ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

PPT

BY SUREKHA
Asstt. Prof.
UNIT-1
 Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender
and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through
various communication channels. There are three typical
switching techniques available for digital traffic.

Circuit Switching
Message Switching
Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a
path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's
telephone by making a physical connection.
With this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends until
the connection is terminated.
Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that time.
 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same

way as the telephone system works.
A complete end-to-end path must exist before communication
can take place.
The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
Once the connection has been initiated and completed to the
destination device, the destination device must acknowledge
that it is ready and willing to carry on a transfer.
Circuit switching today
Modems, SONET/SDH
DSL DWDM

6
 Circuit switching

Advantages:
The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.
 Message Switching

With message switching there is no need to establish a

dedicated path between two stations.
When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety
on disk, and then transmits the message to the next node.
This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
 Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose

computer. The device needs sufficient secondary-storage
capacity to store the incoming messages, which could be long.
A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to
store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next
node in the transmission path.
 Message Switching

Advantages:
Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
 Message Switching

Disadvantages
Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they
must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
 Packet Switching
Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.
 Packet Switching
In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
can be stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access
delay and cost are minimized.
Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto
the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').
 Packet size

The size of the packet can vary from 180 bits, the size for
the Datakit virtual circuit switch designed by Bell Labs for
communications and business applications; to 1,024 or
2,048 bits for the 1PSS switch, also designed by Bell Labs
for public data networking; to 53 bytes for ATM switching,
such as Lucent Technologies' packet switches.
 Packet switching
In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is
converted into a digital data stream. That series of digital
bits is then divided into relatively tiny clusters of bits,
called packets. Each packet has at its beginning the digital
address -- a long number -- to which it is being sent. The
system blasts out all those tiny packets, as fast as it can,
and they travel across the nation's digital backbone systems
to their destination: the telephone, or rather the telephone
system, of the person you're calling.
They do not necessarily travel together; they do not travel
sequentially. They don't even all travel via the same route.
But eventually they arrive at the right point -- that digital
address added to the front of each string of digital data --
and at their destination are reassembled into the correct
order, then converted to analog form, so your friend can
understand what you're saying.
 Packet Switching: Datagram
Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in
that each packet is a self-contained unit with complete
addressing information attached.
This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths
through the network.
So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not
follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at
the exit point node (or the destination).
Reordering is done at the destination point based on the
sequence number of the packets.
It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on
its way is crashed momentarily. Thus all its queued packets may
be lost.
 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit
In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established
before any data packets are sent.
A logical connection is established when
a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
parameters.
The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes,
path to be taken, and other variables necessary to establish and
maintain the conversation.
Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error
control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers
if a transmission problem occurs.
 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit

In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that
this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line.
The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:

With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

VC's offer guarantees that

the packets sent arrive in the order sent

with no duplicates or omissions
with no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented internally.
Advantages of packet switching
Advantages:
Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by
making optimal use of link bandwidth.
 Disadvantages of packet switching
Disadvantages:
Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.
It can add some initial costs in implementation.
If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still
cant deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.
Crossbar switches
 Hardware design
Show hardware design of several modern crossbar
switches used for multiprocessing system on chip or
multicore design.
 AMD Opteron Architecture [1]
Integrated N.Bridge
Data & Command packets are separated
Intel Xeon 7500 [2]
 Intel Xeon 7500 (cont)
8 port (each 80bit)
Intel QuickPath Interconnect
communication
UltraSPARC T2 [4]
pipeline crossbar
High-bandwidth
8x9 xBar
Cores-Mem
Cores-I/O
 UltraSparc T2 (cont)
Divided into two parts
PCX
CPX

PCX/CPX divided into

two parts
Arbiter
Assigns by old age
Data slice
 Characteristics of the crossbar
Compare characteristics of several switches used in
modern MPSoC design
Are the switches buffered or bufferless? Is buffering done
at the input, output, or at each crosspoint? What is the size
of the buffers? Why that much?
How is the crosspoint implemented? Are the crossbars
pipelined? What is the size of the crossbar switch? What is
the bandwidth?
 AMD Opteron [1]
Buffers at Input
Size are allocated to optimize throughput
 System Request Queue (SRQ)
What is the System request queue in AMD64 Opteron,
Athlon X2?
 System Request Queue [1]

Prioritizes the access from both cores to use the crossbar.

Prevents contention to memory/resources
 Knockout switch [3]
Problem:
Fully connected switch (ie every input connects to
every output)
Congestion at output different input might want to
talk to same output.
Solution:
Concentrator at output
Buffer
 A general trunking

Trunking means that several connections in a network may be

established simultaneously, and that setup of connections
proceeds automatically using the channels available at the
time in question. In this way many users may share a few
connections, and if the number of connections is increased, the
capacity of the network is increased more than proportionally.
This means that an optimal trunking effect is obtained in very
large networks. Commonly used with VOIP networks.
 Electronic Switching
A telephone exchangebased on the principles of time-division multiplexing
of digitized analog signals. An electronic switching system digitizes
analog signals from subscriber loops, and interconnects them by assigning
the digitized signals to the appropriate time slots. It may also
interconnect digital data or voice circuits.
A switching system with major devices constructed of semiconductor
components. A semi-electronic switching system that had reed relays
or crossbar matrices for its talk paths, as well a s semiconductor
components, was also considered to be an ESS in the 20th century. 1ESS
switch was a prominent example.
In the late 20th century most telephone exchanges were eliminated that were
not time-division ones, so interest in this distinction became primarily
historical. When the term is still used, it means approximately the same
thing as Stored Program Control exchange
 Reed Electronic system
The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic
field. It was invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by W. B.
Ellwood. It consists of a pair of contacts on ferrous metal reeds in
a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The contacts may be normally open,
closing when a magnetic field is present, or normally closed and opening
when a magnetic field is applied. The switch may be actuated by a coil,
making a reed relay, or by bringing a magnet near to the switch. Once the
magnet is pulled away from the switch, the reed switch will go back to its
original position.
An example of a reed switch's application is to detect the opening of a
door, when used as a proximity switchfor a burglar alarm.
 Digital Switching System
This circuit can control any one out of 16 devices with the help of two push-to-on switches.
An up/down counter acts as a master-controller for the system.
A visual indication in the form of LEDs is also available. IC1 (74LS193) is a presettable
up/down counter. IC2 and IC3 (74LS154) (1 of 16 decoder/demultiplexer) perform different
functions, i.e. IC2 is used to indicate the channel number while IC3 switches on the selected
channel. Before using the circuit, press switch S1 to reset the circuit.
Now the circuit is ready to receive the input clock. By pressing switch S2 once, the counter
counts up by one count. Thus, each pressing of switch S2 enables the counter to count up by
one count. Likewise, by pressing switch S3 the counter counts downwards. The counter
provides BCD output. This BCD output is used as address input for IC2 and IC3 to switch
one (desired channel) out of sixteen channels by turning on the appropriate triac and the
corresponding LED to indicate the selected channel. The outputs of IC3 are passed through
inverter gates (IC4 through IC6) because IC3 provides negative going pulses while for
driving the triacs we need positive-going pulses. The high output of inverter gates turn on
the npn transistors to drive the triacs. Diodes connected in series with triac gates serve to
provide unidirectional current for the gate-drive.
UNIT-2
 Digital switching: Switching function
.

Simplified block diagram of a telecommunications

network
TE (Terminal Equipment)
SW (Switch) - > nowadays evolved towards R (Router)
Routing = path determination + switching
Local switching

Transit switching
Automatic Call Distribution (ACD): like a PBX, but it
distributes the call to any destination available
Space Division Switching
Single Stage Space-Division Switch (I)
 Single Stage Space-Division
Switch (II)
Number of crosspoints

Square matrix Triangular matrix

Nx= N(N 1) Nx = N(N 1)/2

 Single Stage Space-Division
Switch (III)
Disadvantages

A great number of inlets N

=> a prohibitive number of crosspoints required for a large switch
Only 1 crosspoint/given inlet to outlet connection
=> unacceptable in the case of failure
for triangular matrix
for 4-wire switches
Only 1 crosspoint/row or /column of a square matrix is ever in use
=> The utilization efficiency is very poor
Single Stage Space-Division Switch (IV)
Copyright Virgil Dobrota 2009, All rights reserved
Solution = ?
Each crosspoint to be used by more than in one connection.
A multiple way structure is preferable to avoid the blocking
in case
of a crosspoint failure.
 TIME DIVISION SWITCHING

The switching method for a time-division multiplexing (TDM) channel

requiring the shifting of data from one slot to another in the TDM frame.
The slot in question can carry a bit, a byte, or, in principle, any other unit
of data.
 Digital cross connect system
A digital cross-connect system (DCS or DXC) is a piece of circuit-
switched network equipment, used in telecommunications networks, that allows
lower-level TDM bit streams, such as DS0 bit streams, to be rearranged and
interconnected among higher-level TDM signals, such as DS1 bit streams. DCS
units are available that operate on both older T-carrier/E-carrier bit streams, as
well as newer SONET/SDHbit streams.
DCS devices can be used for "grooming" telecommunications traffic, switching
traffic from one circuit to another in the event of a network failure, supporting
automated provisioning, and other applications. Having a DCS in a circuit-
switched network provides important flexibility that can otherwise only be
obtained at higher cost using manual "DSX" cross-connect patch panels.
It is important to realize that while DCS devices "switch"
traffic, they are not packet switchesthey switch circuits,
not packets, and the circuit arrangements they are used to
manage tend to persist over very long time spans, typically
months or longer, as compared to packet switches, which can
route every packet differently, and operate on micro- or
millisecond time spans.
DCS units are also sometimes colloquially called "DACS"
units, after a proprietary brand name of DCS units created
and sold by AT&T's Western Electric division, now Alcatel-
Lucent. Not to be mistaken for Digital Access Carrier
System, a British pair gain system also using the
acronym DACS.
Modern digital access and cross-connect systems are not
limited to the T-carrier system, and may accommodate high
data rates such as those of SONET.
 Digital switching
in analog environment
High-frequency operation of switching circuits makes
switching loss more important. You will examine the
contribution of stray inductance and capacitance
individually by adding them to a low-frequency circuit. A
zero-voltageswitching (ZVS) circuit will then be used to
eliminate some of these losses.