Basic Electronic -15ELN15/25

Sidray Somapur
Semiconductor Diodes and Applications & Bipolar Junction Transistors (Module1)
Semiconductor Diodes and Applications (Text-1): p-n junction diode, Characteristics and
Parameters, Diode approximations, DC load line analysis, Half-wave rectifier, Two-diode Full-
wave rectifier, Bridge rectifier, Capacitor filter circuit (only qualitative approch), Zener diode
voltage regulators: Regulator circuit with no load, Loaded Regulator. Numerical examples as
applicable.

Bipolar Junction Transistors: BJT operation, BJT Voltages and Currents, BJT amplification,
Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector Characteristics, Numerical examples
as applicable.

Sl.No Question Answer Mar Year

ks
01 Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode? VTU :
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Fig 1. Forward,& Reverse characteristic of silicon diode. For silicon

diode, the ;forward current ' I F ' remains very low (<A) until the
diode forward bias voltage V F exceeds approximately O.7V.
Abov O.7V, I F increases almost linearly with increase in ' V F .
The diode reverse current '' I R ' is very much smaller then its
forward current I F For silicon diode, I R is normally less than
100nA, and it is almost completely independent of the reverse-bias
voltage. '' I R ' is due to minority charge carriers' and is called reverse
saturation current.
When reverse bias voltage ' V R ' is sufficiently incresed, the diode
goes into reverse breakdown which may destroy. Reverse breakdown
occurs at 75V.
2 Explain following Diode parameters? 6 201
i)PIV Iv) Forward voltage drop
ii) Knee voltage v) Maximum forward current
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iii) Dynamic resistance. vi) Reverse Saturation current

1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak

reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum value of reverse voltage which
occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-biased.

2. Knee voltage : It is the minimum amount of voltage which is

required to operate components like for silicon diode it is 0.7 V while
for Germanium Diode its 0.3 V.

3. Dynamic resistance: When the voltage is increased, the current

may not increase proportionally. In some cases, the current may
actually decrease

4. Forward voltage drop:The voltage dropped across a conducting,

forward-biased diode is called the forward voltage Silicon diodes have
a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.

5. Maximum forward current: Occurs during forward bias. Defined

as the highest instantaneous current that a p-n junction can conduct
without damage to the junction. If forward current exceeds the
maximum forward current the junction may get damaged due to
overheating.

6. Reverse Saturation current: In a PN junction diode, the reverse

saturation current is due to the diffusive flow of minority electrons
from the p-side to the n-side and the minority holes from the n-side to
the p-side
3 Explain Diode approximation?
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7 Draw the half wave rectifier circuit and explain its operation? 6 2011
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During positive half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes

positive with respect to end B, the diode 'D' is forward biased and acts
as a short circuit, thus the current flows in the circuit, Figure 2. The
load voltage

During negative half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes

negative with respect to end B, the diode 'D' is reverse biased and acts
as a open circuit, thus NO current flows in the circuit, Figure s. The
load voltage is given by

Therefore

The dc output waveform is expected to be a straight line but the half

wave rectifier gives output in the form of positive sinusoidal pulse.
Hence the Output is called pultating dc.
 Draw the full wave rectifier circuit and explain its operation? VTU :
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The circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is shown in

fig. above. It employs two diodes and a center tap transformer. The
a.c. signal to be rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer
and the d.c. output is taken across the load R L .

During the +ve half-cycle end A is +ve and end B is ve this makes
diode D1 forward biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and
load resistor RL.Diode D2 is reverse biased and the current is zero.

During the ve half-cycle end B is +Ve and end A is Ve. Now diode
D 2 is forward biased and thus a current i 2 flows through it and
load resistor R L . Diode D1 is reversed and the current is zero.
 Draw the Bridge rectifier circuit and explain its operation? VTU :
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The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifer is shown above. It uses four

diodes and a transformer

During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is ve thus diodes D 1
and D3 are forward bias while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a
current flows through diode D1, load RL ( C to D) and diode D3.

During the ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is ve thus diodes D 2

and D4 are forward biased while the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased.
Now the flow of current is through diode D 4 load RL ( D to C) and diode
D2. Thus, the waveform is same as in the case of center-tapped full wave
rectifier.
 Compare HWR FWR BR? 2012
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 In a full waue bridge rectifier, the transformer secondary voltage is 2009,
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100sinwt.The forward resistance of each diode is 25 ohm and the load
resistance is 950 ohm. Calculate
i) D.C.output uoltage ii) ripple factor iii) Efficiency of rectificatlon
iv) PIV across a non-conducting diodes.
 In a full wave rectifier, the input is from a 30-0-30v transformer. The 09,10
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load and, diode forward resistance are 100 ohm and 10 ohm
respectively. Calculate the average voltage, rectification efficiency
and percentage regulation.

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 MQP
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 What is a filter ? Why it is required? 2016
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Filter is a circuit used to reduce the ripple content present in the
rectified output. The ripple content of rectified output can be filtered
out by connecting a capacitor in parallel with RL. The output from
rectifiers is not pure dc due to ripple content. In HWR ripple content is
1.21, whereas in FWR it is .48 In order to obtain pure dc filter circuits
are required

During +ve half cycle of the ac input, the diode is forward biased and
conducts and charges the capacitor to the peak value of v, of the input
voltage. When the input voltage falls below Vm, the diode stops
conducting. Half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter. Now, the
capacitor starts discharging through RL and the capacitor voltage
decreases. The discharging of capacitor continues till the diode starts
conducting again and charges the capacitor in the next +ve half cycle
of the ac input voltage.
From figure 2,.we find that without capacitor filter, output voltage
varies between zero. and Vm With capacitor filter, the output voltage
varies between (Vm-Vr(p-p)) and Vm This clearly indicates that the
shunting of RL by 'C' reduces the ripple: content in the output voltage.
The ripple factor with 'C' filter is given by
During +ve half cycle of the ac input, the diode Di conducts and
charges the capacitor to the peak value of Vm of the input voltage.
When the. input voltage falls below Vm, the diode stops conducting.
Now the capacitor: starts discharging through RL and the capacitor
voltage decreases. The discharging of the capacitor continues until the
diode D2starts conducting again in the next half cycle and charges the
capacitor. Figure 8... shows the waveforms, we find that without
capacitor filter, output voltage Vo varies between zero and Vm With
capacitor filter the output voltage varies between (Vm-Vr(p_p)) &
Vm This clearly indicates that the shunting of RL and C reduces the
ripple cont.ent in the output voltage.
The ripple factor with 'C' filter is given by
During +ve half cycle of the ac input, the diodes DJ & D2conducts
and charges the capacitor to the peak value of Vm of the input voltage.
When the input voltage falls below Vm, the diode stops conducting.
now the capacitor starts discharging through RL and the capacitor
voltage decreases. The discharging of the capacitor continues until the
diodes DJ & D~ starts conducting again in the next half cycle and
charges the capacitor.
Figure a. shows the waveforms, we find that without capacitor filter,
output voltage Vo varies between zero and Vm With capacitor filter
the output voltage varies between (Vm-Vr(p-p)) & Vm
This clearly indicates that the shunting of RL and C reduces the ripple
content in the output voltage
The ripple factor with 'C' filter is given by:
Transistors
1 Explain the working of a transistor?
A transistor is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or n-
type) between two layers of other types. Transistors are classified into
two types;
1. pnp transistor

pnp transistor is obtained when a n-type layer of silicon is sandwiched

between two p-type silicon material.
2. npn transisitor

npn transistor is obtained when a p-type layer of silicon is sandwiched

between two n-type silicon materials. Figure2.1 below shows the
schematic representations of a transistor which is equivalent of two
diodes connected back to back.

The three portions of transistors are named as emitter, base and

collector. The junction between emitter and base is called emitter-base
junction while the junction between the collector and base is called
collector-base junction.
The base is thin and tightly doped, the emitter is heavily doped and it
is wider when compared to base, the width of the collector is more
when compared to both base and emitter.
In order to distinguish the emitter and collector an arrow is included
in the emitter. The direction of the arrow depends on the conventional
flow of current when emitter base junction is forward biased.
In a pnp transistor when the emitter junction is forward biased the
flow of current is from emitter to base hence, the arrow in the emitter
of pnp points towards the base.
Consider a pnp transistor operated in active region as shown in Figure
2.6

Since the EB junction is forward biased large number of holes present

in the emitter as majority carriers are repelled by the +ve potential of
the supply voltage VEB and they move towards the base region
causing emitter current IE.

Since the base is thin and lightly doped very few of the holes coming
from the emitter recombine with the electrons causing base current IB
and all the remaining holes move
towards the collector. Since the CB junction is reverse biased all the
holes are immediately attracted by the ve potential of the supply
VCB. Thereby giving rise to collector current IC.
2 Explain Different Operating regions of a
transistor?
A transistor can be operated in three different regions as
a) active region

b) saturation region

c) cut-off region

The transistor is said to be operated in active region when the emitter-

base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased. The collector current is said to have two current components
one is due to the forward biasing of EB junction and the other is due
to reverse biasing of CB junction. The collector current component
due to the reverse biasing of the collector junction is called reverse
saturation current (ICO or ICBO) and it is very small in magnitude.

Transistor is said to be operated in saturation region when both EB

junction and CB junction are forward biased as shown. When
transistor is operated in saturation region IC increases rapidly for a
very small change in VC.
 When both EB junction and CB junction are reverse biased, the
transistor is said to be operated in cut-off region. In this region, the
current in the transistor is very small and thus when a transistor in this
region it is assumed to be in off state.

3 Transistor configuration:

We know that, transistor can be used as an amplifier. For an amplifier,

two terminals are required to supply the weak signal and two
terminals to collect the amplified signal. Thus four terminals are
required but a transistor is said to have only three terminals Therefore,
one terminal is used common for both input and output.
This gives rise to three different combinations.

1. Common base configuration (CB)

2. Common emitter configuration (CE)
3. Common collector configuration(CC)
4 Transistor voltages and currents
 Establish the relationship between and ? VTU :
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2006
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 MQP
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 Draw the common emitter circuit and sketch the output 2014
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characteristics, explain active region, cutoff region and saturation
region by indicating them on the characteristic curve.
OR
With a neat diagram explain output characteristics of npn
transistor in CE-configuration

In this configuration the input is connected between the base and

emitter while the output is taken between collector and emitter. For
this configuration IB is input current and IC is the output current.
Output Characteristics:
 With a neat diagram explain the output characteristics of 2015
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transistor in CB mode
OR
Draw the common Base circuit and sketch the output
characteristics, explain active region, cutoff region and saturation
region by indicating them on the characteristic curve.

In this configuration, base is used as common to both input and

output. It can be noted that the i/p section has an a.c. source Vi along
with the d.c. source VEB. The purpose of including VEB is to keep
EB junction always forward biased (because if there is no VEB then
the EB junction is forward biased only during the +ve half-cycle of the
i/p and reverse biased during the ve half cycle). In CB configuration,
IE i/p current, IC o/p current.
 With a neat diagram explain the output characteristics of 2014
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transistor in CC mode?

In this configuration the input is connected between the base and

collector while the output is taken between emitter and collector. For
this configuration IB is input current and IE is the output current.
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