ADVANCED LOADINGS 135

dc ds

R R
ri

ro

Assembly Collar Shaft

FIGURE 3.7 Geometry of a press or shrink fit collar and shaft.

between the two cylinders, at a radius (R), the outside cylinder, or collar, increases an
amount (c ) radially, and the inside cylinder, or shaft, decreases an amount (s ) radially.
The geometry of an outer collar on an inner shaft assembly is shown in Fig. 3.7.
The increase in the outside cylinder, or collar, radially (c ) is given by Eq. (3.11),
!
pR ro2 + R 2
c = + c (3.11)
Ec ro2 R 2

and the decrease in the inside cylinder, or shaft, radially (s ) is given by Eq. (3.12),
!
pR R 2 + ri2
s = s (3.12)
Es R 2 ri2

where (E c ) and (c ) and (E s ) and (s ) are the modulus of elasticitys and Poisson ratios
of the collar and shaft, respectively. The difference between the radial increase (c ) of the
collar, a positive number, and the radial decrease (s ) of the shaft, a negative number, is
called the radial interference () at the interface (R) and is given by Eq. (3.13).
! !
pR ro2 + R 2 pR R 2 + ri2
= c + |s | = + c + s (3.13)
Ec ro2 R 2 Es R 2 ri2

When the radial interference () is determined from a particular fit specification, Eq. (3.13)
can be solved for the interference pressure ( p). More about fit specifications is presented
later in this section.
If the collar and shaft are made of the same material, then the modulus of elasticitys and
Poisson ratios are equal and so Eq. (3.13) can be rearranged to give an expression for the
interface pressure ( p) given in Eq. (3.14).
" #
ro2 R 2 R 2 ri2

E
p= (3.14)
2 R 2 ro2 ri2

R
136 STRENGTH OF MACHINES

If the inner shaft is solid, meaning the inside radius (ri ) is zero, then Eq. (3.14) for the
interface pressure ( p) simplifies to the expression in Eq. (3.15).
" 2 #
E R
p= 1 (3.15)
2R ro

U.S. Customary SI/Metric

Example 6. Calculate the interface pressure Example 6. Calculate the interface pressure
( p) for a solid shaft and collar assembly, with ( p) for a solid shaft and collar assembly, with
both parts steel, where both parts steel, where
= 0.0005 in = 0.001 cm = 0.00001 m
R = 2 in R = 5 cm = 0.05 m
ro = 3 in ro = 8 cm = 0.08 m
E = 30 106 lb/in2 (steel) E = 207 109 N/m2 (steel)
solution solution
Step 1. Substitute the radial interface (), Step 1. Substitute the radial interface (),
interface radius (R), outside radius (ro ) of interface radius (R), outside radius (ro ) of
the collar, and the modulus of elasticity (E) in the collar, and the modulus of elasticity (E) in
Eq. (3.15) to give Eq. (3.15) to give
" 2 # " 2 #
E R E R
p = 1 p = 1
2R ro 2R ro

(30 106 lb/in2 )(0.0005 in) (207 109 N/m2 )(0.00001 m)

= =
2 (2 in) 2 (0.05 m)
" # " #
2 in 2 0.05 m 2

1 1
3 in 0.08 m
15,000 lb/in 2,070,000 N/m
= (1 0.44) = (1 0.39)
4 in 0.1 m
= (3,750 lb/in2 )(0.56) = (20,700,000 N/m2 )(0.61)
= 2,100 lb/in2 = 2.1 kpsi = 12,627,000 N/m2 = 12.6 MPa

Fit Terminology. When the radial interference () and interface radius (R) is known, as
in Example 1, the interface pressure ( p) can be calculated from either Eq. (3.13), (3.14),
or (3.15) depending on whether the collar and shaft are made of the same material, and
depending on whether the shaft is solid or hollow.
The radial interference () and the interface radius (R) are actually determined from
interference fits established by ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standards.
There are ANSI standards for both the U.S. customary and metric systems of units.
As the interference () is associated with the changes in the radial dimensions, it can be
expressed in terms of the outside diameter dshaft of the shaft and the inside diameter Dhole
of the collar given in Eq. (3.16).
1
= (dshaft Dhole ) = c + |s | (3.16)
2
By convention, uppercase letters are used for the dimensions of the hole in the collar,
whereas lowercase letters are used for the dimensions of the shaft. Also, the radial increase
 ADVANCED LOADINGS 137

ds dc
D hole
R
d shaft
FIGURE 3.8 Geometry of the radial interference ().

(c ) is always positive and the radial decrease (s ) is always negative, which is why the
absolute value of (s ) is added to (c ). The geometry of the terms in Eq. (3.16) is shown in
Fig. 3.8.

Fit Standards. For either the U.S. customary or metric systems of units, Marks Standard
Handbook for Mechanical Engineers contains an exhaustive discussion of the standards for
press or shrink fits. To summarize, fits are separated into five categories:
1. Loose running and sliding fits
2. Locational clearance fits
3. Locational transition fits
4. Locational interference fits
5. Force or drive and shrink fits
Only for the fifth category, force or drive and shrink fits, does a significant interface
pressure ( p) develop between the shaft and collar assembly, again given by either Eq. (3.13),
(3.14), or (3.15) depending on the materials of the shaft and collar, and whether the shaft
is hollow or solid. Note that if the interface pressure ( p) exceeds the yield stress of either
the collar or the shaft, plastic deformation takes place and the stresses are different than the
interface pressure calculated.
When using specific fit standards, whether U.S. customary or metric, the radial interfer-
ence () given by Eq. (3.16) needs to be separated into two different calculations. There
needs to be a calculation of the maximum radial interference (max ) to be expected that is
given by Eq. (3.17)
1 max min

max = dshaft Dhole (3.17)
2
max ) is the maximum diameter of the shaft and (D min ) is the minimum diameter of
where (dshaft hole
the hole in the collar. There should also be a calculation of the minimum radial interference
(min ) to be expected and given by Eq. (3.18),
1 min max

min = dshaft Dhole (3.18)
2
min ) is the minimum diameter of the shaft and (D max ) is the maximum diameter
where (dshaft hole
of the hole in the collar. Many times the minimum radial interference (min ) is zero, so the
interface pressure ( p) will also be zero.
138 STRENGTH OF MACHINES

U.S. Customary SI/Metric

Example 7. Given a set of standard fit dimen- Example 7. Given a set of standard fit dimen-
sions, calculate the maximum and minimum sions, calculate the maximum and minimum
radial interferences, (max ) and (min ), and the radial interferences, (max ) and (min ), and the
associated interface pressures, ( pmax ) and associated interface pressures, ( pmax ) and
( pmin ), for a solid shaft and collar assembly, ( pmin ), for a solid shaft and collar assembly,
with both parts aluminum, where with both parts aluminum, where
Hole: Dmax = 1.5010 in Hole: Dmax = 4.0025 cm
Dmin = 1.5000 in Dmin = 4.0000 cm
Shaft: dmax = 1.5016 in Shaft: dmax = 4.0042 cm
dmin = 1.5010 in dmin = 4.0026 cm
R = 1.5 in R = 4.0 cm = 0.04 m
ro = 3 in ro = 8.0 cm = 0.08 m
E = 11 106 lb/in2 (aluminum) E = 77 109 N/m2 (aluminum)
solution solution
Step 1. Calculate the maximum radial inter- Step 1. Calculate the maximum radial inter-
ference (max ) from Eq. (3.17) as ference (max ) from Eq. (3.17) as
1 max min
1 max min

max = d Dhole max = d Dhole
2 shaft 2 shaft
1 1
= (1.5016 in 1.5000 in) = (4.0042 cm 4.0000 cm)
2 2
1 1
= (0.0016 in) = (0.0042 cm)
2 2
= 0.0008 in = 0.0021 cm = 0.000021 m

Step 2. Calculate the minimum radial interfer- Step 2. Calculate the maximum radial inter-
ence (min ) from Eq. (3.18) as ference (min ) from Eq. (3.18) as
1 min max
1 min max

min = dshaft Dhole min = dshaft Dhole
2 2
1 1
= (1.5010 in 1.5010 in) = (4.0026 cm 4.0025 cm)
2 2
1 1
= (0.0000 in) = (0.0001 cm)
2 2
= 0 in = 0.00005 cm = 0.0000005 m

Step 3. Using the maximum radial interface Step 3. Using the maximum radial interface
(max ) found in Step 1, calculate the maximum (max ) found in Step 1, calculate the maximum
interface pressure ( pmax ) from Eq. (3.15) as interface pressure ( pmax ) from Eq. (3.15) as
" 2 # " 2 #
Emax R Emax R
pmax = 1 pmax = 1
2R ro 2R ro

(11 106 lb/in2 ) (0.0008 in) (77 109 N/m2 ) (0.000021 m)

= =
2 (1.5 in) 2 (0.04 m)
" # " #
1.5 in 2 0.04 m 2

1 1
3 in 0.08 m
8,800 lb/in 1,617,000 N/m
= (1 0.25) = (1 0.25)
3 in 0.08 m
= (2,933 lb/in2 )(0.75) = (20,212,500 N/m2 )(0.75)
= 2,200 lb/in2 = 2.2 kpsi = 15,160,000 N/m2 = 15.2 MPa
 ADVANCED LOADINGS 139

U.S. Customary SI/Metric

Step 4. As the minimum radial interface (min ) Step 4. As the minimum radial interface (min )
calculated from Step 2 is zero, the minimum calculated from Step 2 is very small, the mini-
interface pressure ( pmin ) is also zero. So, mum interface pressure ( pmin ) is

pmin = 0 pmin = 0

3.3 CONTACT LOADING

Contact loading occurs between machine elements such as rolling metal wheels, meshing
of gear teeth, and within the entire spectrum of bearings. The discussion on contact loading
will be divided into two main areas:
1. Spheres in contact
2. Cylinders in contact
In contact loading, an initial point (spheres) or line (cylinders) of contact develops into
an area of contact over which the load must be distributed. As these areas are typically very
small, the associated stresses can be quite large. The location of maximum stress can actually
occur below the surface of the machine element, causing catastrophic failure without prior
visible warning. For this reason, understanding the principles and stress equations that
follow are important to the machine designer.

3.3.1 Spheres in Contact

Two spheres of different diameters are shown in Fig. 3.9 being compressed by two forces
(F). The (x) and (y) axes define the plane of contact between the spheres, and the (z) axis
defines the distance to either sphere. The two different diameters are denoted (d1 ) and (d2 ).
For contact with a flat surface, set either diameter to infinity (). For an internal surface
contact, enter the larger diameter as a negative quantity.

z
F y
2a

d1 Contact area

d2

F
FIGURE 3.9 Spheres in contact.