BASIC SET THEORY

James T. Smith
San Francisco State University

These notes outline some set theory on which many parts of mathematics are based.

Sets

The notions object, set, and membership are used in this theory without definition. The
expression x 0 X indicates that the object x is a member of the set X. Any object with
a member is a set, and sets are considered objects. Sometimes its assumed that sets are
the only objects, but not in this outline.

Notation

Using gaudier letters for sets than for their members, as in g 0 G 0 G , often enhances
clarity (but sometimes isnt practical). These abbreviations are also useful:
0 ... is a member of & ... and
... is not a member of w ... or
= .... equals ... not
=
/ .... does not equal | ... if ... then ...
... for all ] ... if and only if
... for some

Equality

Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same members:
X = Y ] t [ t 0 X ] t 0 Y ].
That is the extensionality principle.

Extension

Frequently, a set X is described by a statement of the form

t0X ] (*)

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where is a condition involving t. For example, in calculus you often consider intervals
of real numbers:
t 0 [a, b] ] a # t & t # b.
If (*) holds, then X is called the extension of . Its appropriate to call X the exten-
sion, because, by the extensionality principle, you can deduce X = Y from (*) and the
similar statement t 0 Y ] . Since X is uniquely determined when (*) holds, the
notation
X = { t : }
is common. Its read, X is the set of all t such that . For the previous example,
[a, b] = { t : a # t & t # b }.

Each set X is the extension of some condition for example, the condition
t 0 X. That is,
t0X ] t0X X = { t : t 0 X }.
However, there are conditions that have no extensionthat is, for which theres no
set X such that (*) holds. In 1902, Bertrand Russell discovered the most celebrated
such condition: t t. If that had an extension X, then X 0 X ] X X, contradiction!

One of the most important problems in foundations of mathematics is to determine

which conditions have extensions. This outline, however, doesnt attack that question.
Frequently, it introduces new sets X as extensions of certain conditions. The assump-
tions that these particular conditions have extensions have never led to contradiction.

Separation

One type of condition always has an extension: a condition applying only to members
of a previously given set. That is, to each set Y and each condition corresponds a
set X whose elements are those members t of Y that satisfy :
X = { t : t 0 Y & }, abbreviated { t 0 Y : }.
This is the separation principle. It implies, for example, that the condition t = t has no
extension: if there existed a set V such that t 0 V ] t = t, then Russells condition
would have an extension, namely { t 0 V : t t}. This result can also be phrased, theres
no universal set that contains all objects.

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Inclusion

A set X is said to be included in a set Y or called a subset of Y if each member

of X belongs also to Y:
X f Y ] t [ t 0 X | t 0 Y ].
This concept has the following properties:
XfX reflexivity
XfY & YfX | X=Y weak antisymmetry
XfY & YfZ | XfZ transitivity.

Power Set

To each set X corresponds a set P X, called the power set of X, whose members are
the subsets of X:
P X = { S : S f X }.

Empty Set

The condition t =
/ t has an extension, called the empty set :
= {t : t =
/ t} t [t ].
By the extensionality principle, is the only set with no members. Its a subset of every
set.

Singletons

To each object x corresponds a set {x}, called singleton x, whose sole member is x:
{x} = { t : t = x}.

Pairs

To any objects x and y corresponds a set {x, y}, called a pair, whose only members
are x and y:
{x, y} = { t : t = x w t = y}.

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Notice that
{ x, y} = { y, x} { x, x} = { x}.
Triples, quadruples, etc., could be introduced the same way, but more comprehensive
methods will be presented later.

Ordered Pairs

To any two objects x and y corresponds an object <x, y>, called an ordered pair. For
any objects x, y, xr, and yr,
<x, y> = <xr, yr> ] x = xr & y = yr.
Ordered triples and quadruples, etc., could be introduced the same way, but its easier
to define
<x, y, z> = <<x, y>, z>
and extend that idea to quadruples, etc.

Cartesian Product

To any sets X and Y corresponds a set X Y, called their Cartesian product, whose
members are the ordered pairs whose first and second entries belong to X and Y:
<x, y> 0 X Y ] x 0 X & y 0 Y.
Cartesian products of three or more sets are introduced as follows:
X Y Z = (X Y ) Z
<x, y, z> 0 X Y Z ] x 0 X & y 0 Y & z 0 Z.

Relations

A relation between two sets X and Y is a subset of X Y. Thus and X Y itself

are relations between X and Y. This abbreviation is commonly used for relations R:
x R y ] <x, y> 0 R .
A relation between X and itself is called a relation on X.

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Domain and Range

To each relation R correspond two sets, called its domain and range, whose members
are the first and second entries of the members of R:
x 0 Dom R ] y [x R y] y 0 Rng R ] x [x R y].

Converse

To each relation R between sets X and Y corresponds a relation R between Y and

X, called the converse of R, such that
y R x ] x R y.

Relative Product

If R is a relation between sets X and Y and S is a relation between sets Y and Z,

then their relative product is the relation R*S defined as follows:
x (R*S) z ] y [x R y & y S z].
For example, if R is the relation of person to parent and S that of sibling to brother,
then R*S is the relation of person to uncle.

The following associative law is fundamental: for any R and S as described and any
relation Q between sets W and X ,
(Q*R)*S = Q*(R*S).
Proof. Suppose w ((Q*R)*S) z. Then
y [w (Q*R) y & y S z ]
b
x [w Q x & x R y]
` b
x (R*S) z
` b
w (Q*(R*S)) z.
Thus the left hand side of the associative law equation is included in the right hand side.
You can demonstrate the reverse inclusion similarly.

The associative law permits the abbreviation Q*R*S for (Q*R)*S or Q*(R*S). The
following law is also important: for any relations R and S as described earlier,
T = R*S | T = S*R.

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You can supply the proof.

Identity

To each set X corresponds the identity relation I X on X:

x I X xr ] x = xr & x 0 X.
For each relation R between X and a set Y,
I X *R = R = R*IY .

Image

To each relation R and each set A corresponds a subset R[A] of Rng R called the
image of A under R:
y 0 R[ A] ] x [x 0 A & x R y].
For each relation S,
(R*S)[ A] = S[R[ A]].

Functions

A relation F is called a function from a set X to a set Y if Dom F = X, Rng F f Y and

for all x, y,
x F y & x F yr | y = yr.
That is written F : X 6 Y. If F : X 6 Y and x 0 X then there is a unique y 0 Y such
that x F y. This is written F : x y. That y is called the value of F at x, and it is
denoted by F(x) or Fx . By the extensionality principle, two functions F and G are
equal if and only if they have the same domain X and F(x) = G(x) for all x 0 X.

The functions from a set X to a set Y constitute a set Y X. Here are some rules for
manipulating these function sets:
Y = { } / | X =
X= X f Y | IX 0 Y X.

A function f : X 6 X is often called a singulary operation on X; a function g : X X 6

X is often called a binary operation on X. A function is called constant if its range is a
singleton.

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Composition

The composition of functions F : X 6 Y and G : Y 6 Z is the function G B F = F*G from

X to Z. The associativity law holds: if also E : W 6 X, then
(G B F ) B E = G B (F B E).
That permits the abbreviation G B F B E for either of these compositions. The following
manipulation rules hold:
x 0 X | (G B F )(x) = G(F(x))
A f X | (G B F )[A] = G[F [A]]
IY B F = F = F B I X .

Injections

If F : X 6 Y and F is a function, then we say that F : X 6 Y injectively, and call F an

injection. The following rules are helpful:
: 6 Y injectively
X f Y | IX : X 6 Y injectively
F : X 6 Y injectively & G : Y 6 Z injectively
| G B F : X 6 Z injectively.

Surjections

If F : X 6 Y and Rng F = Y, then we say that F : X 6 Y surjectively, and call F a

surjection. The following rules hold:
: 6 surjectively
F : X 6 Y surjectively & G : Y 6 Z surjectively
| G B F : X 6 Z surjectively.

Bijections

If F : X 6 Y injectively and surjectively, then we say that F : X 6 Y bijectively and call

F a bijection. Here are useful rules:
IX : X 6 X bijectively
F : X 6 Y bijectively Y F : Y 6 X bijectively
F : X 6 Y bijectively & G : Y 6 Z bijectively
Y G B F : X 6 Z bijectively.

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A bijection from X to itself is called a permutation of X. The set X ! of all permutations

of X is called the symmetric group on X.

Inverse

If F : X 6 Y bijectively, then F is called the inverse of F and denoted by F 1. Heres

its most important property:
F 1 B F = IX F B F 1 = IY .
Proof. To show IX f F&1 B F, let x 0 X and define y = F(x). Then x F y, so that
y F 1 x and hence x F *F 1 x, i.e. <x, x> 0 F 1 B F. To show F 1 B F f I X , let <x, xr> 0
F 1 B F, i.e. x F *F 1 xr. Then there exists y such that x F y and y F 1 xr. But x F y
implies y F 1 x, and thus x = xr because F 1 is a function. The proof that F B F 1 =
IY is similar.

Heres an important property of the inverse, complementary to the previous one:

G : Y 6 X & G B F = IX | G = F 1
G : Y 6 X & F B G = IY | G = F 1 .
Proof. Suppose G B F = I X ; then G = G B IY = G B (F B F 1 ) = (G B F ) B F 1 = I X B F 1 =
F 1. The second result is proved similarly.

Finally, if F : X 6 Y and G : Y 6 Z bijectively, then

(G B F ) 1 = F 1 B G 1.

Union

To any sets X and Y corresponds a set X c Y called their union, whose members are
the members of X and those of Y:
t0XcY ] t0X w t 0 Y.
The union is their least upper bound in the following sense:
X, Y f X c Y X f Z & Y f Z | X c Y f Z.
These commutative and associative laws hold:
XcY=YcX X c (Y c Z) = (X c Y ) c Z.
Associativity permits the abbreviation X c Y c Z for either side of this equation.

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Intersection

To any sets X and Y corresponds a set X 1 Y called their intersection, whose members
are the elements common to X and Y:
t 0 X 1 Y ] t 0 X & t 0 Y.
The intersection is their greatest lower bound in the following sense:
X 1 Y f X, Y Z f X & Z f Y | Z f X 1 Y.
If X 1 Y = , then X and Y are called disjoint. These commutative, associative, and
distributive laws hold:
X1Y=Y1X X 1 (Y c Z) = (X 1 Y ) c (X 1 Z)
X 1 (Y 1 Z) = (X 1 Y ) 1 Z X c (Y 1 Z) = (X c Y ) 1 (X c Z) .
Associativity permits the abbreviation X 1 Y 1 Z for either side of the second equation.

Union, Continued

To any set X corresponds a set ^X called its union, whose members are the members
of the members of X :
t 0 ^X ] X [ X 0 X & t 0 X ].
The union of X is its least upper bound in the following sense:
X [ X 0 X | X f ^X ] X [ X 0 X | X f Y ] | ^ X f Y.
For any sets X and Y, ^{X, Y } = X c Y.

Intersection, Continued

To any nonempty set X corresponds a set _ X called its intersection, whose members
are the elements common to all members of X :
t 0 _X ] X [ X 0 X | t 0 X ].
The intersection of X is its greatest lower bound in the following sense:
X [ X 0 X | _X f X ] X [ X 0 X | Y f X ] | Y f _X .
For any sets X and Y, _{X, Y } = X 1 Y.

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Union and Intersection, Continued

Often youll be interested in the union or intersection of the range of a function X with
domain I. This notation is common:
X
iI
i = { t : (i 0 I)[ t 0 X i ]} X
iI
i = { t : (i 0 I)[ t 0 X i ]}.

When the set I is clear from the context, these are usually abbreviated as ^ i X i and
_ i X i . This notation simplifies the statements of many rulesfor example, the distribu-
tive laws
A 1 ^ i X i = ^ i (A 1 X i ) A c _ i X i = _ i (A c X i ).

Relative Complement

In this paragraph, all sets are assumed to be subsets of a single set U. To each such set
X corresponds a set X, its complement (relative to U ), whose members are those
elements of U not in X:
X = {t 0 U : t X }.
These rules hold:
U = = U
X = X double negation
X c X = U X 1 X =
X f Y ] Y f X contraposition
X
iI
i =
i I
( X i) X
iI
i =
i I
( X i) de Morgan

Natural Numbers

Theres a set whose members are called natural numbers. Among its members is
, which in this context is called zero and written 0. Theres a bijection
S: 6 {n 0 :n=
/ 0}
called the successor operation, which satisfies the first principle of recursive proof:
00Xf & n [ n 0 X | S(n) 0 X ] | X = .
From these considerations follows by a complicated argumentthe first principle of
recursive definition:

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given any set Y, any y 0 Y, and any function G : Y 6 Y,

theres a unique function F : 6 Y such that
F (0) = y & n [ n 0 | F (S(n)) = G(F (n)) ].

Binary sum and product operations + and @ and an order relation # on are
defined, and their usual properties proved, following standard recursive methods. In
particular, 1 is defined as S(0), so that S(n) = n + 1 for all n 0 ; and 2 is defined
as 1 + 1.

A second principle of recursive proof is sometimes handier than the first:

every nonempty X f contains a member w such that w # x for all
x 0 X.
Theres a corresponding second principle of recursive definition:
given any set Y and any function G : P ( Y ) 6 Y,
theres a unique F : 6 Y such that for each n 0 ,
n [ n 0 | F (n) = G(<n, {<m, F (m)> : m 0 & m < n}>) ].

Integers

Following standard algebraic procedures, integers are defined as certain sets of ordered
pairs of natural numbers, and the familiar arithmetic operations are constructed for
them. They form an ordered integral domain in which each nonempty set of nonnega-
tive elements has a minimum element. All such domains are isomorphic.

Rational Numbers

Again following standard algebraic procedures, rational numbers are defined as certain
sets of ordered pairs of integers, and the familiar arithmetic operations are constructed
for them. They form a prime ordered field . All such fields are isomorphic.

Real Numbers

Following standard analytic procedures, real numbers are defined as certain sets of
sequences of rational numbersi.e. certain sets of functions from to and the
familiar arithmetic operations are constructed for them. They form a complete ordered
field . All such fields are isomorphic. (Alternative definitions of real numbers as
certain sets of rational numbers or certain sequences of integers are common.)

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Complex Numbers

Following a standard algebraic procedure, complex numbers are defined as pairs of real
numbers, and the familiar arithmetic operations are constructed for them. They form
an algebraically closed field .

Trivial questions

1. P=? P {} = ?
2. {x, x} = ?
3. X=? X=?
4. Dom = ? Rng = ?
5. Dom {<x, y>} = ? Rng {<x, y>} = ?
6. Dom ( X Y ) = ? Rng (X Y ) = ?
7. = ? R = {<x, y>} | R = ?
8. R = X Y | R = ? R = S | R = ?
9. *R = ? R* = ?
10. {<x, y>}*{<y, z>} = ?
11. (X Y )*(Y Z) = ? Careful!
12. Dom(R*S) f Dom(?) Rng(R*S) f Rng(?)
13. I = ? I{x} = ?
14. [A] = ? R[] = ?
15. R[Dom R] = ? R[Rng R] = ?
16. Xc=? X1=?
17. XcX=? X1X=?
18. {x} c { y} = ? {x} 1 { y} = ?
19. XcY=Y ] ? X1Y=Y ] ?
20. X c (X 1 Y ) = ? X 1 (X c Y ) = ?
21. IX [A] = ?
22. ^ = ?
23. ^{X } = ? _{X } = ?
24. Ac X
iI
i = (?)
iI
A1 X
iI
i = (?)
iI

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Routine exercises

1. Prove S [ x 0 S | y 0 S ] | x = y.

2. Prove X f Y | P X f P Y.
3. Prove {{x}, {x, y}} = {{xr}, {xr, yr}} | x = xr & y = yr (Kuratowski, 1921). The
notion of ordered pair can be defined this way.

4. Prove X Y = Y X ] = X w X=Y w Y = .

5. Suppose X f Xr. What can you say about the relationship of

a. X Y and Xr Y, Y X and Y Xr ?
b. R[X] and R[Xr] ?
c. X c Y and Xr c Y, Y c X and Y c Xr ?
d. X 1 Y and Xr 1 Y, Y 1 X and Y 1 Xr ?
e. ^ X and ^ Xr ?
f. _ X and _ Xr ?

6. Suppose R and Rr are relations and R f Rr. What can you say about the relation-
ship of
a. Dom R and Dom Rr, Rng R and Rng Rr ?
b. R and Rr ?
c. R*S and Rr*S, S*R and S*Rr ?
d. R[A] and Rr[A] ?

7. Suppose i [ X i f Yi ]. What can you say about the relationship of

a. ^ i X i and ^ i Yi ?
b. _ i Xi and _ i Yi ?

8. Prove that if R and S are relations, and Q = R*S, then Q = S *R. Prove that
if F : X 6 Y and G : Y 6 Z bijectively, then (G B F ) 1 = F 1 B G 1.

9. Prove that the composition of two injections is an injection. Do the same for surjec-
tions and bijections.

10. Prove that if R and S are relations, then (R*S)[A] = S[R[A]]. Prove that if
F : X 6 Y and G : Y 6 Z then (G B F )[A] = G[F [A]] .

11. Prove that if R is a relation, then (X Y )*R = X R[Y ]. Whats R*(X Y )?

12. Prove all the distributive laws mentioned.

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13. Prove the de Morgan laws.

14. Prove the modular law X f Z ] X c (Y 1 Z) = (X c Y ) 1 Z.

Prove that X c Y = X c Z & X 1 Y = X 1 Z | Y = Z.

15. a. Prove ^ P X = X.
b. Prove X f P ^ X .
c. Find X so that X = P ^ X .
d. Find X so that X =/ P ^X .

16. When does a relative complement of a set equal that set itself ?

17. a. Why cant we define _ ?

b. Why cant we define an absolute complement X = {t : t X } ?

18. a. Prove that if R is a relation, then R[ ^ i A i ] = ^ i R[A i ].

Suppose S is a relation and for each i, Ri is a relation. Prove
b. Dom ^ i Ri = ^ i Dom Ri and Rng ^ i Ri = ^ i Rng Ri
c. R = ^ i Ri | R = ^ i Ri
d. (^ i Ri)*S = ^ i (Ri*S) and S*^ i Ri = ^ i (S*Ri )
e. (^ i Ri )[A] = ^ i Ri [A] .

19. If F : X 6 Y, then define F : P Y 6 P X by setting F(B) = F [B] for every

B 0 P Y. Prove that if F is injective, then F is surjective. Prove that if F is
surjective, then F is injective.

Substantial problems

1. Undertake routine exercise 18 with unions replaced by intersections. Youll find

that you must replace many equations by inclusions. In those cases, find examples
where the equations hold, and examples where they dont. Keep the examples
simpleuse intersections of two sets only.

2. Let R be a relation. Prove that

B f Rng R | B f R[R[B]] .
Prove that R is a function if and only if
B [ B f Rng R | B = R[R[B]] ].
Find a function F and a set B f Dom F such that B =
/ F [F [B]], and another
F and B such that the equation does hold.

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3. A function F : X 6 Y is called right cancellative if

G : Y 6 Z & Gr : Y 6 Zr & G B F = Gr B F | G = Gr.
Its left cancellative if
E : W 6 X & Er : Wr 6 X & F B E = F B Er | E = Er.
Prove that F is injective if and only if its left cancellative and surjective if and only
if its right cancellative.

4. Suppose that for each i 0 I, Fi is a function from a subset of a set X to a set Y.

Further, assume (i, j 0 I)(k 0 I)[ Fi f Fk & Fj f Fk]. Prove that ^ i Fi is a
function from a subset of X to Y, and if each Fi is injective, then so is ^ i Fi .

5. Consider some sets A n for n 0 . Define

Liminf n A n = A
m nm
n Limsup n A n = A
m nm
n .

Prove
a. Liminf n A n f Limsup n A n
b. n [ A n f A n+1 ] | Liminf n A n = ^ n A n = Limsup n A n
c. n [ A n+1 f A n ] | Liminf n A n = _ n A n = Limsup n A n .

6. Let m, n 0 and X and Y be sets with m and n elements. How many elements
have the sets
(X {0}) c (Y {1}) XY PX Y X?
How many injections are there from X to Y? How many bijections are there from
X to X?

7. Show that this condition on t has no extension: s [ s 0 t & t 0 s ].

References

Bourbaki, Nicholas. 1968. Theory of Sets. Elements of Mathematics, Part 1, Book 1.

Reading, Massachusetts: AddisonWesley. LC: QA248.B73413. Pages 65277. Skip
over all references to his (rather unusual) axiom system.
Cohen, Leon W., and Gertrude Ehrlich. 1963. The Structure of the Real Number System.
Princeton: D. Van Nostrand. LC: QA241.C67.
Lipschutz, Seymour. 1964. Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Set Theory and
Related Topics. New York: McGrawHill. LC: QA248.L57. ISBN: 0-070-38159-3.
Pages 1184. Upper-division text.

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Monk, J. Donald. 1969. Introduction to Set Theory. New York: McGrawHill. LC:
QA248.M53. Axiomatic treatment, von NeumannBernaysGdelMorse version.
Beginning graduate level.
Stoll, Robert R. [1963] 1979. Set Theory and Logic. New York: Dover Publications.
Originally published by W. H. Freeman. LC: QA248.S7985. ISBN: 0-486-63829-4.
Pages 1154, 289306. Between the levels of Lipschutz and Monk.
Suppes, Patrick. 1960. Axiomatic Set Theory. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand. LC:
QA248.S92. Axiomatic treatment, ZermeloFraenkel version. Same level as Monk
1969. Rather close to this outline.

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