be used to produce an elec-
benchmarks is lost or destroyed.
trical signal proportional to the water head. The func-
tional requirements and conditions of installation of
5.2.3 Stage-sensing devices these devices are described in IS0 4373.

When variations in stage are small, stage records may

be established by direct readings of the reference 5.2.3.3 Diaphragm pressure sensor
gauge by an observer. However, when stage varies
rapidly, the station should preferably be equipped with This is a differential pressure transducer which senses
a sensor and recorder (see also 5.4.5). the difference between hydrostatic and atmospheric
pressures. The body of the sensor is fixed in the
The stage sensor converts a change in stage into a channel at an elevation below the lowest stage to be
proportional quantity of shaft rotation or electrical sig- measured. It is fitted with a diaphragm, one face of
nal, which is then recorded. The stage sensor may be which is in contact with the water and the other face
a mechanical, pressure, electronic or acoustic device. is subjected to atmospheric pressure through a
The recorder associated with a stage sensor may be capillary tube which is vented to the atmosphere
a graphic (analog), digital, magnetic tape or electronic above water level.
device.
The deformation of the diaphragm under hydrostatic
pressure is converted into an electrical signal which
5.2.3.1 Float system
is proportional to the head of water above the sensor.
The typical float system consists of a float operating The use of such sensors is generally limited to re-
in a stilling well, a graduated steel tape or wire, a stricted measuring ranges because of the difficulty in
counterweight, a pulley and a pointer. The stage fluc- meeting the accuracy requirements defined in 5.2.4
tuations are sensed by the float and converted into over extended measuring ranges. The installation re-
an angular moment of the pulley-bearing shaft. quirements for these sensors are similar to those for
pneumatic sensors.
The dimensions of the float and counterweight deter-
mine the sensor sensitivity and the driving torque on
the output shaft. The functional requirements of still- 5.2.3.4 Downward-looking ultrasonic device
ing wells are given in IS0 4373 and are summarized
as follows: This device is located above the water surface, away
from the influence of the banks. The time is measured
- to provide, within the well, an accurate represen- for pulses of ultrasound to travel from the device to
tation of the water level in the channel; the water surface and back. The speed of sound in
air is assessed either from a measurement of air
- to damp out oscillations of the water surface; temperature, or by direct measurement using a target
placed at a fixed distance between the device and the
- to accommodate the recording instrument and water surface.
protect the float system.
The manufacturers recommendations for minimum
5.2.3.2 Pneumatic pressure sensor distances between the device and the banks and wa-
ter surface should be followed. In the presence of
This type of stage-sensing device is frequently used waves on the water surface, the device tends to de-
where the installation of a stilling well would be too termine the elevation of the wave crests. The range

4
@aIS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

of these devices (meeting the accuracy requirements surface of the flood water, and is deposited on the
of 5.2.4) is limited to about 2 m. centre rod as the water recedes, thus indicating the
maximum stage. Alternatively, the centre rod may be
5.2.3.5 Upward-looking ultrasonic device coated with a paint whose colour is permanently af-
fected by water.
A transducer is located below the water surface away
from the banks, and connected to an electronic unit. 5.2.4 Accuracy of stage measurements
The time is measured for pulses of ultrasound to
travel from the transducer to the water surface and For the measurement of stage, in certain installations
back. The speed of sound in water is assessed either an uncertainty of + 10 mm may be satisfactory; in
by direct measurement, using a target placed at a others, an uncertainty of + 3 mm or better may be
fixed distance above the transducer, or from data de- required; however, in no case should the uncertainty
rived from an ultrasonic flowmeter (see IS0 6416) of be greater than -+ 10 mm, or -+ 0,l % of the range of
which the level sensor is an integral part. the measuring device, whichever is greater (see
IS0 4373).
The manufacturers recommendations for the mini-
mum distances between the transducer and the 5.2.5 Water-level recorders
banks and water surface should be followed. In the
presence of waves on the water surface, the device 5.2.5.1 Analog recorders
tends to determine the elevation of the wave troughs.
Analog recorders produce a continuous graphic record
A common configuration consists of a vertical tube on a paper chart of the rise and fall of the stream with
extending above the water surface, with the respect to time, as measured by the stage sensor.
transducer and target at the lower end.
Graphic recorders may be mechanical, with a shaft
5.2.3.6 Other stage sensors rotation as input signal delivered directly by the level
sensor, or electronic (e.g. potentiometric recorders).
Other types of sensors exist which operate according
to mechanical principles (buoyancy), electrical prin- Regardless of their type, graphic recorders shall meet
ciples (capacitance or resistance sensors), or optical the requirements of IS0 4373.
principles.
5.2.5.2 Digital paper tape recorders
However, they are not covered in this part of
IS0 1100. Digital paper tape recorders punch or inscribe coded
instantaneous or discrete values on paper tape at
5.2.3.7 Maximum-stage gauge preselected time intervals.

A maximum-stage gauge may be used to obtain a re- 5.2.5.3 Magnetic tape recorders
cord of the peak level reached during a flood when
other methods of recording levels cannot be used. Magnetic type recorders record coded values of a
Peak discharges may be calculated from the water variable on a magnetic tape at preselected time inter-
levels at two gauges installed some distance apart in vals. Coding may be incremental, i.e. only level vari-
a stretch of channel, provided that the time lag be- ations between two measurements are recorded over
tween measurements is negligible (see IS0 1070). the time interval, or discrete values may be recorded.
These gauges do not meet the accuracy requirements In the latter case, the integer value is generally re-
of 5.2.4. corded in binary form. These recorders are coupled to
stage sensors via encoders, such as a rotational shaft
Maximum-stage gauges are locally made to different movement or an electronic encoder delivering elec-
designs. Basically they may consist of a vertically in- trical signals.
stalled tube of approximately 50 mm internal diam-
eter, down the centre of which runs a rod. The tube 5.2.5.4 Electronic memory (solid state) recorders
is perforated to permit rising water to enter, the per-
forations being located to prevent drawdown or vel- These recorders store coded values in an electronic
ocity head from affecting the static water level. The memory. Like magnetic tape recorders, they are cou-
top of the tube shall be closed to prevent the entry pled to stage sensors via digital coders suited to the
of rain, but it should have an air vent to permit water signal delivered. Stored values may be retrieved on-
to rise up the tube without significant delay. Pow- site or remotely consulted, using an appropriate de-
dered cork in the bottom of the tube floats on the vice.
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

5.2.6 Discharge-measuring section or reach removed. The field of view of a measuring section
(gauging section) shall extend sufficiently upstream to enable float-
ing debris, which might damage a measuring in-
The establishment of the stage-discharge relation at strument, to be seen in sufficient time to permit
a gauging station is carried out by direct measurement the removal of the instrument from the stream.
of discharge using the methods described in the ap-
propriate International Standard. c) Suitable access to the site shall be constructed
where possible, to provide safe passage at all
In a permanent gauging station, the measurement stages of flow and in all weather for personnel
section should be clearly identified and suitably and for any vehicles used for the conveyance of
equipped to provide satisfactory performance. instruments and equipment.
Regardless of the measuring method, the discharge
through the discharge-measuring section or reach 5.2.8 Discharge measurement by the dil ution
shall be the same as the discharge normal to the method
reference-stage gauge, over the entire range of dis-
This method consists of injecting a tracer solution of
charge rates.
known concentration into the stream and sampling
At a gauging station, different measuring sections or the tracer concentration at a point further down-
different methods may be used to cover the discharge stream, where turbulence has mixed the tracer uni-
range. formly throughout the cross-section.

The various methods which can be used for calibrat- The stream discharge is computed from a comparison
ing a gauging station are: between the concentrations of the injected solution
and of the samples taken downstream.
- the velocity-area method using a current-meter
(see IS0 748), the moving boat method (see The physical and hydraulic characteristics of the dis-
IS0 4369) or floats (see IS0 748); charge measuring reach shall meet the requirements
of the appropriate part of IS0 9555. The method relies
- the dilution method using a tracer (see on there being good mixing of the water and tracer
IS0 9555-1, IS0 9555-2, IS0 9555-3 and throughout the entire cross-section. Adequate length
Iso 9555-4); of channel shall be used between the injection and
sampling points.
- the ultrasonic method using a temporary instal-
lation in a self-calibrating mode (IS0 6416). 5.3 Preliminary survey and selection criteria

5.2.7 Discharge measurement by the The site selected for observation of stage should be
velocity-area method determined by the purpose for which the records are
collected, the accessibility of the site, and the avail-
The principle of the method is to measure the mean ability of an observer if the gauge is nonrecording.
velocity and the area of cross-section of flow, the Gauges on lakes and reservoirs are normally located
product of which is the discharge. near the outlet, but upstream from the zone where
an increase in velocity causes a drawdown in water
The physical and hydraulic characteristics of the dis-
level. Gauges on large bodies of water should also be
charge measuring section shall meet the require-
located so as to reduce the fetch of strong winds,
ments of IS0 748 for the method to be implemented.
which may cause damage or misleading data. Hy-
Where the site does not offer the main requirements draulic conditions are an important factor in site se-
for a gauging according to the specifications, condi- lection on channels, particularly where water levels
tions shall be improved as described below. are used to compute discharge records.

a) Minor irregularities in the bank or bed causing lo- 5.3.1 Preliminary survey
cal eddies shall be eliminated by trimming the
bank to a regular line and a stable slope, and by Detailed examination of a large-scale map is required
removing from the bed any large stones or boul- in the first instance. A low-altitude aerial survey (using
ders. a plane or helicopter) may be made if the basin is
large and not readily accessible by road vehicles. This
b) Trees obst rutting the clear view of the measuring procedure gives a better view than ground surveys.
section or measuring reac h shall be trimmed or Aerial views can be used as a basis for selecting po-

6
0 IS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

tential sites, which can then be evaluated and studied nonsensitive station can result in large errors in the
more precisely by ground reconnaissance. Ground re- discharges indicated by the stage-discharge relation.
connaissance will include a detailed visual examin-
ation of the site and enquiry among competent A comparison shall be made between the change in
services to determine whether hydraulic work pro- discharge and the corresponding minimum change in
jects exist which could modify the stream bed regime. stage to ensure that the sensitivity of the station is
This enquiry should include an investigation of past sufficient for the purpose for which the measure-
flow history, low water, high water, overflow areas, ments are required.
floods and bed instability.
5.3.2.4 Scale readability

5.3.2 Selection criteria It is essential that the reference gauge is easily read-
able and accurate at all values of discharge, because
A list of surveyed sites shall be establi shed with their stage readings are the basis of discharge measure-
advantages and drawbacks as to the esta blishment ments.
of a gauging station. Selection shall then be made
according to the following criteria. The water surface shall be calm to ensure that
readings shall correspond to the indication of the
5.3.2.1 Measurement range stage sensor. The gauge and the sensor shall there-
fore be installed close to each other in a low-velocity
The site selected shall be such that it is possible to area.
measure the entire range and all types of flow which
may be encountered or which are required to be 5.3.2.5 Accessibility
measured.
Ideally the station should be accessible, or made ac-
The entire range of measurement may be referred to cessible, at all seasons regardless of the discharge
one reference gauge, or certain ranges of discharge conditions.
may be referred to different gauges. Different meth-
ods of calibration may be employed for separate parts 5.3.2.6 Silting
of the range, the particular conditions relative to each
of the methods of calibration being specified in the When the stream carries a high sediment load, silting
relevant International Standard (see clause 2 and an- of the gauge may occur, especially in low-velocity
nex A). protected areas. Access to any stilling well should
therefore be provided to permit quick and easy
5.3.2.2 Stability cleaning.

The operation of a gauging station is based on the 5.3.2.7 Flood protection

assumption of a relation between stage and dis-
charge. Site inspection shall be carried out under low-water
and high-water conditions to study currents and
It is therefore desirable that this relation is stable at eddies. The sensor shall be placed out of reach of any
the selected site. This condition is met if the control floating debris to avoid accidental damage, and the
section or reach is stable and not subject to variable recorder should be set at an elevation to avoid being
backwater. flooded under high-water conditions.

Sites where weed growth prevalent shall be Public records shall be consulted, the vegetation shall
avoided, if possible. be observed and the population questioned to this
end.
There shall be no vortices, dead water or other
abnormalities in flow. Sites where difficult ice condi- 5.3.2.8 Discharge measurements
tions are prevalent shall be avoided, if possible.
During preliminary surveys, the possibility of using
5.3.2.3 Sensitivity one method of discharge measurement for the whole
discharge range shall be considered. It is preferable,
The site shall be sensitive, such that a significant but not essential, that the discharge measuring sec-
change in discharge, even for the lowest discharges, tion, or reach, is situated at the gauging station, but
shall be accompanied by a significant change in stage. it is satisfactory to use a measuring section at a dif-
Small errors in stage readings during calibration at a ferent location from the gauge if the same discharge

7
IS0 1100-1:1996(E) 0 IS0

is reco r.ded at both places. EXPIloratory measuremen ts However, a stage-discharge relation cannot always be
should be carried o ut to ch eck this requirement. established for alluvial rivers. In this case, the stage-
discharge relation is only applicable for the interval of
5.3.2.9 Possible site improvements time for which it has been verified by discharge
measurements.
When the main requirements for a measuring site
according to the specifications cannot all be satisfied,
improvements such as those described below can be
contemplated at the surveying stage. 5.4.2 Preparatory work

a) The loss of water from the main channel by After the preliminary survey, a topographical survey
spillage can often be avoided by constructing shall be made when selecting a permanent site for a
flood banks to confine the flow in a defined flood suitable measuring section. This shall include a plan
channel. of the site indicating the width of the water surface
at a specified stage, the edges of the natural banks
b) Minor irregularities in the bank or bed causing lo- of the channel(s), the line of any definite discontinuity
cal eddies may be eliminated by trimming the of the slope of these banks and the toe and crest of
bank to a regular line and a stable slope, and by any artificial flood bank.
removing from the bed any large stones or boul-
ders. At sites where a permanent measuring section is
warranted, the following preparatory work shall be
c) Unstable banks should be protected wherever carried out.
possible. Such protections shall extend upstream
and downstream of a measuring section for a a) All obstructions in the channel or floodway shall
distance equal to at least one quarter of the be indicated.
bankfull width of the channel in each direction. In
the case of float gauging; the whole of the meas- b) A longitudinal section of the channel shall be
uring reach shall be protected. drawn from a point downstream of a control,
where this exists, to the upstream limit of the
d) Instability of the bed may sometimes be corrected reach showing the level of the deepest part of the
by introducing an artificial control which may also bed and water surface gradients at low and high
serve to improve the stage-discharge relation stages.
(sensitivity) or to create conditions in the measur-
ing section for instruments to be effectively used. c) The reach containing the measuring section shall
Occasionally, it may be possible to eliminate vari- be checked to ensure that it contains no disconti-
able backwater effects by introducing an artificial nuities that may affect the measurement results.
control. Artificial controls are I however, not prac- At least five cross-sections shall be surveyed in
ticable in large alluvial rivers. the measuring reach: two cross-sections up-
stream from the measuring section and two
e) Installation of cableways, wa kways or footbridges downstream, at distances upstream and down-
as necessary. stream of not less than one bankfull width of the
channel.

54 Establishme lnt of stage -discharge ) The control shall be defined by one or more
cross-sections or by a close grid of levels over the
Aa tion gauging station
area.

5.4.1 General ) The detailed survey of the reach shall be extended

to an elevation well above the highest anticipated
The history of stage data shall be traced either by flood level.
periodic observations of a reference gauge for
streams having small variations in stage, or by con- f) The spacing of levels or soundings should be
tinuous stage recording at intervals as necessary to close enough to reveal any abrupt change in the
define the hydrograph adequately. contour of the channel.

The availability of a control section or reach establish- g) The bed of the reach shall be examined for the
ing a stable relation between stage and discharge can presence of rocks or boulders, particularly in the
convert stage records into discharge records. vicinity of the measuring section.

8
0 IS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

h) All key points at the site shall be permanently ible, the method of velocity distribution described in
marked on the ground by markers sunk to such a IS0 748 shall be used for these measurements to
depth below the surface as will secure them determine the feasibility of using reduced-point
against movement. Cross-section markers should methods (see 5.3.2.8 and 5.2.6).
be on the line of the cross-section to facilitate the
repetition of levels or soundings when the section For stations calibrated with current-meters, a standard
is checked. profile on the measuring cross-section shall be drawn,
indicating the position of the cross-section markers.
i) Where the main requirements necessary for a On this drawing, the positions selected for the meas-
suitable gauging site, as specified, are not pres- uring verticals may be recorded (see IS0 748). The
ent, conditions may be improved as described in bed levels of the cross-section shall be frequently
5.3.2.9. checked and the profile revised, if necessary.

The velocity measurements described above shall be

5.4.3 Stage measurement and recording repeated at more than one stage to ensure that any
abnormality of flow is detected.
A recorder shall be installed so as to produce a con-
tinuous record of stage at intervals as necessary to If the site allows it, the discharge-measuring section
define the hydrograph adequately (but see 5.4.5.1). It may be equipped with a device for improving the
may be desirable to establish gauges at both banks measuring equipment to be used. Bridges and
particularly when there is any risk of differential level. current-meter wading rods, cableways and current-
meter suspension equipment shall conform to
A station benchmark shall be established to conform IS0 4375 and IS0 3454.
to 5.2.2.3.

If a section control regulates the stage at low and/or 5.4.4.2 When floats are to be used for velocity
medium discharges at the gauging station, the gauge measurements, trial runs of floats shall be closely
shall be situated upstream from the control and suf- spaced across the width of the channel.
ficiently remote from it to avoid any distortion of flow
For stations calibrated with floats, a standard plan
which might occur in that vicinity. It shall be close
shall be prepared on which the lines of the selected
enough to ensure that a variable stage-discharge re-
floats, runs and the release points for floats shall be
lation will not be introduced through the effect of
indicated. A copy of this plan shall be kept in the in-
wind or weed growth in the channel. Higher dis-
strument house at all times (see IS0 748).
charges are most often controlled by the general
characteristics of the channel for a considerable dis-
tance downstream. 5.4.4.3 When dilution techniques are to be used to
calibrate the station, trial measurements should be
The reference gauge and water-level recorder shall be made to check the efficiency of mixing (see
located as close as possible to the measuring reach IS0 9555-l ).
unless floats are used to measure the velocities, in
which case the reference gauge and water-level re- 5.4.5 Operation of a stage-discharge relation
corder shall be located near the midpoint of the
ww i ng station
measuring reach.

The reference gauge shall comply with 5.2.2 and 5.4.5.1 The production of a satisfactory record de-
IS0 4373. pends on the station being maintained in full operating
order at all times. This requires efficient attention to
the recorder and proper maintenance of the station,
5.4.4 Discharge measurement its equipment and its calibration. Where a station is
fitted only with a reference gauge or reference
The stage-disc harge relation shall be establis hed by gauges (vertical, inclined, wire-weight or hook) and no
mea suring the discha rges corresponding to res pective water-level recorder, the local observers shall be re-
stage values. quired to furnish readings at specified intervals of all
the gauges in their care. Preferably the readings shall
5.4.4.1 When the station is to be calibrated using be made at fixed hours. The intervals between the
current meters to measure velocities, exploratory readings shall be determined by the rate at which the
measurements of velocities shall be made in the pro- water level at the site changes, but arrangements
posed measuring section and in the cross-sections shall be made to have additional readings when the
immediately upstream and downstream. When poss- water level is changing more rapidly than usual.
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

It is essential that the local observer records the exact - the application of the relevant International Stan-
time and correct date of each gauge observation. dard (see clause Z), or

5.4.5.2 When a recorder is provided, visits by the - by a previous calibration using other methods.
observer should be made throughout the period to
verify that the recorder is operating satisfactorily. The 5.4.6.2 Survey and selection of site
observer shall be required to record readings of stage
from the reference gauge with the exact time of re- A preliminary survey shall be made of the physical and
cording for comparison with the recorder reading. To hydraulic features of the proposed site to check that
relate the readings to a chart trace, the observer may it conforms (or may be constructed or modified so as
mark the chart. At all stations, the observer shall re- to conform) to the requirements necessary for meas-
cord any obstruction of the channel, for example by urement of discharge by the structure as specified in
weeds or ice, and shall note any casual obstruction the relevant International Standard given in clause 2.
of the channel, inlet pipe(s), measuring structure or
transducer mountings caused by flood debris or any Particular attention shall be paid to the following fea-
other cause. The site and equipment shall be kept tures in selecting the site.
generally clean and tidy, particular attention being paid
to legibility of the reference gauge. The observer may a) adequacy of the length of channel relative to the
be required to despatch all records, tapes or charts to regular cross-section;
the record office for processing immediately after
they have been completed, together with any relevant b) uniformity of the existing velocity distribution;
notes or observations.
c) avoidance of a steep channel (Froude number
5.4.5.3 Every gauging station shall be inspected shall not exceed approximately 0,5);
whenever any incident which might affect its accuracy
is reported by the observer. ) effects of any increased upstream water levels
due to the measuring structure;
5.4.5.4 All mechanical recorders and recorder clocks ) conditions downstream of the control structure
shall be cleaned and lubricated in accordance with the (including tides, confluences with other controlling
manufacturers instructions or as indicated by experi- features, seasonal weed growth);
ence under prevailing operating conditions.
f) impermeability of the ground on which the struc-
5.4.5.5 The elevation of all key points (including par- ture is to be founded and the necessity for piling,
ticularly the zero of the reference gauge) shall be grouting or other means of controlling seepage;
surveyed when the station is established and shall be
checked by reference to the station benchmark at g) necessity for flood banks, to confine the maxi-
least annually or following any flood when equipment mum discharge to the channel;
might have been damaged by debris or by ice. At the
same time, any vertical staff gauge shall be tested for h) stability of the banks, and the necessity for trim-
verticality. Where feasible, correlation of the station ming and/or revetment;
benchmark with a National Survey datum shall be
checked at intervals of not greater than five years. 9 uniformity of section of the approach channel.

If the site does not possess the characteristics

5.4.5.6 Bed profiles shall be checked after a flood.
necessary for satisfactory measurements, or if an in-
spection of the stream shows that the velocity dis-
5 .4.6 Stage-discharge gauging stations with tribution in the approach channel deviates appreciably
a rtificial controls (notches, weirs and flu mes) from uniformity, the site may have to be rejected un-
less suitable improvements are practicable. Alterna-
5.4.6.1 Principle tively, the performance of the installation shall be
checked by independent flow measurement.
When physical and hydraulic conditions permit, an ar-
tificial control consisting of a fixed, undeformable The flow conditions downstream of the structure are
structure may be installed. The stage-discharge re- important in that they control the tail-water level
lation shall then depend on the geometrical charac- which may influence its operation. The structure shall
teristics of the artificial control and shall be defined be so designed that it cannot become drowned under
either by the operating conditions specified in the relevant

10
0 IS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

International Standard. Construction of a measuring 5.4.6.3.2 Nonstandardized measuring structures

structure in a river or stream may alter conditions and
cause scouring downstream of the structure, hence A combination of different standardized measuring
appropriate bank and bed protection should be in- structures is also permissible using standard cali-
cluded in the design. bration equations for each structure (compound
gauging structures). Nonstandardized measuring
If the flow in the approach channel is disturbed by ir- structures require a field or laboratory calibration over
regularities in the boundary, for example large boul- the entire range of discharge to be measured.
ders or rock outcrops, or by a bend, sluice gate or
other feature which causes asymmetry of discharge
5.4.6.4 Choice of measuring structure
across the channel, the accuracy of gauging may be
affected. The flow in the approach channel should
A guide for the selection of weirs and flumes is given
have a symmetrical velocity distribution; this can most
in IS0 8368, to which reference shall be made.
readily be ensured by providing a long straight ap-
proach channel of uniform cross-section. The parameters involved in selecting a structure are:

The cross-section of the approach shall be uniform for - expected difference in water level (afflux) after
a length of approximately IO times the width, in order construction;
to produce a regular (uniform) velocity distribution
(see the International Standards on weirs and flumes - measuring accuracy;
listed in clause 2).
- dimensions and shape of channe .
I

Conditions in the approach channel can be verified by

inspection or measurement. Several methods are - conditions of flow in the approac \ channel;
available, such as floats, velocity rods, or concen-
trations of dye, the latter being useful in checking - presence of floating or suspended debris;
conditions at the bottom of the channel. A complete
and quantitative assessment of velocity distribution - magnitude and range of discharge to be meas-
may be made by means of a current-meter. ured.

5.4.6.5 Construction and installation

5.4.6.3 Types of measuring structure
The gauging station shall consist of an approach
channel, a measuring structure (including its associ-
ated upstream gauges), a downstream channel and a
5.4.6.3.1 Standardized measuring structures reference gauge. Normally a water-level recorder is
installed to provide a continuous record of head.
The calibration equations of standardized measuring
structures which are the subject of International The measuring structure shall be rigid and watertight,
Standards shall be strictly complied with (see and capable of withstanding flood-flow conditions
clause 2): without damage from flow around the ends or from
downstream erosion. The axis shall be in line with the
a) thin-plate weirs direction of flow of the upstream channel, and the
geometry shall conform to the dimensions given in
- full-width the relevant International Standard (see clause 2).
- with side contraction
- notches The surface of a flume may be constructed in con-
crete with a smooth cement finish or surfaced with a
b) broad-crested weirs smooth noncorrodible material. The weir crest shall
be constructed using precision tooling.
- rectangular, with sharp edges
- rectangular, with rounded edges Precautionary measures shall be taken to avoid
- triangular profile scouring, particularly downstream.

c) standing-wave flumes Appropriate devices shall, if necessary, be placed up-

stream to straighten flow in the approach channel.
- with side contraction These devices may be in the form of baffles in order
- with hump to avoid asymmetric flow and to obtain an acceptable

11
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

velocity distribution in the vertical and horizontal measure water level at two locations sufficiently far .
planes. apart to compute water-surface slope (or fall). A re-
lation between slope (or fall), stage and discharge can
5.4.6.6 Checking of dimensions be developed according to the procedure given in
lSO/TR 9123. The site should be sensitive, such that
In order to obtain an acceptable uncertainty in the even for the lowest discharge, there should be
discharge, the tolerances in construction, which are measurable fall between the two gauges. Small errors
given in the relevant International Standards, shall be in stage readings during calibration at a nonsensitive
followed. The structure shall therefore be measured station can result in large errors in the discharge indi-
on completion and average values of relevant dimen- cated by the stage-fall-discharge relation.
sions and their standard deviations at 95 % confi-
dence limits computed. The former shall be used for 5.5.2 Preparatory work
computation of discharge and the latter shall be used
to obtain the overall uncertainty in the determination A preliminary survey should be made to ensure that
of discharge. a length of reach is adequate to provide sufficient fall
for acceptable accuracy. Two suitable gauging sites
5.4.6.7 Stage measurement should be available, one at each end of the reach, for
the purpose of measuring water level. There should
The position of the stage (head)-measuring section be no significant tributary inflow to or outflow from
with respect to measuring structures is dealt with in the reach between the two gauging sites.
the relevant International Standard. If a flow straight-
ener or baffle is used upstream, the distance between 5.5.3 Stage measurement and recording
the stage-measuring section and this device shall not
be less than 10 times the maximum head. 5.5.3.1 Composition of gauging station

As the size of the structure and the head reduce, The gauging station shall consist of two water-level
small discrepancies in construction, in the zero setting gauges, one of which is the reference gauge. Water-
and reading of the stage-measuring device become level recorders may be installed to produce a con-
of greater relative importance. tinuous or intermittent record of stage. The reference
gauge should be located as close as possible to the
The accurate initial setting of the zero of the stage- discharge measurement site.
measuring device with reference to the level of the
weir crest or the invert of the throat, and regular
5.5.3.2 Benchmarks
checking of this setting thereafter, are essential if
overall accuracy is to be maintained. Gauging-station benchmarks shall be established to
An accurate means of checking the zero shall be pro- maintain the datum of the gauge zero. Benchmarks
vided. The instrument zero shall be obtained by a di- should conform to 5.2.2.3.
rect reference to the crest level or throat invert, and
a datum plate shall be set on the wall of the approach 5.5.3.3 Stage (reference) gauges
channel and in the stilling well accurately levelled with
reference to the crest or throat. The stage-measuring gauges and recorders shall con-
form in all respects to the requirements of stage
The reference gauge and recorder shall conform to gauges specified in 5.2.3 and IS0 4373.
IS0 4373.
5.5.4 Discharge measurement
5.5 Establishment and operation of a The stage-fall-discharge relation shall be calibrated by
stage-fall-discharge relation gauging station measuring the discharge corresponding to different
(two gauges) stage and fall values. Discharge measurement shall
be made in accordance with IS0 748 or IS0 4369.
5.5.1 General
5.5.5 Operation of the station
In a stable channel with variable downstream control
of water level, when there is no unique relation be- The operation of the station shall conform to the
tween stage and discharge, there may be a relation specifications in 5.5 for the two gauges and stage re-
between water-surface slope (or fall), stage and dis- corders. As the slope or fall is determined by a dif-
charge. In such channels, two gauges are used to ference between stage reading at two gauges, careful

12
0 IS0 IS0 1100-I :1996(E)

attention should be given to stage and time adjust- taining the transducers, the velocity distribution
ments for the two recorders. shall be uniform.

Cause of distortion or interruption of the acoustic

6 Direct discharge-gauging stations signal, e.g. weed growth, suspended materials,
entrained air bubbles, etc., shall be avoided. To
For these types of station, control sections or control avoid refraction of the acoustic signal, minimum
reaches are not necessary. Instantaneous measure- depth requirements as a function of the acoustic
ment by appropriate means of the cross-sectional area path length and signal frequency shall be com-
and mean velocity can be used for the determination plied with. Refraction may also be caused by
of discharge. temperature gradients.

Adequate electrical power shall be available or

61. Ultrasonic gauging stations made possible.

6.1 .I Principle
6.1.3 Design and construction
The principle of the ultrasonic (acoustic) method is to
measure the velocity of flow at a certain depth in the The gauging station shall consist of:
channel by transmitting acoustic pulses in both di-
rections through the water from transducers located
a) one or more pairs of transducers (single-path or
multipath); either
in the bank on each side of the river. The transducers
may be designed to transmit and receive pulses. They
1) installed on each bank and fixed permanently
are staggered so that the angle between the acoustic
in position, or
path and the direction of flow is usually between 30
and 60. 2) installed on each bank, and having facility of
movement in the vertical plane or on an in-
The difference between the time of travel of the
cline.
pulses crossing the river in an upstream direction and
those travelling downstream is directly related to the
b) an electronic console containing an electronic data
average velocity of the water at the depth of the
processor and a data recorder, or an output to a
transducers. This velocity can then be related to the
telemetry system;
average velocity of flow of the whole cross-section
and, if desired, by incorporating an area factor in the
d a level recorder interfaced with an electronic data
electronic processor the system will provide an output processor;
(readout) of discharge.
d) a reference-stage gauge.
The requirements for the selection of site, design,
construction and operation of an ultrasonic gauging All interconnecti ngcables to or from transducers shall
station are dealt with in IS0 6416. A summary of the be shielded and da mage-protected.
main requirements and specifications is given in the
following sections. The decision to use a single-path or multipath system
will depend on the intended accuracy of the desired
6.1.2 Selection of site system, the range in stage to be expected, the verti-
cal velocity distribution at these stages and the at-
A preliminary survey shall be made to ensure that the tenuation and reflection limitations. If a satisfactory
physical and hydraulic. features of the proposed site rating can be achieved from a velocity index at all
conform to the requirements for the application of the stages, the single-path system may be considered in
method. preference to a multipath system. For this method of
fixed transducers, a path or index velocity is obtained,
The site selected shall be such that it is feasible to which is related to stage and area to obtain discharge.
measure the entire range and all types of flow which Calibration by current-meter is required in this
may be encountered or which are required to be method.
measured. The following factors should be con-
sidered. For the method whereby the transducers are de-
signed to move on a vertical or inclined assembly, the
a) Abrupt bends in the channel shall be avoided. In system is self-calibrating. This is performed by estab-
the reach between the two cross-sections con- lishing vertical-velocity curves by moving the trans-

13
IS0 1100-1:1996(E) 0 IS0

ducers to the various paths and obtaining a series of 6.2 Electromagnetic gauging stations
path velocities in the vertical. This should be per-
formed at different values of stage and the resulting
6.2.1 Principle
curves analysed to determine the optimum location
to fix the transducers.
The principle of the electromagnetic method is to
measure the potential difference generated across
In the multipath system, where several pairs of
the width of the channel when the water flows
transducers are employed, the optimum positions of
through a vertical magnetic field generated by a coil
these shall be determined from a preliminary examin-
located either beneath or above the channel. The
ation of vertical-velocity curves obtained by current-
electrical current through the coil is reversed at reg-
meter. The transducers should be fixed and preferably
ular intervals in order to generate an oscillating mag-
mounted on an assembly.
netic field, the potential difference measured being
When the positions of the transducer mountings have proportional to the spatial average of the velocity of
been decided, the angle and path length between the the water in the channel. The system is described in
mountings shall be carefully surveyed for subsequent detail in lSO/TR 9213.
programming into the electronic processor. A survey
of the bed level between the transducer mountings 6.2.2 Selection of site
along the path length shall be made, and the average
bed level shall then be calculated for input into the A preliminary survey shall be made to ensure that the
electronic processor where discharge is being deter- physical and hydraulic features of the proposed site
mined on-site. This survey shall be repeated period- are in accordance with the requirements given in
ically as an operational requirement. lSO/TR 9213. Particular attention shall be paid to

The reference gauge and level sensor shall be in ac- - avoiding areas where electrical interference may
cordance with IS0 4373. The ultrasonic equipment occur;
shall be in accordance with IS0 6416.
- availability of power supply;

- access and working space for construction of the

coil;
6.1.4 Calibration
- pos sible tempora ry diversion of the channel to al-
The calibration of an ultrasonic gauging station should low an insulating membrane to be installed;
be performed by the ultrasonic meter itself. If
necessary a check calibration should be made by - width-to-depth ratio of the channel;
current-meter. If channel conditions change with time,
it will be necessary to re-evaluate the calibration. - need to calibrate the gauge by an alternative
method after construction;

- avoiding rapid changes in water quality.

6.1.5 Operation of the station

6.2.3 Design and construction
The production of a satisfactory record depends on
The gauging station shall consist of
the station being maintained in full operating order at
all times. This requires proper maintenance of the a) a field coil installed below or above the channel;
station, its equipment and its calibration.
b) a pair of electrodes, one on each side of the
In carrying out checks on the equipment, the in- channel;
structions given in the manufacturers handbook shall
be followed. The operator shall arrange to have spe- d an insulating membrane, where necessary;
cial training, and be able to attend to minor defects in
the system, should they occur. d) an instrument unit including a coil power supply;

The electrical energy source shall be reliable or as- e) a water-level measuring device;
sisted; if not, automatic restart of the station shall be
provided in case of power failure. f) a reference-level gauge.

14
0 IS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

The station shall be constructed in accordance with ational during extended periods of freezing tempera-
lSO/TR 9213. tures. This may be achieved by the following.

6.2.4 Calibration a) Construct the well of nonconductive materials, or

insulate to prevent frost penetration.
After the station has been installed, a rating equation
for the calculation of discharge, Q, should be devel- b) Where necessary and feasible, the lower inlet
oped of the form: pipe shall be wrapped with electrical heating tape,
or the heating tape placed inside the inlet pipe, so
Q = (K, + h - K2h2)$/H that it may be kept free of ice using a commercial
power source or portable generator. A steaming
where apparatus having the necessary length of steam
hose may also be used to thaw an inlet pipe.
K, and K2 are constants;

h is the depth;
c) Inlet pipes shall be positioned such that the lower
pipe is below the bottom of the ice sheet, and the
is the potential difference measured be- upper pipe is above the ice sheet. In this way the
4
tween the electrodes; recorder will operate on the lower inlet during the
freezing period and, should lower inlet freeze, the
H is the magnetic field computed from the upper inlet will become operative during the
dimensions of the coil and its position snowmelt freshet while the lower intake thaws.
relative to the water flowing in the chan-
nel. d) Stilling wells which are constructed far enough
into the bank to be below the frost line may be
The gauging station shall be calibrated by current- kept free of ice through the use of a removable
meter or other method, to ensure that the equipment insulated subfloor. The subfloor shall be pos-
performs as expected by the theoretical rating itioned below the frost line but above the maxi-
equation, over the whole range of flows and depths mum likely water level during the freezing period.
expected. Care shall be taken to ensure that the ac- Provision shall be made for free passage of the
tivity of calibration does not affect the working of the float and counterweight wires. The subfloor
electromagnetic gauge. should be removed prior to the snowmelt freshet.

6.2.5 Operation of the station d In certain areas, the use of the following method
may be acceptable. An open-ended waterproof
The station shall be maintained in accordance with the cylinder, of diameter larger than the float diam-
recommendations given for ultrasonic gauging eter, shall be placed vertically in the well and par-
stations in 6.1.5 . Periodic checks should be made to tially filled with a nonvolatile petroleum distillate.
ensure that the level of electrical interference does The cylinder shall be of sufficient length and in-
not significantly increase, and that the rating equation stalled such that the lower end will be substan-
remains valid. tially lower than the minimum anticipated water
level and the upper end higher than the maximum
anticipated water level for the period over which
7 Measurement of stage and discharge freezing temperatures occur. Care should be
under particular conditions taken to ensure that the float will ride freely in the
cylinder and the travel of the counterweight is not
impeded. The cylinder and petroleum distillate
7.1 Ice conditions should be removed before the spring freshet. If
the petroleum distillate escapes from the cylinder,
Weather conditions such as frost or ice may impede
errors in stage record will result because of the
the operation of the stage-sensing device or recorder
difference in specific gravity between water and
and the application of normal measuring methods,
distillate.
thus affecting the stability of the stage-discharge re-
lation (see 8.4.1).
f 1 Stilling wells may be heated by means of elec-
trical or propane (bottled gas) heaters. In some
7.1 .I Stilling well instances, it may be necessary to mount the
heater on a separate float system or to incorpo-
Any stilling well and inlet pipes shall be constructed rate an electric immersion heater into the recorder
in such a manner that the system will remain oper-

15
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

float to prevent freezing of the well. The quantity b) The body of the sensor should be located away
of heat provided shall be the minimum required from locations where anchor ice or ice jams might
to keep the stilling well ice-free. Overheating of form, such as above rapids.
the well will result in production of excessive wa-
ter vapour which will condense as frost in the re- c) All connections and lines leading to the sensor
corder housing possibly causing jammed doors, shall be protected from ice damage by burying
recorder and clock malfunctions. them to a sufficient depth, or enclosing them in
a duct.
It may be necessary to heat the water stage
instrumentation to ensure continuous operation d) The elevation of the body of the sensor shall be
under severe temperatures, although some in- checked periodically by surveyors level to main-
struments will operate at temperatures of tain the established elevation and to ensure there
- 45 C if special cold-temperature lubricants are has been no vertical movement due to ice or
used. floating debris.

7.1.2 Pneumatic pressure sensor 7.1.4 Notches, weirs and flumes

The following precautions should be taken to protect Where necessary and feasible, these structures shall
a pneumatic pressure sensor under ice conditions. be heated during the freezing period to ensure that
the head-discharge relation is applicable during the
a) The orifice from which the compressed gas exits
winter. This may be accomplished by suspending an
into the stream shall be mounted at an elevation
array of electric or propane radiant heaters from a
below that of the bottom of the ice sheet that
hood over the structure, or by enclosing the entire
would normally form at the gauging station.
structure, leaving openings for the free inflow and
outflow of water. The space enclosed in this manner
b) The orifice shall be installed remotely from lo-
may then be heated.
cations where anchor ice may form, such as
above rapids, to prevent blockage of the orifice. The elevation of the structure shall be checked by
surveyors level during the ice period to ensure the
cl Where there is a possibility of the orifice becom- structure has not heaved due to freezing of the soil.
ing frozen, the gas-feed pressure shall be reduced
to a value less than the pressure equivalent to the
full-scale range of the instrument. This will pre- 7.2 Weed growth at gauging stations
vent possible instrument damage in the event of
the orifice becoming blocked. Weed growth in the water changes the hydraulic flow
conditions in the control reach, and hence the stage-
d The pipe to the orifice shall be buried in the bank discharge relation. Seasonal plant development
to a depth sufficient to prevent damage from ice makes it necessary to correct discharge measure-
scour during a freshet. ments, in order to follow the variations in the stage-
discharge relation. The observer shall note the dates
d The mercury used in some instruments solidifies when weeds appear and disappear, the development
at approximately - 40 C, preventing collection of and density of vegetation, and the dates of weed-
water-level information at colder temperatures. clearing campaigns.
The instrumentation shall be heated to the mini-
mum operating temperature stated by the manu- To determine discharge, the following procedure shall
facturer, if uninterrupted operation is required. be followed.
Battery power supplies may be waterproofed and
placed in the stream to obtain satisfactory per- a) A reference stage-discharge relation shall be es-
formance during extremely low temperatures. tablished in the absence of weed.

II.3 Diaphragm pressure sensor b) For each discharge measurement affected by

weeds, the stage difference with respect to the
The following precautions sh ould be ta ken to protect reference stage-discharge relation shall be deter-
a diaphragm p ressure sensor under ice conditions. mined.

a) The body of the sensor should be located at an I) Using site data, a curve of variation of these
elevation below the bottom of the ice sheet that differences as a function of the days of the
would normally form at the gauging station. year shall be plotted.

16
0 IS0 IS0 11004:1996(E)

2) When processing records, stage readings the use of stage-discharge curves and station-rating
shall be corrected to take into account the tables, in the case of a velocity-area station, and the
stage differences with respect to the stage weir or flume equation in the case of a measuring
readings on the curve for the day under con- structure, should be made for each water level, mak-
sideration, and shall then be converted into ing all necessary corrections. The daily mean dis-
discharge valves using the reference stage- charge should be computed independently. For the
discharge relation. computation of daily mean discharge, the assumption
is often made that changes in water level which take
Weed growth due to water pollution may impede place between readings, whether these are observa-
proper operation of stage sensors (obstruction of tions of a gauge or readings from a recording instru-
tappings). ment, vary linearly with time. This is not necessarily
the case. Readings should therefore be taken at fre-
Weed growth may also be an obstacle in using ultra- quent enough intervals to ensure that the assumption
sonic devices for the measurement of velocities (see of linearity is valid.
6 . 1).
8.1.3 Extrapolation of the stage-discharge
7.3 Rapid changes in discharge relation
The design and construction of the gauging station A stage-discharge curve should not be applied outside
shall provide for failure-free operation of the station in the range of observations upon which it is based. If
the case of sudden floods and rapid changes in stage estimates of flow, however, are required, they should
and discharge. If recording of stage is not continuous, be so identified having regard to the range, number
the frequency of stage readings shall be such that and quality of the observations which have been
changes are observed without undue delay. made, to the natural features of the gauging station
Because flow may change rapidly, the stage- and to the conditions of flow with respect to time.
discharge relation may show a hysteresis effect. Little reliance shall be placed on extrapolation below
Plotting shall therefore be made in accordance with the lowest observed value (see IS0 1100-2). Dis-
IS0 II 00-2. charges determined by extrapolation shall be dis-
tinguished from those derived by interpolation.
Notwithstanding, a record may be considered a stan-
8 Compilation of records dard record provided the sum of the estimated quan-
tities does not exceed 5 % of the total run-off for the
8.1 General year.

8.1.1 Collection of field data

8.2 Stage records
The collection of field data in the form of records of
gauge readings, charts, tapes or solid-state modules 8.2.1 At constant time intervals
taken from recorders and of velocity or discharge
measurements is only the first step in the compilation Stage values are normally taken off charts, tapes or
of a station record. While it is important that field ob- solid state modules at constant intervals of time (but
servation should be made accurately, no less import- see 8.3.3). The specified interval should be deter-
ance should be attached to the work of reducing the mined as a function of the rate of change in stage.
transcribed information. Both operations shall be per- The maximum and minimum stage values for a given
formed with meticulous care, as negligence in either period of time should also be recorded. If the refer-
operation can invalidate the value of the records. All ence gauge is read only once a day, however, the
field data should be examined critically and promptly value is converted to discharge from the rating curve
with the objective of uncovering any anomalies which (if required), and that discharge taken as the daily
may exist. mean discharge.

8.1.2 Converting stage data to discharge data 8.2.2 Pivot-point values

Where recorders are installed, readings of water lev- Slope-change points or pivot points should be
els from instrument charts, tapes or solid-state mod- marked or entered on the record and, since stage
ules shall be taken at such intervals as may be varies linearly with time between two consecutive
necessary to define the hydrograph adequately. The pivot points, the coordinates of these points (stage
conversion of data from water level to discharge by and time) should be noted. The principle of this

17
IS0 1100=1:1996(E) 0 IS0

method requires the recording of minimum and a predetermined value. The recorders can also be
maximum values of stage. programmed to provide constant time-interval data,
variable time-interval data, instantaneous values (of
8.2.3 Archiving stage and discharge) and mean values for selected
time intervals. In addition, the logger may be pro-
Stage values shall be archived, as they represent the grammed if necessary to carry out processing such
basic data, particularly for stage-discharge relations, as stage-discharge conversions and daily mean dis-
and may require modification after check-gaugings or charge summaries and to telemeter this information
post-flood discharge gaugings. to the host computer. This function may also be con-
veniently performed at ultrasonic and electromagnetic
8.3 Discharge records gauging stations.

8.3.1 Analog recording 8.4 Shifts in the stage-discharge curve

To compute the daily mean discharge from a chart, 8.4.1 Shifts in control
the stage values over each day shall be noted either
manually or by digitizer at prescribed intervals of time, A stage-discharge curve will retain its original shape
e.g. hourly, two-hourly or three-hourly depending on only so long as the elements that form the control
the hydrograph shape. Each stage value shall be con- retain their original physical characteristics or as long
verted to a discharge value from the stage-discharge as the changes in characteristics are compensating
equation or look-up (rating) table (see 8.1.2) and the with respect to their effects on the stage of water at
discharge averaged for the day. Additional stage val- the gauge. The effect of a shift in the control will
ues should be read off at the peak and the minimum generally result in a change in stage for a given dis-
for the day, and these values converted to discharges charge or, conversely, in a change in discharge shown
and entered in the station summary as the highest by the rating for a given stage. Vegetal or aquatic
instantaneous flow and the minimum flow for the day, growths (see 7.2), accumulations of ice, or the con-
respectively. fluence (backwater) of tributary streams disturb the
permanency of the stage-discharge relation. These
8.3.2 Digital recording changes in the stage-discharge relation due to shifting
controls, may be treated as though they were a direct
A digital recording produced on paper tape normally result of scour or fill, or other normal changes in the
records stage at 15-min (30-min or l-h) intervals. This physical characteristics of the bed or banks of the
tape should be translated to computer-compatible stream. If discharge measurements indicate that the
form and then fed to a computer. The computer stage-discharge relation has changed from a previous
should be programmed to take each 15-min value of definition, it is possible to use shifting-control cor-
stage and convert it to a discharge from the rating rections (addition or subtraction from the gauge
equation or from a look-up (rating) table already in the height or adjustments to the gauge height record)
computer store. The 96 discharges so computed for such that the effective gauge height is in agreement
the day should be examined and the mean value cal- with the measured discharge and rating. When ad-
culated to give the daily mean discharge, together justing the gauge-height record, it is important that
with the maximum and minimum values for the day. the integrity of the stage record be maintained.
Shifting-control corrections may be applied with time
8.3.3 Solid-state recording and/or stage.

Solid-state loggers have no moving parts and are The primary cause of change is usually channel scour
based on low-power electronics. The technology is or fill associated with high water velocities and/or
specially designed to be easily used by hydrological discharges. Shifting control conditions are often so
staff and offers improved reliability. The recorders complex that it is difficult to foresee the changes that
may have take-away memories in the form of a car- may occur or to positively analyse the changes that
tridge or module which is plugged into a translator or have occurred.
directly into a microcomputer to download and archive
the data. Solid-state loggers can be programmed to 8.4.2 Shift adjustments
record in the event mode or threshold mode, the
former recording only changes in stage, logging the There is no satisfactory substitute for discharge
time at which a predefined increment or decrement measurements in defining shift adjustments during
is observed, and the latter recording a value of stage periods of shifting control, especially during peak
and time, but only when the stage is above or below stage. Hence, every effort to obtain discharge

18
0 IS0 IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

measurements at extremes of stage should be made. 8.6 Stage-fall-discharge station data

Likewise, there can be no substitute for experience
and familiarity with the control sensitivity in analysing For these stations, the two stage records shall be
the stage-discharge record using shifting-control cor- processed in accordance with lSO/TR 9123. Special
rections for discharge determination. The rating table attention should be paid to the time and stage ad-
or rating equation, whichever is used to convert stage justment of records so that the surface slope, ex-
values to discharge values, should therefore be con- pressed as a fall or difference in levels, may be
stantly under review, - and modified or replaced as determined accurately.
necessary.
Stage should be read at constant time intervals under
identical conditions and at the same time for both re-
corders.
8.4.3 Shifting controls due to ice conditions
8.7 Presentation of streamflow data
Where temperatures are low, streams will form an ice
cover at the beginning of winter and undergo a gen- The publication of streamflow data may take many
eral recession in flow until the start of the spring forms depending on the frequency and format of
freshet. The ice effect on the stage-discharge relation publication adopted. The most valuable information is
is primarily a function of the ice regime and ice thick- a table of daily mean discharges, monthly mean dis-
ness with the accuracy of computation largely de- charges, monthly run-off, annual runoff and annual
pendent on discharge measurement timing and discharge.
frequency. Discharge measurements shall be made
before and after the formation of the ice cover to de- Other useful options may be conveniently retrieved
termine the initial decrease in discharge, at intervals from the archive as follows:
appropriate to define the flow recession under the ice
cover, and before and after the ice breakup to deter- a) table of monthly extreme flows (over a period of
yea rs) ;
mine when the open-water stage-discharge relation
becomes applicable. Ice thickness shall be measured
b) hydrographs of daily mean flows;
every time a discharge measurement is made. Meth-
ods used to compute daily discharge are contained in c) hydrographs of monthly mean flows;
IS0 9196, to which reference shall be made.
d) flow duration statistics (tabulation of the 1 per-
centile to 99 percentile flows with a plot of the
flow duration curve);
8.5 Direct-discharge gauging station data
e) table of hydrometric statistics;
For ultrasonic or electromagnetic gauging stations,
discharge is generally computed on site by the f 1 gauging station summary sheet (may include daily
microprocessor (see also 8.3.3). The resultant data is flow hydrograph, flow duration curve, flow stat-
often contained in a solid state memory which can be istics, catchment characteristics, rainfall and run-
converted to hard copy via a host computer. off, etc.).

19
IS0 1100=1:1996(E)

Annex A
(informative)

Bibliography

Cl1 IS0 1088:1985, Liquid flow measurement in I31 IS0 4364: -31, Measurement of liquid flow in
open channels - Velocity-area methods - Col- open channels - Bed material sampling.
lection and processing of data for de termination
of errors in measurement. PI IS0 4366:1979, Echo sounders for water depth
measurements.
VI IS0 1438-1 :I 980, Water flow measurement in
open channels using weirs and Venturi flumes IN1 ISO/TR 5168: -4) Measurement of fluid flow -
- Part ?: Thin-plate weirs. Evaluation of uncertain ties.

PI IS0 2425:1974, Measurement of flow in tidal ml lSO/TR 7066-I :-5), Assessment of uncertainty
channels. in calibration and use of flow measurement de-
vices - Part 7: Linear calibration relationships.
VI IS0 2537:1988, Liquid flow measurement in
open channels - Rotating element current- c121IS0 7066-2: 1988, Assessment of uncertainty in
meters. the calibration and use of flow measurement
devices - Part 2: Non-linear calibration re-
PI IS0 3455:1976, Liquid flow measurement in la tionships.
open channels - Calibration of rotating-element
current-meters in straight open tanks. Cl31 ISO/TR 7178:1983, Liquid flow measurement in
open channels - Velocity-area methods - In-
PI IS0 3716:1977, L/quid flow measurement in vestigation of total error.
open channels - Functional requirements and
characteristics of suspended sediment load t-w IS0 8363: 1986, Liquid flow measurement in
samplers. open channels - General guidelines for the se-
lection of methods.
II-/l IS0 4363:1993, Measurement of liquid flow in
open channels - Methods for measurement of
suspended sediment.

3) To be published. (Revision of IS0 4364:1977)

4) To be published. (Revision of IS0 5168:1978)
5) To be published. (Revision of IS0 7066-I :1989)

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IS0 11004:1996(E)

KS 17.120.20
Descriptors: liquid flow, water flow, open channel flow, flow measurement, gauging stations, velocity measurement.

Price based on 20 pages