RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

QUESTION BANK
Unit -1
Part-A
1. Give any two characteristics of Research.
Characteristics of Research:
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the
researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends
with a problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.

2. State the meaning of Hypothesis research.

A research hypothesis is the statement created by researchers when they speculate

upon the outcome of a research or experiment

3. What is Research?
Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an
individuals speculation with reality
4. Define the term Survey
To gather information by individual samples so as to learn about the whole thing.

Example: you could survey a river's water quality by taking a cupful of water from
different locations at different times.

5. Identify the reasons for a research problem

One of the most important first tasks of research is to identify and define clearly
the problem you wish to study. If you are uncertain about the research problem or
if you are not clear in your own mind about what you want to study, others who
read your proposal will also be uncertain. A well-defined research problem
statement leads naturally to the statement of research objectives, to the hypotheses,
to a definition of key variables, and to a selection of a methodology for measuring
the variables. A poorly defined research problem leads to confusion.

6. What are the qualities of a researcher?

An analytical mind, A people person, The ability to stay calm, Intelligence,
Curiosity.

7. What are the various types of research?

Pure research- Applied research- Exploratory research- Descriptive
research- Diagnostic study- Evaluation study- Action research.

8. Define the meaning of survey research

9. What do you understand by case study research?

In the social sciences and life sciences, a case study (or case report) is a
descriptive, exploratory or explanatory analysis of a person, group or event. An
explanatory case study is used to explore causation in order to find underlying
principles.[1][2] Case studies may be prospective (in which criteria are
established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available) or
retrospective (in which criteria are established for selecting cases from
historical records for inclusion in the study).

10. Explain a research design.

A research design encompasses the method and procedures employed to
conduct scientific research. The design of a study defines the study type
(descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-
analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research
question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables,
experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a
statistical analysis plan..

Part-B
 Unit -5

Part A

1. What are the components of a research report?

COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT

INTRODUCTION

- Statement of the problem

- Objective(s) of the research

- Statement of the research question(s)

- Statement of the hypotheses

- Research background/context

LITERATURE REVIEW

Orientation: comprehensive or selective?

Have a plan; outline it

Set the context of your research
Show relateness to your research
Review key points in your words; quote little
Summarize to conclude this mini-essay

PLAN OF RESEARCH

- Study/experimental design

- Selection of cases/participants (sampling)

- Setting

- Data collection procedures and instruments

- Data analysis

- Outline or detailed description?

PRESENTATION OF DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS

- "A picture is worth"

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE

DATA (FINDINGS; WHAT IT ALL MEANS)

CONCLUSION

o Summary of the report

o Limitations of the study

o Future research needs

2. Name the different types of reports?

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a
topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the
boundaries between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.

Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or

question.

Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

There are two major types of research design: qualitative research and quantitative research.
Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative

3. Discuss the basic structure of a report?

1.The Introduction is the first paragraph. In the introduction, it is a general statement about
the topic, provides the main arguments of the paper and concludes with the thesis. The thesis
is the last sentence of the paragraph and is a strong statement that you can prove.

2.A thesis statement is the controlling idea of the research and is a map to the route the
research will follow. The thesis is specific and expresses one major idea about the subject.

3.The Body is where the evidence to prove the thesis is presented. The information supports
or proves the thesis statement. This supporting information can be analysis, argument,
evaluation, persuasion and comparison/contrast. The body of the paper is well organized with
each paragraph consisting of a topic sentence, supporting and concluding sentences and a
transition to the next paragraph
4. All support for your thesis, whether quoted or paraphrased, must be cited.

5. Conclusion This is the last paragraph of the paper and summarizes how your paper proved
the thesis; no new information is given in this paragraph.

Introduction General Statement about the Topic

Main Points
 Thesis

First Paragraph - Main Point

Supporting Details
Body Supporting Details
Concluding Sentence
Transition

Second Paragraph - Main Point

Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Concluding Sentence
Transition

Third Paragraph - Main Point

Supporting Details
Supporting Details
Concluding Sentence
Transition

General statement about the Topic

Conclusion
Summary of the main points used to prove the thesis

6. Bring out the importance of structures report

7. What are contents of the introduction section?

The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to
write. Introductions are generally half a page in length, though they can run longer if
the topic requires additional information. They usually begin with supporting
statements, and end with a description of your hypothesis. They offer a theoretical
context to a paper, allowing readers to understand the reasoning behind your work.
Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and
communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement

8. Discuss the importance of the title of a Research paper.

As you craft a title for a research paper,

The title of a paper should
1. Describe the content of the paper;
2. Distinguish the paper from others on a similar topic;
3. Catch the readers attention and interest;
4. Match search queries so people will find your paper (and cite it).
 9. Write a note on the Synopsis.
The purpose of a summary is to give the reader, in a about 1/3 of the original length of
an article/lecture, a clear, objective picture of the original lecture or text. Most
importantly, the summary restates only the main points of a text or a lecture
without giving examples or details, such as dates, numbers or statistics.

10. Write a note on the aspects on Literature review.

A literature review is the effective evaluation of selected documents on a research
topic. A review may form an essential part of the research process or may constitute a
research project in itself.
In the context of a research paper or thesis the literature review is a critical synthesis
of previous research. The evaluation of the literature leads logically to the research
question.

11. What do you understand by the term Bibliography?

one should compile a bibliography when writing an essay, article, or research paper that
relies heavily on source material. A bibliography is an alphabetized list of sources that have
been used to compile data, typically in an article, essay, or research paper. This list is found
at the end of the work and allows the person reviewing the data to verify the veracity of the
statements and/or figures presented in the data itself. It also allows a writer to give proper
credit for quotes or key phrases that have been written and presented in a source that they
may have referenced in their paper so as to avoid plagiarism.

12. Discuss the purpose of SPSS.

SPSS for Windows is the Windows version of the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences. It is one of the most useful, popular, and easy-to-use software packages for
performing statistical analyses. Familiarity with SPSS may be an important step in
your professional or educational advancement. The purpose of this site is to explain
the basics of using the program beginning with computing a correlation between two
variables and continuing with t-tests, ANOVAs, and chi-square.
Part-B

1. Discuss the structure and components of a Research report.

Formal Research Structure

For emphasis, the primary purposes for formal research are repeated here:

find and understand raw data and information

enter the discourse, or conversation, of other writers and scholars in your field

learn how others in your field use primary and secondary resources
For the formal or primary academic research assignment, where you will take your place in
the scholarly conversation, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary
academic research. This organization consists of these sectionsintroduction, methods,
results, discussion, and conclusions and recommendations.

The research paper flows from the general to the specific and back to the general in its
organization. The introduction uses a general-to-specific movement in its organization,
establishing the thesis and setting the context for the conversation. The methods and results
sections are more detailed and specific, providing support for the generalizations made in
the introduction. The discussion section moves toward an increasingly more general
discussion of the subject leading to the conclusions and recommendations, which then
generalize the conversation again.

The Introduction
Many students will find that writing a structured introduction gets them started and gives
them the needed focus that significantly improves their entire paper. Usually, you will not
actually begin writing here, but in a later section, wherever you think you have the most
information. Because introductions are so highly structured, you may actually write your
introduction last.

Introductions usually have three parts:

1. presentation of the problem or the research inquiry

2. purpose and focus of the current paper

3. summary or overview of the writers position or arguments

As you can see, a thoughtfully written introduction can provide a blueprint for the entire
research paper.

In the first part of the introduction, the presentation of the problem, or the research inquiry,
state the problem or express it so that the question is implied. Then, sketch the background
on the problem and review the literature on it to give your readers a context to show them
how your research inquiry fits into the conversation currently ongoing in your subject area.
You may tell why this problem has been a problem, why previous attempts have failed to
solve it, or why you think this particular slant or angle to the problem is important. You can
also mention what benefits are to be gained from solving this problem or exploring this
topic from your perspective.
In the second part of the introduction, state your purpose and focus. Here, you may even
present your actual thesis. Sometimes your purpose statement can take the place of the
thesis by letting your reader know your intentions. Some writers like to delay presenting
their thesis, especially if their readers may not be ready to accept it.

The third part, the summary or overview of the paper, briefly leads readers through the
discussion, forecasting the main ideas and giving readers a blueprint for the paper.

This example of a well-organized introduction provides such a blueprint.

Example of an Introduction

Entrepreneurial Marketing: The Critical Difference

In an article in the Harvard Business Review, John A. Welsh and Jerry F. White remind us
that "a small business is not a little big business." An entrepreneur is not a multinational
conglomerate but a profit-seeking individual. To survive, he must have a different outlook
and must apply different principles to his endeavors than does the president of a large or
even medium-sized corporation. Not only does the scale of small and big businesses differ
but small businesses also suffer from what the Harvard Business Review article calls
"resource poverty." This is a problem and opportunity that requires an entirely different
approach to marketing. Where large ad budgets are not necessary or feasible, where
expensive ad production squanders limited capital, where every marketing dollar must do
the work of two dollars, if not five dollars or even ten, where a persons company, capital,
and material well-being are all on the linethat is, where guerrilla marketing can save the
day and secure the bottom line. (Levinson, 1984, p. 9)

In this example, the first sentence gives us the general academic conversation that this
article will join. Sentence 2 narrows the discussion slightly to the entrepreneur. Sentence 3
explains why the entrepreneur and the small business are different and suggests the
research question: How does the entrepreneur with his business principles differ from the
corporate CEO and "big business" principles? Sentence 4 again places the discussion here
within the academic conversation about entrepreneurs and slants the subject to "resource
poverty." Sentence 5 suggests why this issue is significant and even hints that perhaps it
hasnt been covered sufficiently. The author is defining his "research space," where his
research will fit in the conversation. The last and longest sentence succinctly summarizes
the areas covered in this article and presents the thesis statement ". . . that is, where
guerrilla marketing can save the day and secure the bottom line."
As an aside, notice that the title of our example has two parts. Readers use such academic
titles to select articles and to get a quick sense of what an article is about. Academic titles
can state the research question, summarize the thesis or purpose, or be written as a two-part
title with a colon. As in this example, the first part of the title gives the context of the
article, the academic discussion, and the second part gives the slant of the article, this
writers special research space in the conversation.

By reviewing the introductions to research articles in the discipline in which you are
writing your research paper, you can get an idea of what is considered the norm for that
discipline. Study several of these before you begin your paper so that you know what may
be expected. If you are unsure of the kind of introduction your paper needs, ask your
teacher for more information. As an added note, the introduction is usually written in
present tense.

The Methods Section

The methods section of your research paper should describe in detail what methodology
and special materials, if any, you used to think through or perform your research. You
should include any materials you used or designed for yourself, such as questionnaires or
interview questions, to generate data or information for your research paper. You want to
include any methodologies that are specific to your particular field of study, such as lab
procedures for a lab experiment or data-gathering instruments for field research. If you are
writing a literary research paper, you would want to use the methodologies scholars use to
examine texts and place the author and the literary piece into its literary and historical
context. If you are writing a business management research paper, you would want to use
the methodologies that place your discussion in the context of business and economics.

Next to your own critical review of the scholarship in your discipline, your teacher is the
best source of what methodologies are used in it. Many writers of research begin with this
section because it is often the easiest to write. This section is usually written in past tense.

The Results Section

How you present the results of your research depends on what kind of research you did,
your subject matter, and your readers expectations. Quantitative information, data that
can be measured, can be presented systematically and economically in tables, charts, and
graphs. Quantitative information includes quantities and comparisons of sets of data. If you
are unfamiliar with the conventions, you may find it challenging to present quantitative
findings. You may include some commentary to explain to your reader what your findings
are and how to read them.
The distinction between the results section and the discussion section is not always so
clear-cut. Although many writers think you should simply present and report your findings
on the data you have collected, others believe some evaluation and commentary on your
data may be appropriate and even necessary here. You and your teacher can decide how
strict you want to be in this decision.

Qualitative information, which includes brief descriptions, explanations, or instructions,

can also be presented in prose tables. This kind of descriptive or explanatory information,
however, is often presented in essay-like prose or even lists.

There are specific conventions for creating tables, charts, and graphs and organizing the
information they contain. In general, you should use these only when you are sure they will
enlighten your readers rather than confuse them. In the accompanying explanation and
your discussion, always refer to the graphic by number and explain specifically what you
are referring to. Give your graphic element a descriptive caption as well. The rule of thumb
for presenting a graphic is first to introduce it by name, show it, and then interpret it. You
can consult a textbook, such as Lannons Technical Writing for more information and
guidance. The results section is usually written in past tense.

The Discussion Section

Your discussion section should generalize on what you have learned from your research.
One way to generalize is to explain the consequences or meaning of your results and then
make your points that support and refer back to the statements you made in your
introduction. Your discussion should be organized so that it relates directly to your thesis.
You want to avoid introducing new ideas here or discussing tangential issues not directly
related to the exploration and discovery of your thesis. This section, along with the
introduction, is usually written in present tense.

The Conclusions and Recommendations Section

Some academic research assignments might end with the discussion and not need a
separate conclusions and recommendations section. Often, in shorter assignments, your
conclusion is just a paragraph or two added to the discussion section. In many of your
research assignments, however, you will be asked to provide your conclusions and
recommendations in your research paper.

Conclusions unify your research results and discussion and elaborate on their significance
to your thesis. Your conclusion ties your research to your thesis, binding together all the
main ideas in your thinking and writing. By presenting the logical outcome of your
research and thinking, your conclusion answers your research inquiry for you and your
readers. Your conclusions should relate directly to the ideas presented in your introduction
section and not present any new ideas.

You may be asked to present your recommendations separately in your research

assignment. If so, you will want to add some elements to your conclusion section. For
example, you may be asked to recommend a course of action, make a prediction, propose a
solution to a problem, offer a judgment, or speculate on the implications and consequences
of your ideas. The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in present
tense.

The Reference List

Of course, your research paper is not complete without your list of references.

2. What according to you is a good Research report?

Many people often harbor creative research ideas but few of them gain their way into a
concrete research project proposal nor the actual research publication. More often than not,
this is usually due to the fear of how one would come up with a good report write-up.

Nearly all research project reports follow a similar format of writing. This is because all
such write- ups are usually reports of what the researcher actually did and the results or
conclusions they came up with.

There are, however, some minor peculiar differences between various reports and this
result from the nature of the study carried out. In this case the research could be in the
social science field or a practical study investigating a certain practical scientific
phenomena.

Thus the qualities of an excellent polished research project report include:-

1. It must be written easy to understand vocabulary as the aim of the report is to covey the
message in the write-up.

2. It must have clear and short title related to the research problem.

3. It must give a summary(abstract) of the whole research in the introductory pages of the
write-up.

4. The report must possess the methodology section to show how the research was carried
out.
5. It must have a discussion of the findings and the conclusion section.

6. The report must be easily legible, written with good font type and font size even though
different authorities recommend different styles.

7.ensure you reference all work that is not originally yours. This gives acknowledgment to
the original generators of such work. Different styles of referencing exist including APA,
MLA etc depending on the locality and nature of your research write-up.

8. Avoid plagiarism at all costs. It is the HIV of intellectual resources.

9. Remember your audience. Be it a Postgraduate research dissertation, Masters Research

project thesis or a senior final year college research project report; write it with the end
user in mind.

3. Analyse the lapses which leads to an error onus report.

Organizations conduct market research to get input for better decision

making. For instance, before deciding whether to introduce a new
product, a business might conduct market research to decide whether to
go ahead with the new product development or not. Market research is
not infallible, however, and those involved in the research should watch
out for errors. Two major sources of marketing research errors are
sampling errors and nonsampling errors.

Sampling Errors

In most cases, researchers cannot study an entire population for their research. They
conveniently choose samples from the population and extrapolate the findings they
get from studying the samples to the entire population. Sampling introduces a
possibility of error in the research if the samples are not representative of the
population due to some chance variation. Even though researchers use statistical
sampling procedures, there is no guarantee that this sort of sampling error will not
occur.

Non sampling Errors

Non sampling errors occur due to mistakes in the design of the project
or due to a mistake in execution. Researchers also call these errors
systematic errors. These errors tend to introduce a bias to the results of
the research. An error leads to a difference between the outcome that
the researchers come to and the true outcome they should have gotten
in the absence of the error.

Examples of Error
 When a researcher chooses the wrong population to survey, this is a source of error.
For instance, instead of surveying the population of those who are lactose
intolerant, the researcher studies the population of those who have diabetes. This
sort of nonsampling error could occur due to a mistake in execution of the project.
Another source of error is that researchers could identify the husband as the
decision maker in whether to purchase a television set for the children's room,
whereas the wife is the real decision maker. If they survey husbands, they are likely
to come up with erroneous results, and this results in a nonsampling error.

Mitigating Error

Efforts to mitigate sampling errors would mean trying to get a larger sample.
However, a larger sample could also introduce nonsampling errors when
researchers carry out the survey. Thus, an inherent conflict exists between cutting
down on sampling error and creating nonsampling error. The goal should be
reducing the total error, which may involve adopting a smaller or larger sample size
depending on the specific research needs.

4. Describe in brief the layout of a research report explaining all relevant points.

....The scientific format may seem confusing for the beginning science writer due to its
rigid structure which is so different from writing in the humanities. One reason for using
this format is that it is a means of efficiently communicating scientific findings to the
broad community of scientists in a uniform manner. Another reason, perhaps more
important than the first, is that this format allows the paper to be read at several different
levels. For example, many people skim Titles to find out what information is available on a
subject. Others may read only titles and Abstracts. Those wanting to go deeper may look at
the Tables and Figures in the Results, and so on. The take home point here is that the
scientific format helps to insure that at whatever level a person reads your paper (beyond
title skimming), they will likely get the key results and conclusions.

The Sections of the Paper

Most journal-style scientific papers are subdivided into the following sections: Title,
Authors and Affiliation, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion,
Acknowledgments, and Literature Cited, which parallel the experimental process. This is
the system we will use. This website describes the style, content, and format associated
with each section.

The sections appear in a journal style paper in the following prescribed order:
 Experimental process Section of Paper

What did I do in a
Abstract
nutshell?

What is the problem? Introduction

How did I solve the

Materials and Methods
problem?

What did I find out? Results

What does it mean? Discussion

Who helped me out? Acknowledgments (optional)

Whose work did I refer

Literature Cited
to?

Extra Information Appendices (optional)

Section Headings:

Main Section Headings: Each main section of the paper begins with a heading which
should be capitalized, centered at the beginning of the section, and double spaced from the
lines above and below. Do not underline the section heading OR put a colon at the end.

Example of a main section heading:

INTRODUCTION

Subheadings: When your paper reports on more than one experiment, use subheadings to
help organize the presentation. Subheadings should be capitalized (first letter in each
word), left justified, and either bold italics OR underlined.

Example of a subheading:

Effects of Light Intensity on the Rate of Electron Transport

Title, Authors' Names, and Institutional Affiliations

1. Function: Your paper should begin with a Title that succinctly describes the contents of
the paper. Use descriptive words that you would associate strongly with the content of your
paper: the molecule studied, the organism used or studied, the treatment, the location of a
field site, the response measured, etc. A majority of readers will find your paper via
electronic database searches and those search engines key on words found in the title.

2. Title FAQs

3. Format:

The title should be centered at the top of page 1 (DO NOT use a title page - it is a
waste of paper for our purposes); the title is NOT underlined or italicized.

the authors' names (PI or primary author first) and institutional affiliation are
double-spaced from and centred below the title. When more than two authors, the
names are separated by commas except for the last which is separated from the
previous name by the word "and".

For example:

The title is not a section, but it is necessary and important. The title should be short and
unambiguous, yet be an adequate description of the work. A general rule-of-thumb is that
the title should contain the key words describing the work presented. Remember that the
title becomes the basis for most on-line computer searches - if your title is insufficient, few
people will find or read your paper. For example, in a paper reporting on an experiment
involving dosing mice with the sex hormone estrogen and watching for a certain kind of
courtship behavior, a poor title would be:

ABSTRACT

1. Function: An abstract summarizes, in one paragraph (usually), the major aspects of the
entire paper in the following prescribed sequence:

the question(s) you investigated (or purpose), (from Introduction)

o state the purpose very clearly in the first or second sentence.

the experimental design and methods used, (from Methods)

o clearly express the basic design of the study.

o Name or briefly describe the basic methodology used without going into
excessive detail-be sure to indicate the key techniques used.

the major findings including key quantitative results, or trends (from Results)

o report those results which answer the questions you were asking
 o identify trends, relative change or differences, etc.

a brief summary of your interpetations and conclusions. (from Discussion)

o clearly state the implications of the answers your results gave you.

Whereas the Title can only make the simplest statement about the content of your article,
the Abstract allows you to elaborate more on each major aspect of the paper. The length of
your Abstract should be kept to about 200-300 words maximum (a typical standard length
for journals.) Limit your statements concerning each segment of the paper (i.e. purpose,
methods, results, etc.) to two or three sentences, if possible. The Abstract helps readers
decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper, or it may be the only part they can
obtain via electronic literature searches or in published abstracts. Therefore, enough key
information (e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.) must be included to make the
Abstract useful to someone who may to reference your work

How do you know when you have enough information in your Abstract? A simple rule-
of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing an study similar to the one
you are reporting. If your Abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would
you be happy with the information presented there?

2. Style: The Abstract is ONLY text. Use the active voice when possible, but much of it
may require passive constructions. Write your Abstract using concise, but complete,
sentences, and get to the point quickly. Use past tense. Maximum length should be 200-
300 words, usually in a single paragraph.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

lengthy background information,

references to other literature,

elliptical (i.e., ending with ...) or incomplete sentences,

abbreviations or terms that may be confusing to readers,

any sort of illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

3. Strategy: Although it is the first section of your paper, the Abstract, by definition, must
be written last since it will summarize the paper. To begin composing your Abstract, take
whole sentences or key phrases from each section and put them in a sequence which
summarizes the paper. Then set about revising or adding words to make it all cohesive and
clear. As you become more proficient you will most likely compose the Abstract from
scratch.

4. Check your work: Once you have the completed abstract, check to make sure that the
information in the abstract completely agrees with what is written in the paper. Confirm
that all the information appearing the abstract actually appears in the body of the paper.

INTRODUCTION

[ strategy | FAQs | style | structure | relevant literature review | statement of purpose |

rationale ]

1. Function: The function of the Introduction is to:

Establish the context of the work being reported. This is accomplished by

discussing the relevant primary research literature (with citations) and
summarizing our current understanding of the problem you are investigating;

State the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or
problem you investigated; and,

Briefly explain your rationale and approach and, whenever possible, the possible
outcomes your study can reveal.

Quite literally, the Introduction must answer the questions, "What was I studying? Why
was it an important question? What did we know about it before I did this study? How will
this study advance our knowledge?"

2. Style: Use the active voice as much as possible. Some use of first person is okay, but do
not overdo it.

3. Structure: The structure of the Introduction can be thought of as an inverted triangle -

the broadest part at the top representing the most general information and focusing down to
the specific problem you studied. Organize the information to present the more general
aspects of the topic early in the Introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical
information that provides context, finally arriving at your statement of purpose and
rationale. A good way to get on track is to sketch out the Introduction backwards; start with
the specific purpose and then decide what is the scientific context in which you are asking
the question(s) your study addresses. Once the scientific context is decided, then you'll
have a good sense of what level and type of general information with which the
Introduction should begin.

Here is the information should flow in your Introduction:

Begin your Introduction by clearly identifying the subject area of interest. Do

 this by using key words from your Title in the first few sentences of the
Introduction to get it focused directly on topic at the appropriate level. This insures
that you get to the primary subject matter quickly without losing focus, or
discussing information that is too general. For example, in the mouse behavior
paper, the words hormones and behavior would likely appear within the first one or
two sentences of the Introduction.

Establish the context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent
published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize
(for the reader) what we knew about the specific problem before you did your
experiments or studies. This is accomplished with a general review of the primary
research literature (with citations) but should not include very specific, lengthy
explanations that you will probably discuss in greater detail later in the
Discussion. The judgment of what is general or specific is difficult at first, but
with practice and reading of the scientific literature you will develop e firmer sense
of your audience. In the mouse behavior paper, for example, you would begin the
Introduction at the level of mating behavior in general, then quickly focus to mouse
mating behaviors and then hormonal regulation of behavior. Lead the reader to your
statement of purpose/hypothesis by focusing your literature review from the more
general context (the big picture e.g., hormonal modulation of behaviors) to the
more specific topic of interest to you (e.g., role/effects of reproductive hormones,
especially estrogen, in modulating specific sexual behaviors of mice.)

What literature should you look for in your review of what we know about the
problem? Focus your efforts on the primary research journals - the journals that
publish original research articles. Although you may read some general background
references (encyclopedias, textbooks, lab manuals, style manuals, etc.) to get
yourself acquainted with the subject area, do not cite these, becasue they contain
information that is considered fundamental or "common" knowledge wqithin the
discipline. Cite, instead, articles that reported specific results relevant to your study.
Learn, as soon as possible, how to find the primary literature (research journals)
and review articles rather than depending on reference books. The articles listed in
the Literature Cited of relevant papers you find are a good starting point to move
backwards in a line of inquiry. Most academic libraries support the Citation Index
- an index which is useful for tracking a line of inquiry forward in time. Some of
the newer search engines will actually send you alerts of new papers that cite
particular articles of interest to you. Review articles are particularly useful because
they summarize all the research done on a narrow subject area over a brief period
of time (a year to a few years in most cases).

Be sure to clearly state the purpose and /or hypothesis that you investigated.
When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually
preferable, to use a pat statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We
investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the ... (1) blah, blah..(2) etc. It is
 most usual to place the statement of purpose near the end of the Introduction, often
as the topic sentence of the final paragraph. It is not necessary (or even desirable)
to use the words "hypothesis" or "null hypothesis", since these are usually implicit
if you clearly state your purpose and expectations.

Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem
studied. For example: State briefly how you approached the problem (e.g., you
studied oxidative respiration pathways in isolated mitochondria of cauliflower).
This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the
Introduction. Why did you choose this kind of experiment or experimental design?
What are the scientific merits of this particular model system? What advantages
does it confer in answering the particular question(s) you are posing? Do not
discuss here the actual techniques or protocols used in your study (this will be done
in the Materials and Methods); your readers will be quite familiar with the
usual techniques and approaches used in your field. If you are using a novel (new,
revolutionary, never used before) technique or methodology, the merits of the new
technique/method versus the previously used methods should be presented in the
Introduction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section is variously called Methods or Methods and Materials.

1. Function: In this section you explain clearly how you carried out your study in the
following general structure and organization (details follow below):

the the organism(s) studied (plant, animal, human, etc.) and, when relevant,
their pre-experiment handling and care, and when and where the study was carried
out (only if location and time are important factors); note that the term "subject" is
used ONLY for human studies.

if you did a field study, provide a description of the study site, including the
significant physical and biological features, and the precise location (latitude and
longitude, map, etc);

the experimental OR sampling design (i.e., how the experiment or study was
structured. For example, controls, treatments, what variable(s) were measured, how
many samples were collected, replication, the final form of the data, etc.);

the protocol for collecting data, i.e., how the experimental procedures were
carried out, and,

how the data were analyzed (qualitative analyses and/or statistical

procedures used to determine significance, data transformations used, what
 probability was used to decide significance, etc).

Organize your presentation so your reader will understand the logical flow of the
experiment(s); subheadings work well for this purpose. Each experiment or procedure
should be presented as a unit, even if it was broken up over time. The experimental design
and procedure are sometimes most efficiently presented as an integrated unit, because
otherwise it would be difficult to split them up. In general, provide enough quantitative
detail (how much, how long, when, etc.) about your experimental protocol such that other
scientists could reproduce your experiments. You should also indicate the statistical
procedures used to analyze your results, including the probability level at which you
determined significance (usually at 0.05 probability).

2. Style: The style in this section should read as if you were verbally describing the
conduct of the experiment. You may use the active voice to a certain extent, although this
section requires more use of third person, passive constructions than others. Avoid use of
the first person in this section. Remember to use the past tense throughout - the work
being reported is done, and was performed in the past, not the future. The Methods section
is not a step-by-step, directive, protocol as you might see in your lab manual.

3. Strategy for writing the Methods section.

4. Methods FAQs.

Describe the organism(s) used in the study. This includes giving the (1) source (supplier
or where and how the orgranisms were collected), (2) typical size (weight, length, etc), (3)
how they were handled, fed, and housed before the experiment, (4) how they were handled,
fed, and housed during the experiment. In genetics studies include the strains or genetic
stocks used. For some studies, age may be an important factor. For example, did you use
mouse pups or adults? Seedlings or mature plants?

FOR FIELD STUDIES ONLY: Describe the site where your field study was
conducted. The description must include both physical and biological characteristics of
the site pertinant to the study aims. Include the date(s) of the study (e.g., 10-15 April 1994)
and the exact location of the study area. Location data must be as precise as possible:
"Grover Nature Preserve, mi SW Grover, Maine" rather than "Grover Nature Preserve"
or "Grover". When possible, give the actual latitude and longitude position of the site:
these can be obtained using handheld GPS units, OR, from web resources such as Google
Earth(TM) and MapQuest(TM). It is often a good idea to include a map (labeled as a
Figure) showing the study location in relation to some larger more recognizable
geographic area. Someone else should be able to go to the exact location of your study site
if they want to repeat or check your work, or just visit your study area.

NOTE: For laboratory studies you need not report the date and location of the
study UNLESS it is necessary information for someone to have who might
 wish to repeat your work or use the same facility. Most often it is not. If you
have performed experiments at a particular location or lab because it is the
only place to do it, or one of a few, then you should note that in your methods
and identify the lab or facility.

Describe your experimental design clearly. Be sure to include the hypotheses you tested,
controls, treatments, variables measured, how many replicates you had, what you actually
measured, what form the data take, etc. Always identify treatments by the variable or
treatment name, NOT by an ambiguous, generic name or number (e.g., use "2.5% NaCl"
rather than "test 1".) When your paper includes more than one experiment, use
subheadings to help organize your presentation by experiment. A general experimental
design worksheet is available to help plan your experiments in the core courses.

Describe the procedures for your study in sufficient detail that other scientists could
repeat your work to verify your findings. Foremost in your description should be the
"quantitative" aspects of your study - the masses, volumes, incubation times,
concentrations, etc., that another scientist needs in order to duplicate your experiment.
When using standard lab or field methods and instrumentation, it is not always necessary
to explain the procedures (e.g., serial dilution) or equipment used (e.g., autopipetter) since
other scientists will likely be familiar with them already.

You may want to identify certain types of equipment by vendor name and brand or
category (e.g., ultracentrifuge vs. prep centrifuge), particularly if they are not commonly
found in most labs. It is appropriate to report, parenthetically, the source (vendor) and
catalog number for reagents used, e.g., "....poly-L-lysine (Sigma #1309)." When using a
method described in another published source, you can save time and words by providing
the relevant citation to the source. Always make sure to describe any modifications you
have made of a standard or published method.

NOTE: Very frequently the experimental design and data collection procedures for
an experiment cannot be separated and must be integrated together. If you find
yourself repeating lots of information about the experimental design when
describing the data collection procedure(s), likely you can combine them and be
more concise.

NOTE: Although tempting, DO NOT say that you "recorded the data," i.e., in your
lab notebook, in the Methods description. Of course you did, because that is what
all good scientists do, and it is a given that you recorded your measurements and
observations.

Describe how the data were summarized and analyzed. Here you will indicate what
types of descriptive statistics were used and which analyses (usually hypothesis tests) were
employed to answer each of the questions or hypotheses tested and determine statistical
siginifcance.

The information should include:

Statistical software used: Sometimes it is necessary to report which statistical

software you used; this would be at the discretion of your instructor or the journal;

how the data were summarized (Means, percent, etc) and how you are reporting
measures of variability (SD,SEM, 95% CI, etc)

o this lets you avoid having to repeatedly indicate you are using mean SD
or SEM.

which data transformations were used(e.g., to correct for normal distribution or

equalize variances);

statistical tests used with reference to the particular questions, or kinds of

questions, they address. For example,

"A Paired t-test was used to compare mean flight duration before and after applying
stablizers to the glider's wings."

"One way ANOVA was used to compare mean weight gain in weight-matched calves fed
the three different rations."

"Comparisons among the three pH treatment groups for each variable were done using
one way ANOVA (with Tukey's post hoc test) or a Kruskal-Wallis Test (with Dunn's post
hoc test)."

any other numerical (e.g., normalizing data) or graphical techniques used to

analyze the data

what probability (a priori) was used to decide significance; usually reported as

the Greek symbol alpha.

NOTE: You DO NOT need to say that you made graphs and tables.

Here is some additional advice on particular problems common to new scientific

writers.

Problem: The Methods section is prone to being wordy or overly detailed.

Avoid repeatedly using a single sentence to relate a single action; this results in
very lengthy, wordy passages. A related sequence of actions can be combined into
 one sentence to improve clarity and readability:

Problematic Example: This is a very long and wordy description of a common, simple
procedure. It is characterized by single actions per sentence and lots of unnecessary details.

"The petri dish was placed on the turntable. The lid was then raised slightly. An
inoculating loop was used to transfer culture to the agar surface. The turntable was
rotated 90 degrees by hand. The loop was moved lightly back and forth over the agar to
spread the culture. The bacteria were then incubated at 37 C for 24 hr."

Improved Example: Same actions, but all the important information is given in a single,
concise sentence. Note that superfluous detail and otherwise obvious information has been
deleted while important missing information was added.

"Each plate was placed on a turntable and streaked at opposing angles with fresh
overnight E. coli culture using an inoculating loop. The bacteria were then incubated at 37
C for 24 hr."

Best: Here the author assumes the reader has basic knowledge of microbiological
techniques and has deleted other superfluous information. The two sentences have been
combined because they are related actions.

"Each plate was streaked with fresh overnight E. coli culture and incubated at 37 C for 24
hr."

Problem: Avoid using ambiguous terms to identify controls or treatments, or other

study parameters that require specific identifiers to be clearly understood.
Designators such as Tube 1, Tube 2, or Site 1 and Site 2 are completely
meaningless out of context and difficult to follow in context.

Problematic example: In this example the reader will have no clue as to what the various
tubes represent without having to constantly refer back to some previous point in the
Methods.

RESULTS

1. Function: The function of the Results section is to objectively present your key results,
without interpretation, in an orderly and logical sequence using both text and illustrative
materials (Tables and Figures). The results section always begins with text, reporting the
key results and referring to your figures and tables as you proceed. Summaries of the
statistical analyses may appear either in the text (usually parenthetically) or in the relevant
Tables or Figures (in the legend or as footnotes to the Table or Figure). The Results section
should be organized around Tables and/or Figures that should be sequenced to present your
key findings in a logical order. The text of the Results section should be crafted to follow
this sequence and highlight the evidence needed to answer the questions/hypotheses you
investigated. Important negative results should be reported, too. Authors usually write the
text of the results section based upon the sequence of Tables and Figures.

2. Style: Write the text of the Results section concisely and objectively. The passive voice
will likely dominate here, but use the active voice as much as possible. Use the past tense.
Avoid repetitive paragraph structures. Do not interpret the data here. The transition into
interpretive language can be a slippery slope. Consider the following two examples:

3. Strategy for Writing the Results Section

4. Frequently asked questions (FAQs).

Things to consider as you write your Results section:

What are the "results"?: When you pose a testable hypothesis that can be answered
experimentally, or ask a question that can be answered by collecting samples, you
accumulate observations about those organisms or phenomena. Those observations are
then analyzed to yield an answer to the question. In general, the answer is the " key result".

The above statements apply regardless of the complexity of the analysis you employ. So, in
an introductory course your analysis may consist of visual inspection of figures and simple
calculations of means and standard deviations; in a later course you may be expected to
apply and interpret a variety of statistical tests. You instructor will tell you the level of
analysis that is expected.

For example, suppose you asked the question, "Is the average height of male students the
same as female students in a pool of randomly selected Biology majors?" You would first
collect height data from large random samples of male and female students. You would
then calculate the descriptive statistics for those samples (mean, SD, n, range, etc) and plot
these numbers. In a course where statistical tests are not employed, you would visually
inspect these plots. Suppose you found that male Biology majors are, on average, 12.5 cm
taller than female majors; this is the answer to the question.

Notice that the outcome of a statistical analysis is not a key result, but rather an
analytical tool that helps us understand what is our key result.

Differences, directionality, and magnitude: Report your results so as to provide as much

information as possible to the reader about the nature of differences or relationships. For
example, if you testing for differences among groups, and you find a significant difference,
it is not sufficient to simply report that "groups A and B were significantly different". How
are they different? How much are they different? It is much more informative to say
something like, "Group A individuals were 23% larger than those in Group B", or, "Group
B pups gained weight at twice the rate of Group A pups." Report the direction of
differences (greater, larger, smaller, etc) and the magnitude of differences (% difference,
how many times, etc.) whenever possible. See also below about use of the word
"significant."

Organize the results section based on the sequence of Table and Figures you'll
include. Prepare the Tables and Figures as soon as all the data are analyzed and arrange
them in the sequence that best presents your findings in a logical way. A good strategy is to
note, on a draft of each Table or Figure, the one or two key results you want to addess in
the text portion of the Results. Simple rules to follow related to Tables and Figures:

Tables and Figures are assigned numbers separately and in the sequence that
you will refer to them from the text.

o The first Table you refer to is Table 1, the next Table 2 and so forth.

o Similarly, the first Figure is Figure 1, the next Figure 2, etc.

Each Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and
other necessary information in a legend.

o Table legends go above the Table; tables are read from top to bottom.

o Figure legends go below the figure; figures are usually viewed from
bottom to top.

When referring to a Figure from the text, "Figure" is abbreviated as Fig.,e.g.,

Fig. 1. Table is never abbreviated, e.g., Table 1.

Top of Page

The body of the Results section is a text-based presentation of the key findings which
includes references to each of the Tables and Figures. The text should guide the reader
through your results stressing the key results which provide the answers to the question(s)
investigated. A major function of the text is to provide clarifying information. You must
refer to each Table and/or Figure individually and in sequence (see numbering sequence),
and clearly indicate for the reader the key results that each conveys. Key results depend on
your questions, they might include obvious trends, important differences, similarities,
correlations, maximums, minimums, etc.

Some problems to avoid:

Do not reiterate each value from a Figure or Table - only the key result or trends
that each conveys.

Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered
redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best shows the
 result and go with it.

Do not report raw data values when they can be summarized as means, percents,
etc.

Top of Page

Statistical test summaries (test name, p-value) are usually reported parenthetically in
conjunction with the biological results they support. Always report your results with
parenthetical reference to the statistical conclusion that supports your finding (if statistical
tests are being used in your course). This parenthetical reference should include the
statistical test used and the level of significance (test statistic and DF are optional). For
example, if you found that the mean height of male Biology majors was significantly larger
than that of female Biology majors, you might report this result (in blue) and your
statistical conclusion (shown in red) as follows:

"Males (180.5 5.1 cm; n=34) averaged 12.5 cm taller than females (168 7.6 cm; n=34)
in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f., p < 0.001)."

If the summary statistics are shown in a figure, the sentence above need not report them
specifically, but must include a reference to the figure where they may be seen:

"Males averaged 12.5 cm taller than females in the AY 1995 pool of Biology majors (two-
sample t-test, t = 5.78, 33 d.f., p < 0.001; Fig. 1)."

Note that the report of the key result (shown in blue) would be identical in a paper written
for a course in which statistical testing is not employed - the section shown in red would
simply not appear except reference to the figure.

Avoid devoting whole sentences to report a statistical outcome alone.

Use and over-use of the word "significant": Your results will read much more
cleanly if you avoid overuse of the word significant in any of its forms.

o In scientific studies, the use of this word implies that a statistical test was
employed to make a decision about the data; in this case the test indicated a
larger difference in mean heights than you would expect to get by chance
alone. Limit the use of the word "significant" to this purpose only.

o If your parenthetical statistical information includes a p-value that indicates

significance (usually when p< 0.05), it is unnecessary (and redundant) to
use the word "significant" in the body of the sentence (see example above)
because we all interpret the p-value the same way.

o Likewise, when you report that one group mean is somehow different from
another (larger, smaller, increased, decreased, etc), it will be understood by
 your reader that you have tested this and found the difference to be
statistically significant, especially if you also report a p-value < 0.05.

Present the results of your experiment(s) in a sequence that will logically support (or
provide evidence against) the hypothesis, or answer the question, stated in the
Introduction. For example, in reporting a study of the effect of an experimental diet on the
skeletal mass of the rat, consider first giving the data on skeletal mass for the rats fed the
control diet and then give the data for the rats fed the experimental diet.

Report negative results - they are important! If you did not get the anticipated results, it
may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated, or perhaps you
have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. Moreover, the
absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations. In any case, your results may
be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall
into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected are necessarily "bad
data". If you carried out the work well, they are simply your results and need
interpretation. Many important discoveries can be traced to "bad data".

Always enter the appropriate units when reporting data or summary statistics.

for an individual value you would write, "the mean length was 10 m", or, "the
maximum time was 140 min."

When including a measure of variability, place the unit after the error value, e.g.,
"...was 10 2.3 m".

Likewise place the unit after the last in a series of numbers all having the same
unit. For example: "lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m", or "no differences were
observed after 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. of incubation".

DISCUSSION

| strategy | FAQs | style | approach | use of literature | results in discussion |

1. Function: The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was
already known about the subject of the investigation, and to explain our new understanding
of the problem after taking your results into consideration. The Discussion will always
connect to the Introduction by way of the question(s) or hypotheses you posed and the
literature you cited, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it
tells how your study has moved us forward from the place you left us at the end of the
Introduction.

Fundamental questions to answer here include:

 Do your results provide answers to your testable hypotheses? If so, how do you
interpret your findings?

Do your findings agree with what others have shown? If not, do they suggest an
alternative explanation or perhaps a unforseen design flaw in your experiment (or
theirs?)

Given your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the problem you
investigated and outlined in the Introduction?

If warranted, what would be the next step in your study, e.g., what experiments
would you do next?

2. Style: Use the active voice whenever possible in this section. Watch out for wordy
phrases; be concise and make your points clearly. Use of the first person is okay, but too
much use of the first person may actually distract the reader from the main points.

3. Approach: Organize the Discussion to address each of the experiments or studies for
which you presented results; discuss each in the same sequence as presented in the Results,
providing your interpretation of what they mean in the larger context of the problem. Do
not waste entire sentences restating your results; if you need to remind the reader of the
result to be discussed, use "bridge sentences" that relate the result to the interpretation:

"The slow response of the lead-exposed neurons relative to controls suggests that...
[interpretation]".

You will necessarily make reference to the findings of others in order to support your
interpretations. Use subheadings, if need be, to help organize your presentation. Be wary of
mistaking the reiteration of a result for an interpretation, and make sure that no new results
are presented here that rightly belong in the results.

You must relate your work to the findings of other studies - including previous studies
you may have done and those of other investigators. As stated previously, you may find
crucial information in someone else's study that helps you interpret your own data, or
perhaps you will be able to reinterpret others' findings in light of yours. In either case you
should discuss reasons for similarities and differences between yours and others' findings.
Consider how the results of other studies may be combined with yours to derive a new or
perhaps better substantiated understanding of the problem. Be sure to state the conclusions
that can be drawn from your results in light of these considerations. You may also choose
to briefly mention further studies you would do to clarify your working hypotheses. Make
sure to reference any outside sources as shown in the Introduction section.

Do not introduce new results in the Discussion. Although you might occasionally
include in this section tables and figures which help explain something you are discussing,
they must not contain new data (from your study) that should have been presented earlier.
They might be flow diagrams, accumulation of data from the literature, or something that
shows how one type of data leads to or correlates with another, etc. For example, if you
were studying a membrane-bound transport channel and you discovered a new bit of
information about its mechanism, you might present a diagram showing how your findings
helps to explain the channel's mechanism.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (include as needed) | FAQs |

If, in your experiment, you received any significant help in thinking up, designing, or
carrying out the work, or received materials from someone who did you a favor by
supplying them, you must acknowledge their assistance and the service or material
provided. Authors always acknowledge outside reviewers of their drafts (in PI courses,
this would be done only if an instructor or other individual critiqued the draft prior to
evaluation) and any sources of funding that supported the research. Although usual style
requirements (e.g., 1st person, objectivity) are relaxed somewhat here, Acknowledgments
are always brief and never flowery.

Place the Acknowledgments between the Discussion and the Literature Cited.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Function: The Literature Cited section gives an alphabetical listing (by first author's last
name) of the references that you actually cited in the body of your paper. Instructions for
writing full citations for various sources are given in on separate page. A complete format
list for virtually all types of publication may be found in Huth and others(1994).

NOTE: Do not label this section "Bibliography". A bibliography contains references that
you may have read but have not specifically cited in the text. Bibliography sections are
found in books and other literary writing, but not scientific journal-style papers.

2. Format and Instructions for standard full citations of sources.

3. Literature Cited FAQs.

Top of Page

APPENDICES

| FAQs | Function | Headings | Types of Content | Tables and Figures

Function: An Appendix contains information that is non-essential to understanding of the

paper, but may present information that further clarifies a point without burdening the body
of the presentation. An appendix is an optional part of the paper, and is only rarely found
 in published papers.

Headings: Each Appendix should be identified by a Roman numeral in sequence, e.g.,

Appendix I, Appendix II, etc. Each appendix should contain different material.

Some examples of material that might be put in an appendix (not an exhaustive list):

raw data

maps (foldout type especially)

extra photographs

explanation of formulas, either already known ones, or especially if you have "invented" some
statistical or other mathematical procedures for data analysis.

specialized computer programs for a particular procedure

full generic names of chemicals or compounds that you have referred to in

somewhat abbreviated fashion or by some common name in the text of your paper.

diagrams of specialized apparati.

Figures and Tables in Appendices

Figures and Tables are often found in an appendix. These should be formatted as discussed
previously (see Tables and Figures), but are numbered in a separate sequence from those
found in the body of the paper. So, the first Figure in the appendix would be Figure 1, the
first Table would be Table 1, and so forth. In situations when multiple appendices are used,
the Table and Figure numbering must indicate the appendix number as well