This article was originally presented at the RCI Symposium of Building interiors of high-rise structures.

s. Early methods of anchoring the

Envelope Technology in Coral Springs, Florida on Nov. 14-15, 2002. exterior cladding were varied and frequently experimental.
The building boom of the early 20th century and the associ
INTRODUCTION ated dramatic increase in building heights resulted in the need
Stone has been used as a building material for thousands of for increased economies of materials. Early skyscrapers tended to
years. Its aesthetics and sense of permanence have made it a use primarily brick and other smaller unit-type materials, but by
popular material, especially among builders and architects. Many the 1920s larger limestone slabs began to be used with greater
of the significant buildings throughout history have been con frequency. Many of the buildings of the 1920s and 1930s were
structed of stone. The evolution of stone facades closely parallels clad with granite or marble on the lower stories and limestone
the evolution of building construction and technologies. Econo panels on the higher portions of the facade. The uniformity of
mics and alternative building systems have led to numerous vari appearance of the limestone reinforced the architectural aesthet
ations in the installation of stone on building facades over the ic of the Art Deco massing while the richness of the color and
past 100 years. A complete understanding of the material and veining of the granite and marble accentuated the desire for
installation techniques is critical for the proper design and instal human scale at the base of the buildings. The limestone panels
lation of thin-stone cladding systems. were typically at least 4 inches (10 cm.) thick. During this time
Numerous innovations in thin-stone cladding systems have and until the 1950s, each floor was typically designed individual
occurred over the past 20 years. Failures of the older systems ly with panels stacked vertically between supports near the floor
have provided valuable insight into the design approach of levels and horizontal movement joints installed directly below
newer systems. This paper will provide an overview of the use of the support or at mid-story.
stone in construction with particular emphasis on recent devel With the development of curtain wall systems and the rise of
opments in the evolution of thin-stone facade cladding systems. modernism in the 1950s, stone began to be used as a thin panel
within lightweight curtain wall or facade systems. The stone
HISTORY panels were arranged in vertical bands as column covers or in
Historically, stone was used for both decorative and func horizontal strips as spandrel panels. Numerous techniques were
tional purposes. With few exceptions, building systems incorpo employed to support the stone panels, both within curtain walls
rate inexpensive backup materials in combination with more as well as individually.
expensive facing. Early stone structures were typically solid, The 1960s and 1970s brought the development of composite
multi-wythe, load-bearing assemblies combining high quality systems that included stone-faced precast concrete panels. The
facing stone finished to very tight tolerances with a looser rubble stone facing generally ranged between 3/4 in. and 1-1/4 in. (2
or brick backup. cm. and 3 cm.) thick on these type systems. The rise of prefabri
In the past 150 years, advances in technology and the intro cation during this period also led to numerous truss-type systems
duction of new building systems have changed how stone is in which the stone panels were mounted to steel trusses or
incorporated into building systems. A brief overview of the his frames in a shop and then transported to the site for erection on
torical use of stone is important to understand how economics the building.
and technology have contributed to the remarkable changes in By the late 1970s, the resurgence in popularity of stone, cor
the use of stone. responding with the popularity of the post-modern style of
The most dramatic change in building construction was the architecture, resulted in dramatic increases in the use of stone as
result of the industrial revolution of the 19th century. The devel an exterior cladding material. The material was still relatively
opment of new industrial processes facilitated the economical expensive; thus, designers experimented with systems utilizing
production of metal shapes that led to the development of the stone as thin as 1/4 in. (6 mm) in composite panels. Numerous
skeleton frame structural system. This system enabled the exteri support systems, many of which were developed by the stone
or wall to be used as a non load-bearing component of the build fabricators, were also available. Panelized strong-back type sys
ing. As a result, the structural function of the exterior facade was tems became widely used because they facilitated a rapid instal
no longer necessary. The facade could be treated as a skin that lation.
wrapped the skeletal frame. The skin still needed to transfer Today, numerous systems are available for installing stone on
wind loads to the frame, but it was no longer required to support the exterior of buildings. Many factors must be considered by
interior floor loads. the designer in both the design and detailing of stone support
Early skeletal frame buildings used numerous exterior systems to prevent premature failure and to ensure long-term
cladding materials. Brick, terra cotta, and stone were all used, durability. Lessons learned from investigation of older, thin-stone
with economics frequently dictating both the location and quan clad building provide valuable knowledge in both the design and
tity of the materials. Stone, still a relatively expensive cladding restoration of thin-stone clad buildings.
material, was frequently used only on the lower floors and the

March 2003 Interface 23

STONE TYPES to extended periods of stress or pressure. During this process,
Unlike manufactured materials used in construction, the the recrystalization of the stone results in new rock particles
physical characteristics vary greatly between geologically differ forming parallel to the pressure. Slate is the most commonly
ent stones as well as between stones of the same type. These used example of this type of stone. Metamorphic rocks are cate
variations contribute to the inherent beauty of stone as well as gorized based on the pre-metamorphosed rock. Because of the
its potentially varied physical characteristics. Stone, used in grain structure of metamorphic rock, it is susceptible to a phe
building construction, is categorized as one nomenon known as hysterisis (Figure 2). As the exposed surface
of the following types: of the panels experiences heat, it will expand
differently than the unexposed surface. As the
Sedimentary exposed surface cools, the interlocking grain
These include limestone, sandstone, structure does not return to its original position.
brownstone, and shale. This type of stone Thus, a permanent elongation of the exposed
is the product of deposits of sediment surface occurs. Repeated cycles of heating and
materials in prehistoric river and lake beds. cooling will result in a permanent bowing of the
The sediment is the result of decomposi panels. The magnitude of bowing is related to
tion and erosion of other rocks, minerals, the support conditions and panel thickness.
and organic matter that are bonded togeth Because stone is not a man-made product,
er through compaction and naturally creat its physical and aesthetic characteristics can
ed cementitious products. Distinct bedding vary significantly even within the same quarry.
planes between individual layers of material These unique features of stone include:
and grain size characterize sedimentary 1. Natural planes of weakness, such as
stone. cleavage planes, bedding planes, and rifts
To minimize accelerated deterioration occur within any quarry. These features
of sedimentary panels, the individual pieces are discontinuities within the matrix of
should be fabricated such that the orienta the stone.
tion of the bedding planes remains consis 2. The physical properties of an individual
tent with the natural bedding or the stone will also vary depending on whe
orientation in which stone was geologically ther it is tested in a wet or dry condition.
formed (Figure 1). 3. Stone is also not an isotropic material;
Figure 1 - Examples of bedding plane orientation. therefore, its strength will vary depend
Igneous ing on the orientation of load.
These include granite and schist. This type of stone is the 4. Stone is a heterogeneous material, which
result of volcanic activity and the consolidation of molten also contributes to variability.
magma. Igneous rock typically contains quartz, the crystal form
Stone within each of the geologic categories has distinct
of silica. Classifications of igneous rocks are based on the silica
physical characteristics. Within the last 30 years, the fabricators
content within the stone.
and the stone distributors have established test procedures and
The finishes used on igneous panels, particularly granite, can
minimum standards for material properties. Historically, howev
have a significant architectural as well as structural impact on the
er, stones were used as very compact shapes that were subjected
design of the system. Various finish techniques such as flame fin
primarily to compressive forces. The building as a whole was
ish, bush hammering, and other abrasive treatments can intro
massive enough that lateral loading on individual components
duce microcracking into the exterior face of the stone.
Microscope evaluations have shown cracking as deep as 1/8 to
1/4 in. (3 mm to 6 mm) depending on the treatment. For a panel
that may only be 1-1/4 in. (3 cm) thick, the loss of effective
thickness of 1/4 in. (6 mm) is significant and must be consid
ered. These specialized surfaces also increase susceptibility to
freeze-thaw damage and similar deterioration due to the
increased surface area.
Metamorphic
These include marble and slate. Metamorphic stones are the
result of sedimentary or igneous stone being subjected to mil
lions of years of heat and pressure, resulting in a recrystalization
of pre-existing rock. Two types of metamorphic processes can
occur to change rock. The first is thermal, where rock is sub
jected to prolonged exposure to heat in a confined environ
ment. This is the process by which limestone is converted to
marble. The second process is regional metamorphism and is
Figure 2 - Representative example of hysterisis.
associated with the creation of mountains where rock is subject

24 Interface March 2003

was not an issue, since the lateral loading was resisted by the
geometry of the structure rather than individual components.
The transition from stone claddings systems designed as load-
bearing masonry structures to individually supported stone pan
els was not smooth and uniform. Early stone cladding systems
relied on empirical techniques rather than known material prop
erties.
Traditionally recognized stone properties include compres
sive, flexural, shear, and tensile strengths; density, abrasion resis
tance, coefficient of thermal expansion, and modulus of
elasticity. In addition to these established properties, other prop
erties that are frequently overlooked can contribute to premature
failure of a stone cladding system. These properties include per
manent volume change or hysteresis, freeze-thaw weathering,
chemical weathering, thermal weathering, effects of stone finish,
and permeability. Simply stated, these properties may reduce the
strength properties of the particular stone. The effect will vary
depending on the type of stone.

EVOLUTION OF INSTALLATION SYSTEMS

The early thin stone anchorage systems typically used carbon
steel or galvanized steel shelf angles anchored at each floor to
support the stone cladding. The panel directly above the shelf
angle was notched to accommodate the thickness of the angle.
Panels above the notched piece were stacked on shims up to the
next support. Sealant was installed in the joints between panels,
concealing and protecting the shims. Typically, the shims were
lead; however, carbon steel shims were sometimes substituted. As Figure 3 - Microscopic view of marble.
the sealant between panels failed in these early systems, the car
bon steel angles and shims would corrode. Since corrosive scale
occupies a greater volume than uncorroded steel, the joints were confined and the expansion could not be accommodated.
not adequate to accommodate the scale. Calcium chloride and other salts were also sometimes added to
An expansion joint may or may not have been included mortar to act as an accelerator or retarder. The presence of chlo
below the shelf angle supports. The lack of an expansion joint, rides significantly increases the corrosion of carbon steel compo
particularly in concrete frame buildings that are subject to nents.
shrinkage and frame shortening, would often result in failure of The 1960s also marked the rise of prefabricated systems in
the stone cladding due to accumulation of compressive stresses. which the stone was anchored to a supporting system and the
Lateral loads on thin stone cladding were typically resisted composite panel was attached to the structural frame of the
by brass pins set into holes drilled in the edges of the panels. building. The most widely used of these systems were stone-
The pins were secured with wire anchored to structural members faced precast concrete panels. These panels were constructed by
or embedded into grout- or plaster-filled pockets in concrete sys attaching stainless steel hairpin anchors into the back of thin
tems. This method of attachment was common in interior appli stone facing panels. The stone was then laid face down in a cast
cations, but was occasionally used in exterior applications. Other ing bed, and the concrete backing panel was cast over the
systems utilized a bent plate with the outstanding leg fit into the anchors. Failures of these early systems resulted from the bond
joint between adjacent stones. A pin inserted through a hole in between the concrete and the stone. As the concrete cured and
the plate extended into holes drilled into the edge of the stone shrank, the stone face cracked. Also, if the concrete was bonded
panels. to the stone, the differences in the coefficient of thermal expan
Inward loads, if not accommodated by a rigid lateral anchor, sion between the stone and concrete could cause the face panel
were frequently resolved by placing mortar or plaster spots in to crack. A bond breaking material between the stone and con
the cavity between the substrate and the back of the panel. crete was later incorporated in composite panel design. Proper
Masons frequently used a gypsum-based plaster or added gyp handling of the panels during fabrication, transportation, and
sum to the mortar to speed the setting time. Although this tech erection was critical to prevent damage.
nique was successfully employed in many interior applications, Within the past 10 years, lightweight composite panels have
deterioration resulted from exterior or interior applications been introduced as an alternative to the more conventional pre
exposed to moisture. When gypsum becomes wet, a chemical cast systems. These panels consist of a very thin layer of stone,
reaction occurs between the cement, gypsum, and water, result typically 1/4 in. to 3/8 in. (6 mm to 9 mm) thick, that is glued to
ing in Ettringite formation. The crystal structure of Ettringite an aluminum honeycomb substrate (Figure 4). These panels weigh
occupies a volume larger than the original materials. Failures of between 3 and 4 pounds (15 and 20 kg/m2) per square foot
the stone cladding frequently occurred when the mortar was while conventional stone panels of similar thickness weigh

March 2003 Interface 25

 Figure 5 - Stone tile system applied to CMU and concrete substrates.

between 15 and 20 pounds (75 and 100 kg/m2). These panels offer sig
nificant cost and weight savings; however, their long-term performance
remains undetermined.
Another system that has been recently developed with a limited
history of use consists of adhering smaller stone tiles to a concrete,
masonry, or stud wall sheathing by means of latex-modified mortars
(Figure 5). To date, installation of this system has been limited to resi
dential construction and small commercial applications.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The loads that are expected on the thin stone panel usually govern
the thickness and (potentially) the size of cladding panels. The ability
to accurately predict the expected behavior of the system is critical to
the performance of the cladding system. Depending on the building
location, seismic or wind loads will govern the design loads.
Depending on the type of material to be used for the panels, the
stones strength and an appropriate factor of safety can be used to
select a preliminary thickness for a particular panel size. Factors of safe
ty vary greatly, depending on the type of material to be specified.
Safety factors are used to account for variations of the material, aging,
load variation, and statistical predictability. The following factors of
safety are generally used for flexural design of different types of stone:

Stone Type Flexural Design Safety Factor

Granite (not at anchors) 3
Granite (at anchor locations) 4
Marble (not at anchors) 5
Marble (point loads) 10
Limestone and Sandstone 8

Figure 4 - Representative lateral anchorage of composite panels from To speed construction and minimize field fabrication, many mod-
product literature for Ultra-Lite Stone by Stone Panel, Inc. ern cladding systems are shop fabricated and installed with cranes

26 Interface March 2003

rather than being handset. Stone panels can be pre-anchored to steel
truss frames as an alternative to precast panel systems (Figure 6). In the
1980s, non-stress proprietary anchors were introduced. These anchors
transferred loads in bearing rather than friction or adhesion and are
frequently used for fabrication of the steel truss systems. Because stone,
like other masonry materials, is a very brittle material, consideration
for differential stiffness or deflection compatibility between the stone
and the support frame is critical to prevent cracking both during instal
lation and while the system is in service.

DETAILING ISSUES
Tolerances/Constructability
Although not as significant in older load-bearing structures, toler
ance is one of the most significant factors affecting thin stone
cladding. Tolerances in thin stone cladding include both fabrication
and construction variations, which must be accommodated within the
system to ensure a proper installation. Frequently, inadequate adjusta
bility within a cladding system can result in field modifications that
may deviate from the original design intent and may compromise the
performance of the system. Tolerances become more significant as the
thickness of the panel decreases.
Fabrication tolerances can vary between shops. The significant tol
erances for individual pieces include length, width, thickness, square-
ness, and locations of kerfs and holes. It is significant to note that
industry-recommended tolerances are typically only possible in a shop
setting. Yet field cutting of kerfs and drilling of holes is often
Figure 6 - Prefabricated truss system and non-stress anchor.
unavoidable and is a common practice in many installations.
Installation tolerances, or the relationship between the cladding
and supporting structure, can vary dramatically. Industry standards for steel and concrete frames may require as much as 5 in. (12.7
cm) of potential in/out adjustment for cladding systems on a tall structure. Vertical adjustability requirements also vary depending on
the anchorage system. Vertical and horizontal adjustability is achieved through slots or shims. Again, if the system is not properly
designed, excessive shimming may occur during installation. Slots are frequently detailed for adjustability; however, slots that are ori
ented in the direction of load are extremely installation-dependent for proper performance (Figure 7).
Inadequate adjustability can lead to excessive field modification of stone panels by back-checking or notching, potentially remov
ing stone that is necessary for the connection or for the panel to properly resist design loads.
Also related to constructability are techniques for installation of the
last panel in a system or in a course of stone. These panels are typically
located at corners or at the top of a building where they are subjected
to the highest wind loads and have the greatest potential to compro
mise public safety. Frequently, the responsibility for an installation and
attachment scheme is left to the contractor. The pieces may be
anchored with a blind system or by some other improvised technique.
Careful attention is necessary to provide adequate anchorage for all
panels within the cladding system, not simply the typical detail.
Movement
Proper consideration and accommodation of all potential movement
within the cladding system as well as within the structural system are
necessary to prevent both local failures and system failures. Thermal,
seismic, wind, creep, and shrinkage movements must be considered for
individual panels as well as the entire system. Incorporation of properly
designed vertical and horizontal expansion joints and proper installa
tion of the joint are necessary to prevent failures.
Water Infiltration
One of the most fundamental issues affecting almost all exterior
building components is water infiltration. Thin stone cladding systems
Figure 7 - Tolerance envelope for deviation from plumb. rely on the relatively thin cladding panels and sealant between the pan
els as the primary line of defense against water infiltration. Obviously,

March 2003 Interface 27

these systems may be somewhat watertight initially, but as the pp. 1-5.
sealant begins to deteriorate water will reach the underlying sub Ballast, D.K., Handbook of Construction Tolerances, McGraw-Hill,
strate and anchorage. A second line of defense against water Inc., 1994, pp. 282-314.
infiltration should be incorporated into the design; however, it is Clarke, S. and R. Engelback, Ancient Egyptian Construction and
frequently not included because of cost and installation difficul Architecture, Dover Publications, 1990 originally published
ties. 1930, pp. 96-101.
Early systems frequently did not consider the effects of water Chin, I.R., Stecich, J.P., and Erlin, B., Design of Thin Stone
penetrating the cladding system. Galvanized steel may have Veneers on Buildings, Proceedings of the Third North American
been used for connection components including shelf angles, lat Masonry Conference, University of Texas, Arlington, 1985
eral straps, and bolts. The rate of corrosion was greatly reduced pp. 10-6 through10-11.
depending on the thickness of the zinc coating. Frequently, Indiana Limestone Handbook, 19th Edition Indiana Limestone
some of these components may not have been galvanized. As the Institute of America, Inc. Indiana, 1992, pp. 4-10.
system aged, galvanized and unprotected steel would have even Kelley, S.J., Curtain Wall Technology and the American
tually corroded and resulted in the failure of components or of Skyscraper, The Construction Specifier, July, 1990 p. 63.
the entire system. Within the past 30 years, stainless steel has Lewis, M.D., Modern Stone Cladding: Design and
been recommended for all anchorage components that are in Installation of Exterior Dimension Stone Systems, ASTM
contact with the stone. Manual Series: MNL 21, ASTM Publication Code
Number 28-021095-10, Philadelphia, PA, 1995, pp.7-21.
Galvanic Corrosion
The Marble Institute of America, 1987 Edition, Marble Institute of
Even components with high corrosion resistance may cor America, Inc., Michigan, pp. 3.01-3.06.
rode if two different metals are in contact due to galvanic corro Mills, A., Materials of Construction, Their Manufacture and Properties,
sion in which the rate of corrosion of the less noble metal 5th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1942
increases. Particular attention to galvanic corrosion is necessary pp. 391-395.
in environments with airborne chlorides such as ocean properties Specifications for Architectural Granite, 1990 Edition, National
or urban environments where salt is used during snow removal. Building Granite Quarries Association, Inc., 1990.
As a practice, all dissimilar metals should be separated.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

CONCLUSION
The use and popularity of thin stone cladding systems in the Edward A. Gerns has been a
building industry will likely continue at current levels. Many of consultant with Wiss, Janney, Elstner
the older thin-stone systems have begun showing signs of aging Associates, Inc., Chicago, IL, since
and outdated design methodology. Inconsistent maintenance, 1990. He is a member of TMS and
neglect, and normal aging of the envelope have led to an ASTM. He co-chairs ASTM sub
increase in failures. Newer cladding systems installed rapidly or committee E06.24.06 and is an
using unproven technologies have failed more quickly than many active participant in E06.55.05 and
of the preceding installation systems. A proper understanding of E06.55.24.01. An architect, Mr.
the materials, design, and constructability are important to prop Gerns has conducted numerous con
er design of thin-stone cladding systems. dition surveys and overseen prepara
tion of documents for the repair of EDWARD A. GERNS
REFERENCES both contemporary and historic
Ashurst, J. and F.G. Dimes, Stone in Building: Its Use and Potential landmark buildings and structures. He is an expert on the City
Today, The Stone Foundation, Swindon Press, Ltd., 1984, of Chicago facade inspection ordinance.

28 Interface March 2003