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Review Article

Overview of the coagulation system

Address for correspondence: Sanjeev Palta, Richa Saroa, Anshu Palta1

Dr.Sanjeev Palta, Departments of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care and 1Pathology, Government Medical College and
Department of Anaesthesiology Hospital, Chandigarh, India
and Intensive Care,
Government Medical College
and Hospital, Chandigarh, India. ABSTRACT
Email:sanjeev_palta@yahoo.
com
Coagulation is a dynamic process and the understanding of the blood coagulation system has
evolved over the recent years in anaesthetic practice. Although the traditional classification of
the coagulation system into extrinsic and intrinsic pathway is still valid, the newer insights into
coagulation provide more authentic description of the same. Normal coagulation pathway represents
a balance between the pro coagulant pathway that is responsible for clot formation and the
Access this article online mechanisms that inhibit the same beyond the injury site. Imbalance of the coagulation system may
Website: www.ijaweb.org occur in the perioperative period or during critical illness, which may be secondary to numerous
factors leading to a tendency of either thrombosis or bleeding. Asystematic search of literature on
DOI: 10.4103/0019-5049.144643
PubMed with MeSH terms coagulation system, haemostasis and anaesthesia revealed twenty
Quick response code
eight related clinical trials and review articles in last 10years. Since the balance of the coagulation
system may tilt towards bleeding and thrombosis in many situations, it is mandatory for the clinicians
to understand physiologic basis of haemostasis in order to diagnose and manage the abnormalities
of the coagulation process and to interpret the diagnostic tests done for the same.

Key words: Anaesthesia, Coagulation system, haemostasis

INTRODUCTION It is important for a perioperative physician to

understand the intricacies of two systems(more so in
The concept of blood coagulation dates back to 1960s a preexisting haematological disorder) that go side by
when Davie, Ratnoff and Macfarlane described the side in maintaining the circulating blood in a fluidic
waterfall and cascade theories outlining the state.
fundamental principle of cascade of proenzymes
leading to activation of downstream enzymes.[1] Pathological situations requiring surgery or anaesthesia
Haemostasis, defined as arrest of bleeding, comes from or any other invasive procedure trigger the haemostatic
Greek, haeme meaning blood and stasis meaning system. This balance is also disturbed by trauma,
to stop.[2] This thrombohaemmorhagic balance is cytokines or infectious agents. Thus, the perioperative
maintained in the body by complicated interactions period is at high risk for both prohaemorrhagic and
between coagulation and the fibrinolytic system as prothrombotic abnormalities. Hypoxia, hypothermia,
well as platelets and vessel wall. metabolic acidosis and extracorporeal circulation may
also further aggravate the situation.[4]
Usually, the coagulation process is under the inhibitory
control of several inhibitors that limit the clot Coagulopathy, may also be encountered by the
formation, thus avoiding the thrombus propagation. intensivist due to physiological disturbances,
This delicate balance is interrupted whenever the disturbances in the primary haemostasis, abnormalities
procoagulant activity of the coagulation factors is of blood, plasma or due to disseminated intravascular
increased, or the activity of naturally occurring coagulation(DIC).[5]
inhibitors is decreased.[3] Some of the thrombogenic
and antithrombogenic components are listed in This review aims to simplify the understanding of
Table1. the coagulation system as a whole as well as discuss

How to cite this article: Palta S, Saroa R, Palta A. Overview of the coagulation system. Indian J Anaesth 2014;58:515-23.

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

Table1: Thrombogenic and antithrombogenic Normally platelets do not adhere to intact vascular
componentsin the body endothelium. Subsequent to the vascular injury,
Site Thrombogenic Antithrombogenic platelets adhere to collagen and vWF in the
Vessel wall Exposed endothelium Heparin
subendothelial tissue and undergo a morphological
TF Thrombomodulin
Collagen Tissue plasminogen activator
change by assuming irregular surface, forming
Circulating Platelets Antithrombin numerous pseudopods thus drastically increasing
elements Platelet activating factor Protein C and S their surface area.[10] The formation of the platelet plug
Clotting factor Plasminogen involves a series of steps:
Prothrombin
Fibrinogen Platelet adhesion
vWF After vascular injury vWf acts as a bridge between
vWFVon Willebrand factor; TFTissue factor
endothelial collagen and platelet surface receptors
GpIb and promotes platelet adhesion.[9] The platelet
various abnormalities of the same, which may have an
glycoprotein complex I(GPIb) is the principal receptor
impact in the perioperative period and ICU.They can be
for vWF.
classified as those that affect the primary haemostasis,
the coagulation pathways and the fibrinolytic system. Platelet secretion
After adhesion, degranulation from both types of
PRIMARY HAEMOSTASIS granules takes place with the release of various factors.
Release of calcium occurs here. Calcium binds to the
Primary haemostasis results from complex interactions
phospholipids that appear secondary to the platelet
between platelets, vessel wall and adhesive proteins
activation and provides a surface for assembly of
leading to the formation of initial platelet plug. The
various coagulation factors.
endothelial cells lining the vascular wall exhibit the
antithrombotic properties due to multiple factors viz: Platelet aggregation
negatively charged heparinlike glycosaaminoglycans, Thromboxane A2 produced by activated platelets
neutral phospholipids, synthesis and secretion provide stimulus for further platelet aggregation.
of platelet inhibitors, coagulation inhibitors and TxA2 along with ADP enlarge this platelet aggregate
fibrinolysis activators. In contrast, subendothelial leading to the formation of the platelet plug, which
layer is highly thrombogenic and contains collagen, seals off vascular injury temporarily. ADP binding also
Von Willebrand factor(vWF) and other proteins like causes a conformational change in GpIIb/IIIa receptors
laminin, thrombospondin and vitronectin that are presents on the platelet surface causing deposition of
involved in platelet adhesion. Any vascular insult fibrinogen. Thrombin generation also catalyses the
results in arteriolar vasospasm, mediated by reflex conversion of this fibrinogen to fibrin which adds to
neurogenic mechanisms and release of local mediators the stability of the platelet plug and is now known as
like endothelin and plateletderived thromboxane secondary haemostasis.[9]
A2(TxA2).[68]
Prostacyclin inhibits platelet aggregation(platelet anti
Platelets are disc shaped, anucleate cellular fragments aggregating effect) and the balance between TxA2 and
derived from megakaryocytes. They have a pivotal role prostacyclin leads to localized platelet aggregation thus
in haemostasis by forming the initial haemostatic plug preventing extension of the clot thereby maintaining
that provides a surface for the assembly of activated the vessel lumen patency.[6,11]
coagulation factors leading to the formation of fibrin
stabilized platelet aggregates and subsequent clot COAGULATION DISORDERS INVOLVING PRIMARY
retraction. Platelets have two types of granules: HEMOSTASIS
granulescontain Pselectin, fibrinogen,
fibronectin, factor V, factor VIII, platelet factor Defects of primary haemostasis may be due to
IV, platelet-derived growth factor and tumour abnormalities of the vessel wall or qualitative/
growth factor (TGF)[9] quantitative defects of platelets that may cause
granules or Dense granulescontain adenosine bleeding in varying severity.
triphosphate(ATP), adenosine diphosphate
(ADP), calcium (Ca), serotonin, histamine and Thrombocytopenia may be observed secondary to
epinephrine.[9] numerous causes listed in Table2. The inherited platelet

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

Table2: Disorders of primary haemostasis COAGULATION PATHWAYS

Bleeding disorders due to vessel wall abnormalities
Septicaemia The coagulation proteins are the core components of
Drug reactions the coagulation system that lead to a complex interplay
Scurvy and the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
of reactions resulting in the conversion of soluble
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin strands.
Perivascular amyloidosis
Bleeding disorders due to reduced platelet
number(thrombocytopenia) CLOTTING FACTORS(COAGULATION PROTEINS)
Leading to decreased production
Vitamin B12 deficiency Majority of clotting factors are precursors of proteolytic
Aplastic anaemia enzymes known as zymogens that circulate in an
Leukaemia inactive form. The activation of each zymogen is
Chromic immune thrombocytopenic purpura
depicted by suffixing letter a to the Roman numeral
Leading to decreased platelet survival
Acute immune thrombocytopenic purpura
identifying that particular zymogen. Most of the
Systemic lupus erythematosus procoagulants and anticoagulants are produced by
Drugassociated: Quinidine, heparin, sulpha compounds liver except factor III, IV and VIII. These proteins
Infections: HIV, dengue fever undergo a post translational modification(vitamin K
Hypersplenism dependent carboxylation of glutamic acid residues)
Bleeding disorders due to decreased platelet function
which enables them to bind calcium and other
Inherited
divalent cations and participate in clotting cascade.[14]
Bernard-Soulier syndrome(deficiency of platelet glycoprotein Ib)
Glanzmann thrombasthenia(deficiency of platelet Deficiency of vitamin K or administration of vitamin K
glycoproteinIIb/IIIa) antagonists(warfarin) lead to anticoagulation.
Acquired
Aspirin and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs Nomenclature of coagulation proteins is rather
Uraemia complex[Table3]. The first 4 of the 12 originally
Massive blood transfusion
identified factors are referred to by their common
names, i.e.,fibrinogen, prothrombin, tissue factor
disorders are uncommon and if present, are, usually, (TF), and calcium and are not assigned any Roman
diagnosed in childhood and these patients need to be numerals. FVI no longer exists. The more recently
given platelet concentrates before and after surgery. discovered clotting factors(e.g.prekallikrein and
highmolecularweight kininogen) have not been
High platelet counts may occur in the perioperative assigned Roman numerals. Some factors have more
period after major bleeding, splenectomy, major than one name. Factors V and VIII are also referred to
reconstruction surgery or may just represent the as the labile factors because their coagulant activity is
inflammatory response. not durable in stored blood.

Certain inherited bleeding disorders with platelet Prothrombin is a plasma protein formed by liver(MW
glycoprotein deficiency as seen in Glanzmann 68700). It is an unstable protein, splitting into smaller
thromboasthenia(deficiency of IIb/IIIa) or proteins one of which is thrombin(MW33700).
BernardSoulier syndrome(deficiency of platelet Thrombin generated from prothrombin also has
glycoprotein Ib) may be seen secondary to viral proinflammatory effects which are exerted by the
infections and are associated with immediate failure activation of protease activating receptors present on
of haemostasis.[12,13] monocytes, lymphocytes, endothelium and dendritic
cells.[15]
Massive blood transfusion entails the replacement
of one whole blood volume within a period of 24h Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein present
with stored blood that is deficient in both functional in blood plasma and produced constitutively as
platelets and coagulation factors. Transfused red cells ultralarge vWf in endothelium, megakaryocytes, and
dilute patients native coagulation reserve also. All subendothelial connective tissue. It mediates platelet
these effects are exacerbated by infusion of fluids adhesion to subendothelial surface. It also acts as a
especially colloids. Hence, massive blood transfusion carrier protein for coagulant activity of Factor VIII and
may lead to dilutional coagulopathy. is referred there as VIII: C.[16,17]

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

Table3: Nomenclature of the coagulation proteins/clotting factors

Clotting Clotting factor name Function Plasma Plasma
factor number halflife(h) concentration (mg/L)
I Fibrinogen Clot formation 90 3000
II Prothrombin Activation of I, V, VII, VIII, XI, XIII, 65 100
protein C, platelets
III TF Co factor of VIIa
IV Calcium Facilitates coagulation factor binding to
phospholipids
V Proacclerin, labile factor Cofactor of Xprothrombinase complex 15 10
VI Unassigned
VII Stable factor, proconvertin Activates factors IX, X 5 0.5
VIII Antihaemophilic factor A Cofactor of IXtenase complex 10 0.1
IX Antihaemophilic factor B or Activates X: Forms tenase complex with 25 5
Christmas factor factor VIII
X StuartPrower factor Prothrombinase complex with factor V: 40 10
Activates factor II
XI Plasma thromboplastin antecedent Activates factor IX 45 5
XII Hageman factor Activates factor XI, VII and prekallikrein
XIII Fibrinstabilising factor Crosslinks fibrin 200 30
XIV Prekallikerin(F Fletcher) Serine protease zymogen 35
XV HMWK-(F Fitzgerald) Co factor 150
XVI vWf Binds to VIII, mediates platelet adhesion 12 10 g/mL
XVII Antithrombin III Inhibits IIa, Xa, and other proteases 72 0.15-0.2 mg/mL
XVIII Heparin cofactor II Inhibits IIa 60
XIX Protein C Inactivates Va and VIIIa 0.4
XX Protein S Cofactor for activated protein C
HMWKHigh molecular weight kininogen; vWfVon Willebrand factor; TFTissue factor

Fibrinogen is an essential coagulation protein endothelium leading to recruitment of monocytes

produced by liver(MW340kDa) and is the precursor containing TF, thus initiating coagulation.[22,23] With
of fibrin that ultimately defines the strength of the exposure of TF to factor VII/VIIIa in the blood, it
clot.[18,19] allows for the formation of TFVIIIa complex and thus
initiate the coagulation cascade.
Factor III or TF is a membrane bound procoagulant
glycoprotein (MW47kDa) present in the NATURALLY OCCURRING ANTICOAGULANTS IN THE
subendothelial tissue and fibroblasts and is not BODY
exposed to blood until disruption of the vessel
wall.[14] It is the primary initiator of coagulation The anticoagulant system exerts a regulatory role over
invivo. TF is localised predominantly to the tunica the procoagulant activity in blood thus localizing
media and tunica adventitia of blood vessels and a the thrombus formation.[13] The main anticoagulant
smaller quantity as circulating TF on monocytes. mechanisms naturally present in the body include the
Tissue factor may be activated by physical following:
injury(activation of Vessel wall TF), by direct
vascular injury or functional injury(activation of Antithrombin
circulating TF),byhypoxia, sepsis, malignancy, Antithrombin(AT), previously known as AT III is
inflammation, etc.[20,21] the main inhibitor of thrombin. It is a serine protease
inhibitor, which binds and inactivates thrombin,
Clotting factors can also be classified into three groups factor IXa, Xa, XIa and XIIa. The enzymatic activity
[Table4]. of AT is enhanced in the presence of heparin.
Fibrinogen Family However, the plasma concentration of heparin is low
Vitamin K dependent proteins and does not contribute significantly to the invivo
Contact family. activation of AT. AT is activated by binding of heparin
sulphate present on endothelial cell surface. AT binds
Hypoxia up regulates the expression of P selectin coagulation factors in a ratio of 1:1 and this complex is
present in the granules of platelets on the removed by reticuloendothelial cells. Other thrombin

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

Table4: Classification of coagulation factors It inhibits Factor Xa in reaction requiring PZ and

Fibrinogen family Vitamin K dependent Contact family calcium.[29]
Fibrinogen Factor II Factor XI
Factor V Factor VII Factor XII COAGULATION CASCADE
Factor VIII Factor IX HMWK
Factor XIIII Factor X Prekallikerin It has been traditionally classified into intrinsic
HMWKHigh molecular weight kininogen
and extrinsic pathways, both of which converge on
factor X activation. The classical theory of blood
inhibitors are heparin cofactor II, 2 macroglobulin
coagulation is particularly useful for understanding
and 1antitrypsin.[24,25]
the In vitro coagulation tests, but fails to incorporate
Tissue factor plasminogen inhibitor the central role of cellbased surfaces in In vivo
It is a polypeptide produced by endothelial cells. It coagulation process.[4] Interestingly contact activation
acts as a natural inhibitor of the extrinsic pathway by critical for In vivo haemostasis does not get support
inhibiting TFVIIa complex.[25,26] Protein S enhances from following observations. Persons lacking FXII,
the interaction of factor Xa in the presence of calcium prekallikrein, or highmolecularweight kininogen do
and phospholipids.[27] not bleed abnormally. Second, patients with only trace
quantities of FXI can withstand major trauma without
Protein C pathway unusual bleeding, and those who completely lack
The propagation phase of the coagulation is inhibited factor XI(haemophilia C) exhibit mild haemorrhagic
by the Protein C pathway that primarily consist of four disorder. Deficiencies of FVIII and FIX(both intrinsic
key elements: pathway factors) lead to haemophilia A and B,
Protein C is a serine protease with respectively, however the classic description of two
potent anticoagulant, profibrinolytic and pathways of coagulation leave it unclear as to why
antiinflammatory properties. It is activated by either type of haemophiliac cannot not simply clot
thrombin to form activated protein C(APC) and blood via the unaffected pathway.
acts by inhibiting activated factors V and VIII
(with Protein S and phospholipids acting as To answer all this, the modern timebased structuring of
cofactors) blood coagulation provides more authentic description
Thrombomodulin A transmembrane receptor of the coagulation process. It is now appreciated that
on the endothelial cells, it prevents the formation the classic theories may provide only a reasonable
of the clot in the undamaged endothelium by model of invitro coagulation tests(i.e.,aPTT and PT).
binding to the thrombin
Extrinsic pathway
Endothelial protein C receptor is another
It is considered as the first step in plasma mediated
transmembrane receptor that helps in the
haemostasis. It is activated by TF, which is
activation of Protein C
expressed in the subendothelial tissue.[7] Under
Protein S is a vitamin Kdependent glycoprotein,
normal physiological conditions, normal vascular
synthesised by endothelial cells and hepatocytes.
endothelium minimises contact between TF and
It exists in plasma as both free (40%) and
plasma procoagulants, but vascular insult expose TF
bound(60%) forms(bound to C4bbinding
which binds with factor VIIa and calcium to promote
protein). The anticoagulant activity is by virtue
the conversion of factor X to Xa.[30]
of free form while the bound form acts as an
inhibitor of the complement system and is up Intrinsic pathway
regulated in the inflammatory states, which It is a parallel pathway for thrombin activation by
reduce the Protein S levels thus resulting in factor XII. It begins with factor XII, HMW kininogen,
procoagulant state. It functions as a cofactor to prekallekerin and factor XI, which results in activation
APC in the inactivation of FVa and FVIIIa. It of factor XI. Activated factor XI further activates factor
also causes direct reversible inhibition of the IX, which then acts with its cofactor(factor VIII) to
prothrombinase(FVaFXa) complex.[28] form tenase complex on a phospholipid surface to
activate factor X.[15,31]
Protein Z dependent protease inhibitor/protein Z (PZI)
It is a recently described component of the Common pathway
anticoagulant system that is produced in the liver. Activated factor X along with its cofactor(factor V),

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

tissue phospholipids, platelet phospholipids and ,175,16,& (;75,16,&

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plug. This creates a fibrin network which stabilises ;
the clot and forms a definitive secondary haemostatic ,;
plug[15,31][Figure1]. 9
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CURRENT CONCEPT OF COAGULATION ,,

Fgure 1: Earlier concept of coagulation

Current evidence supports the understanding that
intrinsic pathway is not a parallel pathway but indeed
7)9,,D7&D
it augments thrombin generation primarily initiated
,; ;
by the extrinsic pathway8] Newer model describes
coagulation with following steps:
9,,,9 ,QLWLDWLRQ
,;D 3KDVH
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It occurs by expression of TF in damaged vessel which
9,,,D9D
binds factor VIIa to activate factor IX and factor X.
This activation of factor IX by TFVIIa complex serves Figure 2: Current concept of coagulation (initiation phase)

as the bridge between classical extrinsic and intrinsic

pathways. Factor Xa then binds to factor II to form 9,,,D ,;D

thrombin(factor IIa). Thrombin generation through

this reaction is not robust and can be effectively
terminated by TF pathway inhibitor[Figure2].
3523$*$7,21 ;D 9D
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Since the amount of thrombin generated is not
sufficient, therefore numerous positive feedback loops
are present that bind thrombin with platelets. Thrombin
that is generated in the initiation phase further activates 3URWKURPELQ 7KURPELQ
factor V and factor VIII, which serves as a cofactor in Figure 3: Current concepts of coagulation (propagation phase)
prothrombinase complex and accelerates the activation
of Factor II by F Xa and of F Xa by F IXa, respectively. DISORDERS OF COAGULATION

Propagation A balance between clotting and bleeding is always

The accumulated enzyme complexes(tenase complex maintained in the body under normal physiology.
and prothrombinase complex) on platelet surface However any pathological scenario will tilt this balance
support robust amounts of thrombin generation to either haemorrhagic or thrombotic complications.
and platelet activation. This ensures continuous Hence as a corollary disorders of haemostasis can be
generation of thrombin and subsequently fibrin to categorised into those that lead to abnormal bleeding
form a sufficiently large clot[Figure3]. and those that lead to abnormal clotting[Table5].

Stabilization BLEEDING DISORDERS

Thrombin generation leads to activation of factor
XIII(fibrin stabilizing factor) which covalently Haemophilias
links fibrin polymers and provides strength and Haemophilia A, the most common form of haemophilia
stability to fibrin incorporated in platelet plug. In is associated with the deficiency of factor VIII and
addition, thrombin activates thrombin activatable B(Christmas disease) is secondary to deficiency of
fibrinolysis inhibitor(TAFI) that protects the clot from factor IX. Cis only found in 1% of the population and
fibrinolysis.[4,7] is due to deficiency of factor XI. Haemophilias are X

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

Table5: Classification of disorders of coagulation secondary to numerous causes . It often presents as

Bleeding disorders Thrombotic disorders (thrombophilia) diffuse bleeding associated with consumption of
Hereditary Hereditary coagulation factors and thrombocytopenia secondary
Von Willebrand disease Hereditary thrombophillia to widespread small vessel thrombosis. Common
Haemophilia A Antithrombin III deficiency
causes include sepsis/infections, obstetric causes,
Haemophilia B Protein C deficiency
Haemophilia C Protein S deficiency
incompatible blood transfusion, shock, trauma and
Factor V deficiency Factor V Leiden(factor V mutation) embolism.
Factor X deficiency Prothrombin mutation
(Gene 20210A mutation) Liver disease
Factor VII deficiency Majority of clotting factors are synthesized in liver
Factor XIII deficiency therefore severe liver disease is associated with
Prothrombin deficiency
coagulopathy. Since liver is also involved in the
Afibrinogenemia
clearance of activated clotting factors and fibrinolytic
Acquired Acquired
Consumptive Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome products, it may predispose to DIC. Management of
coagulopathies bleeding secondary to liver disease is based on the
DIC Increased levels of factors VIII, IX, XI, laboratory values of various coagulation tests.
or fibrinogen
Microangiopathic Fibrinolysis defects
Hypothermia is also associated with anticoagulatory
haemolytic anemias
Vitamin K deficiency Homozygous homocystinuria effects, which are more pronounced in the presence
Liver disease of acidosis. The effects may result from platelet
DICDisseminated intravascular coagulation dysfunction in mild hypothermia(below 35C)
to decreased synthesis of clotting enzymes and
linked recessive disorders and occur in males. The plasminogen activator inhibitors when temperatures
severity of the bleeding tendency is directly related to is<33C.[34]
the levels of the coagulation factors. The levels of factor
VIII need to be assessed in the preoperative period and The availability of newer oral anticoagulants, targeting
human or recombinant factor VIII concentrates are either thrombin(dabigatran etexilate) or factor
transfused to keep the factor VIII levels 100% in the Xa(rivaroxaban or apixaban) exhibit rapid onset/offset
perioperative period.[32] and minimal drug interactions with more predictable
pharmacokinetics thus eliminating the need for
Von Willebrand disease is the most common autosomal frequent coagulation monitoring. All these features
dominant inherited disorder of coagulation due to give newer oral anticoagulants a major pharmacological
abnormality in the production of vWF, which may benefits over vitamin K antagonists.[35]
be qualitative or quantitative. vWF acts as a carrier
molecule for factor VIII coagulant protein and the THROMBOTIC DISORDERS
deficiency of former has a profound effect on the
stability of latter. The clinical presentation may be Plasma concentration of certain coagulation factors
variable and complete deficiency, though rare leads (factor V, VII, VIII, IX, fibrinogen) increase progressively
to severe bleeding. The diagnosis is usually made by with age.[36] Same is true for vWF, a key protein in
prolonged bleeding time in the presence of adequate platelet vessel wall interaction.[37] High incidence of
platelets. Antifibrinolytic agent and tranexamic acid cardiovascular events seen in elderly may be due to
may be used for minor bleeding. Desmopressin D increased levels of plasma fibrinogen, which enhance
arginine vasopressin administered in the preoperative the bridging of the platelets via glycoprotein IIbIIIa
period is expected to raise the concentration of factor receptor and act as a direct substrate for clot and/or by
VIII in patients with quantitative disorders.[32] increasing the blood viscosity.[3]

Fibrinogen deficiency The constitutive or acquired disorders of thrombosis

Total or partial is an extremely rare inherited bleeding are termed as thrombophillia.
disorder. Afibrinogenemia is rather well tolerated and
may manifest as subcutaneous haematoma or umbilical There are number of factors that are associated
haematoma at birth. The clinical findings are variable with the hypercoaguable states. In addition to the
in childhood and adults.[33] DIC is the most common genetic and hereditary disorders that predispose to
consumptive coagulopathy that maybe observed thrombosis, several risk factors such as smoking,

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

obesity, pregnancy, immobility, malignancy, surgery, Plasmin activity is tightly regulated by its inhibitor(2
females on oral contraceptives may also contribute antiplasmin) thus preventing widespread fibrinolysis[41]
to its development.[38] Disorders of ATIII deficiency, [Figure4]. In vivo activity of the fibrinolytic system
reduced protein C and Protein S are inherited in is assessed clinically by measuring the FDPs. D
autosomal dominant fashion and are associated with dimersare produced by digestion of cross linked fibrin
increased risk of thrombosis. Acquired Protein C and andare specific indicators of fibrinolysis used in the
Protien S deficiency may be observed in vitamin K assessment and diagnosis of pulmonary embolism,
deficiency, warfarin therapy, pregnancy, liver cirrhosis DIC or deep vein thrombosis.[13]
and sepsis.[39] Numbers of observational studies have
shown decreased levels of APC in critically illpatients Since plasmin has the potential to degrade fibrinogen
that may have a direct correlation with the mortality.[40] leading to deleterious consequences, the fibrinolytic
activity is limited by following factors:
The risk of thromboembolism in the perioperative Plasminogen activator inhibitor It is the main
period is well recognized. Therefore, patients physiological inhibitor of fibriolysis and acts by
with herditary thrombophillia should be given inhibiting tPA and uPA irreversibly
thromboprophylaxis. TAFIIt is a plasma proenzyme synthesized by
liver and activated by thrombin. It decreases the
During pregnancy stasis due to obstruction of inferior affinity of plasminogen to fibrin and augments
vene cava by gravid uterus along with increase in the action of antitrypsin in inhibiting plasmin
the majority of clotting factors, fibrinogen and vWF Plasmin inhibitors 2 antiplasmin and
is observed. Activity of Protein S decreases with 2Macroglobulin are the glycoproteins that
simultaneous resistance of protein C. In addition, exert action by virtue of plasmin inhibition.[25]
fibrinolytic system is also impaired thus contributing
to a hypercoaguable state that makes the parturient DISORDERS OF FIBRINOLYSIS
more prone to thromboembolism.[2]
Congenital disorders pertaining to fibrinolytic
During surgery and trauma, prolonged immobility system are rare. Although the hyperfibrinolytic
promotes stasis which results in local hypoxia. Physical state is associated with increased tendency to
disruption leads to exposure of TF thus triggering bleed, deficiency of the same predisposes to
thrombosis.[37] Furthermore during the first hours of thromboembolism.[42] Excessive activation of
surgery, there is increase in TF, tissue plasminogen fibrinolysis may be observed during cardiopulmonary
activator(tPA) and vWF, leading to hypercoaguable bypass, hence antifibrinolytics have a beneficial
state thus promoting venous thrombosis. Even role in the prevention of same. Acquired
a venepuncture cause vascular wall injury thus, hyperfibrinolysis may be encountered in trauma,
predisposing to thrombus formation. Since lower limb liver cirrhosis, amniotic fluid embolism, multiple
is associated with stasis and immobilization during myeloma, snake bite and conditions associated with
surgery, venepuncture preferably should be avoided massive activation of tPA, which can lead to DIC
in the lower limb. and haemorrhage.[25]

FIBRINOLYTIC SYSTEM 3/$60,12*(1 3/$60,1

W3$
Fibrinolytic system is a parallel system which is X3$
$3
activated along with activation of coagulation cascade
and serves to limit the size of clot. Fibrinolysis is
),%5,12*(1 ),%5,1
an enzymatic process that dissolves the fibrin clot '(*5$'$7,21
into fibrin degradation products(FDPs) by plasmin 352'8&76
originating from fibrin bound plasminogen in
liver. This reaction is catalysed by tPA or urokinase 7+520%,1
plasminogen activator(uPA) released from vascular
endothelium. The release of tPA is stimulated by
tissue occlusion, thrombin, epinephrine, vasopressin 7$),

and strenuous exercise. Figure 4: Regulation of the fibrinolytic system

522 Indian Journal of Anaesthesia | Vol. 58 | Issue 5 | Sep-Oct 2014

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Palta, etal.: Overview: Coagulation system

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