Fundamentals of Mathematical

Logic

Logic is commonly known as the science of reasoning. This introductory

chapter covers modern mathematical logic such as propositions and quanti-
fiers.

1
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1 Propositions and Related Concepts

A proposition is any meaningful statement that is either true or false, but
not both. We will use lowercase letters, such as p, q, r, , to represent
propositions. We will also use the notation

p:1+1=3

to define p to be the proposition 1 + 1 = 3. The truth value of a proposition

is true, denoted by T, if it is a true statement and false, denoted by F, if it
is a false statement. Statements that are not propositions include questions
and commands.

Example 1.1
Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value of the propo-
sitions.
(a) 2 + 3 = 7.
(b) Julius Caesar was president of the United States.
(c) What time is it?
(d) Be quiet !

Solution.
(a) A proposition with truth value (F).
(b) A proposition with truth value (F).
(c) Not a proposition since no truth value can be assigned to this statement.
(d) Not a proposition

Example 1.2
Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value of the propo-
sitions.
(a) The difference of two primes.
(b) 2 + 2 = 4.
(c) Washington D.C. is the capital of New York.
(d) How are you?

Solution.
(a) Not a proposition.
(b) A proposition with truth value (T).
(c) A proposition with truth value (F).
1 PROPOSITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 3

(d) Not a proposition

New propositions called compound propositions or propositional func-

tions can be obtained from old ones by using symbolic connectives which
we discuss next. The propositions that form a propositional function are
called the propositional variables.
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p q
(read p wedge q), is the proposition: p and q. This proposition is defined
to be true only when both p and q are true and it is false otherwise.
The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p q (read p vee q), is the propo-
sition: p or q. The or is used in an inclusive way. This proposition is false
only when both p and q are false, otherwise it is true.

Example 1.3
Let

p: 5<9
q : 9 < 7.

Construct the propositions p q and p q.

Solution.
The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the proposition

p q : 5 < 9 and 9 < 7.

This proposition is false since the proposition 9 < 7 has a truth value F.
The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the proposition

p q : 5 < 9 or 9 < 7

which is a true proposition

Example 1.4
Consider the following propositions

p: It is Friday
q: It is raining.

Construct the propositions p q and p q.

4 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Solution.
The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the proposition

p q : It is Friday and it is raining.

The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the proposition

p q : It is Friday or It is raining

A truth table displays the relationships between the truth values of propo-
sitions. Next, we display the truth tables of p q and p q.

p q pq p q pq
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F

Let p and q be two propositions. The exclusive or (or exclusive disjunc-

tion) of p and q, denoted p q, is the proposition that is true when exactly
one of p and q is true and is false otherwise. The truth table of the exclusive
or is displayed below

p q pq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 1.5
(a) Construct a truth table for (p q) r.
(b) Construct a truth table for p p.

Solution.
(a) The truth table is
1 PROPOSITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 5

p q r pq (p q) r
T T T F T
T T F F F
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T F T
F F F F F
(b) The truth table is
p pp
T F
F F
The final operation on a proposition p that we discuss is the negation of p.
The negation of p, denoted p, is the proposition not p. The truth table of
p is displayed below
p p
T F
F T
Example 1.6
Consider the following propositions:
p: Today is Thursday.
q: 2 + 1 = 3.
r: There is no pollution in New Jersey.
Construct the truth table of [ (p q)] r.
Solution.

p q r pq (p q) [ (p q)] r
T T T T F T
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
F F F F T T
6 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

Example 1.7
Find the negation of the proposition p : 5 < x 0.

Solution.
The negation of p is the proposition p : x > 0 or x 5

A compound proposition is called a tautology if it is always true, regardless

of the truth values of the propositional variables which comprise it.

Example 1.8
(a) Construct the truth table of the proposition (p q) ( p q). Deter-
mine if this proposition is a tautology.
(b) Show that p p is a tautology.

Solution.
(a) The truth table is

p q p q p q pq (p q) ( p q)
T T F F F T T
T F F T T F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T F T
Thus, the given proposition is a tautology.
(b) The truth table is

p p p p
T F T
F T T
Again, this proposition is a tautology

Two propositions are equivalent if they have exactly the same truth values
under all circumstances. We write p q.

Example 1.9
(a) Show that (p q) p q.
(b) Show that (p q) p q.
(c) Show that ( p) p.
Parts (a) and (b) are known as DeMorgans laws.
1 PROPOSITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 7

Solution.
(a) The truth table is

p q p q pq (p q) p q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Note that the columns of (p q) and p q have the same truth values.
(b) The truth table is

p q p q pq (p q) p q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T

Note that the columns of (p q) and p q have the same truth values.
(c) The truth table is

p p ( p)
T F T
F T F

Example 1.10
(a) Show that p q q p and p q q p.
(b) Show that (p q) r p (q r) and (p q) r p (q r).
(c) Show that (p q) r (p r) (q r) and (p q) r (p r) (q r).

Solution.
(a) The truth table is

p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
8 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

p q pq qp
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F

(b) The truth table is

p q r pq qr (p q) r p (q r)
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T T T
F F F F F F F

p q r pq qr (p q) r p (q r)
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F F
T F F F F F F
F T T F T F F
F T F F F F F
F F T F F F F
F F F F F F F

(c) The truth table is

p q r pq pr qr (p q) r (p r) (q r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T F F F
F T T F T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F T T T T
F F F F F F F F
1 PROPOSITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 9

p q r pq pr qr (p q) r (p r) (q r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F
T F T T T F T T
T F F T F F F F
F T T T F T T T
F T F T F F F F
F F T F F F F F
F F F F F F F F

Example 1.11
Show that (p q) 6 p q

Solution.
We will use truth tables to prove the claim.
p q p q pq (p q) p q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T 6 = F
F T T F F T 6 = F
F F T T F T T

A compound proposition that has the value F for all possible values of the
propositions in it is called a contradiction.

Example 1.12
Show that the proposition p p is a contradiction.

Solution.

p p p p
T F F
F T F