CHAPTER 1

1
 INTRODUCTION

A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using

compressed air, which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and
burning it in the engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases,
compressed air vehicles (CAV) use the expansion of compressed air to drive
their pistons. One manufacturer claims to have designed an engine that is 90
percent efficient.

Compressed air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid

systems, e.g., battery electric propulsion and fuel tanks to recharge the
batteries. This kind of system is called hybrid-pneumatic electric propulsion.
Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in conjunction with this
system.

2
 CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

3
 METHODOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

One can buy the vehicle with the engine or buy an engine to be
installed in the vehicle. Typical air engines use one or more expander
pistons. In some applications it is advantageous to heat the air, or the engine,
to increase the range or power.

Tanks
The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a
pressure vessel.

The storage tank may be made of:

1. Steel,
2. Aluminum,
3. Carbon fiber,
4. Kevlar,
Other materials or combinations of the above.
The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally
more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure
cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically.

One company stores air in tanks at 4,500 pounds per square inch
(about 30 MPa) and hold nearly 3,200 cubic feet (around 90 cubic metres) of
air.

4
 The tanks may be refilled at a service station equipped with heat
exchangers, or in a few hours at home or in parking lots, plugging the car
into the electric grid via an on-board compressor.

5
 CHAPTER 3

HISTORY OF AIR COMPRESSOR

6
 HISTORY OF AIR COMPRESSOR

Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine
locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris (via a central, city-level,
compressed air energy distribution system), and was previously the basis of
naval torpedo propulsion.

In 1863, Jules Verne wrote a novel called Paris in the 20th Century
about a world of glass skyscrapers, high-speed trains, and air-powered
automobiles.

In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England

manufactured a number of compressed air and liquified air cars. The major
problem with these cars and all compressed air cars is the lack of torque
produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air.

Recently several companies have started to develop compressed air

cars, although none have been released to the public, or have been tested by
third parties.

VEHICLES
Mopeds
Jem Stansfield, an English inventor has been able to convert a regular
scooter to a compressed air moped. This has been done by equipping the
scooter with a compressed air engine and air tank.

7
Cars
Several companies are investigating and producing prototypes, and
one plans to offer cars late 2009, early 2010.

Buses
MDI makes Multi CATs vehicle that can be used as buses or trucks.
RATP has also already expressed an interest in the compressed-air pollution-
free bus.

Locomotives
Compressed air locomotives have been historically used as mining
locomotives.

Trams
Various compressed-air-powered trams were trialled, starting in 1876.

Watercraft and Aircraft

Currently, no water or air vehicles exist that make use of the air
engine. Historically compressed air engines propelled certain torpedoes.

8
 CHAPTER 5

MATERIAL REQUIRED

9
 MATERIAL REQUIRED

1. Crank Shaft
2. Connecting Screw
3. Pneumatic Cylinder
4. Solenoid Valve
5. Bearing
6. Bearing Stand
7. DC Motor
8. Wheel
9. Air Cylinder
10. Compressor
11. Pneumatic Pipe
12. Connectors
13. Body Base
14. Speed Regulator
15. Bridge Rectifier
16. Battery

10
 CHAPTER 6

WORKING & CONSTRUCTION

11
 WORKING & CONSTRUCTION

Our project is working in 24V dc current, we divide this current into

two part.
Part-1 is the Solenoid coil, one wire of the 4-coil (negative) is attach
with dick and positive current is transmit by motor with its connecting
shaft.

Part-2 is Dc motor regulating supply, second 24V dc supply is going

to step down transformer through fan regulator for regulate supply.
This transformer converts 12V dc to 12 dc supply. Now we fix one
bridge rectifier to convert ac to dc 12v supply for motor. When we
operate fan regulator, motor rotate slow and fast to transmit ac current
to solenoid coil.

Step-1

We arrange two crank shafts two wheeler scooter

12
Step-2

We fix two ball bearings on both side of crankshaft as shown in above

diagram

Step-3

We fix crank shaft on iron stand for smooth working

13
Step-4

We adjoin both crank shafts with the distance angle of 90 degree for
smooth turning

Step-5

We fix crank shaft on wooden frame

We used Solenoid valve for transmit compressed air to the cylinder for
4 stroke rotation

14
 Normally in off condition Solenoid valve air inlet hole are B and E
and outlet hole are D and C. due to this cylinder squeeze

In ON condition Solenoid valve air inlet hole are B and D and outlet
hole are E and A. due to this cylinder expended

15
This expansion and squeezing help crank rotation

Step-6
We weld two crankshafts and connect pneumatic cylinder with them
and fix them on body frame with the help of bearing. We weld one sprocket
on the right side of crank shaft to transfer its rotation to gear box.

16
Step-8
Now we connect 4 solenoid coil with pneumatic cylinder for provide
4 stroke (every coil provide 90 degree rotation when current pass through
them).

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Step-9
We connect 1:4 gear box with crankshaft for convert crank speed in to
wheel torque motion, due to this our project is easily move on surface.

POWER TRANSMISSION
Step-10
The most important part of the project is power transmission system.
As per above information we are using 4 solenoid coil in our project and
these coil are act as 4 stock transmission, we are using a simple technique to
transmit the same power. We take one circular wooden piece and divide that
circle in to four parts as shown below diagram, these for piece are metallic
cutouts.

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Step-11
Now we take one special dc gear motor (motor shaft is not directly
connected with motor, so we are transmit ac current to the coil from that
shaft) and fix it with circular dick and this motor transmit ac supply to coil.

19
Step-12
Now this technique make easy to move our project perfectly on
surface.

Final Look

20
 CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT DETAIL

21
 COMPONENT DETAIL

PNEUMATRIC CYLINDER :
Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders)
are mechanical devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a
force in a reciprocating linear motion.

Like hydraulic cylinders, pneumatic cylinders use the stored potential

energy of a fluid, in this case compressed air, and convert it into kinetic
energy as the air expands in an attempt to reach atmospheric pressure. This
air expansion forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The piston is a
disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the
object to be moved. Engineers prefer to use pneumatics sometime because
they are quieter, cleaner, and do not require large amounts or space for fluid
storage.

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 Single- and Double-Acting Air Cylinders
All models feature high-strength, double rolled Type 304 stainless
steel body, aluminum alloy end caps, Type 303 stainless steel piston
rods, and sintered bronze bearings. Recommended for operating
temperatures of -20 Degree to 200 Degree F. 250 psi max. operating
pressure. Single-acting cylinders are spring loaded.
Note: Nose-mount units include mounting nut. Pivot-mount units
include stationary pivot pin (except 2" and 2 1/2" bores). Double end
mount units include 2 mounting nuts. Order pivot brackets, foot
brackets, and rod clevis separately, below.
Air Cylinder, Double Acting, Round, Bore Dia 1 1/16 In, Stroke 5 In,
Max Pressure 250 PSI, Mounting Style Pivot, Cushion Type None, Cylinder
Ports 1/8 NPT In, Operating Temp Range 20 to 200 F, Total Length 9.12 In,
Max Load 222 Lb, 304 Stainless Steel Body Material, Silver Finish, Nose
Mount Thread 5/8-18, Rod Dia 5/8 In, Rod Thread 5/16-24 In, Rod Thread
Length 1/2 In, Tang Width 3/8 In

(Sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which

produce force, often in combination with movement, and are powered by
compressed gas (typically air).

To perform their function, pneumatic cylinders impart a force by

converting the potential energy of compressed gas into kinetic energy. This
is achieved by the compressed gas being able to expand, without external
energy input, which itself occurs due to the pressure gradient established by

23
the compressed gas being at a greater pressure than the atmospheric
pressure. This air expansion forces a piston to move in the desired direction.

OPERATION
Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the
piston and, hence, imparts force on the piston. Consequently, the piston
becomes displaced (moved) by the compressed air expanding in an attempt
to reach atmospheric pressure.

SPECIALIZED FUNCTIONS
Depending upon the design of the system, pneumatic cylinders can
operate in a variety of ways. Examples include having the ability to perform
multiple strokes without the need for intermediate intervention, to perform a
full stroke with intermediate stopping points, to be adjusted so as to control
the amount of extension and/or retraction of the piston rod once actuated.

FAIL SAFE MECHANISMS

Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and
brief system failure is unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes
serve as a safety mechanism in case of loss of air supply (or its pressure
falling) and, thus, remedy or abate any damage arising in such a situation.
Due to the leakage of air from i/p or o/p reduces the pressure and so the
desired o/p.

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TYPES
Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and
function, they generally fall into one of the specific categories shown below.
However there are also numerous other types of pneumatic cylinder
available, many of which are designed to fulfill specific and specialized
functions.

SINGLE ACTING CYLINDERS

Single acting cylinders (SAC) use the force imparted by air to move in
one direction (usually out), and a spring to return to the "home" position.

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS

Double Acting Cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both
extend and retract strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for
outstroke and one for instroke.

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OTHER TYPES
Although SACs and DACs are the most common types of pneumatic
cylinder, the following types are not particularly rare:
Rotary air cylinders: actuators that use air to impart a rotary motion
Rodless air cylinders: actuators that use a mechanical or magnetic
coupling to impart force, typically to a table or other body that moves
along the length of the cylinder body, but does not extend beyond it.

SIZES
Air cylinders are available in a variety of sizes and can typically range
from a small 2.5 mm air cylinder, which might be used for picking up a
small transistor or other electronic component, to 400 mm diameter air
cylinders which would impart enough force to lift a car. Some pneumatic
cylinders reach 1000 mm in diameter, and are used in place of hydraulic
cylinders for special circumstances where leaking hydraulic oil could impose
an extreme hazard.

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PRESSURE, RADIUS, AREA AND FORCE RELATIONSHIPS
ROD STRESSES
Due to the forces acting on the cylinder, the piston rod is the most
stressed component and has to be designed to withstand high amounts of
bending, tensile and compressive forces. Depending on how long the piston
rod is, stresses can be calculated differently. If the rods length is less than 10
times the diameter, then it may be treated as a rigid body which has
compressive or tensile forces acting on it. In which case the relationship is:

Where:
is the compressive or tensile force
is the cross-sectional area of the piston rod
is the stress
However, if the length of the rod exceeds the 10 times the value of the
diameter, than the rod needs to be treated as a column and buckling needs to
be calculated as well.

INSTROKE AND OUTSTROKE

Although the diameter of the piston and the force exerted by a
cylinder are related, they are not directly proportional to one another.
Additionally, the typical mathematical relationship between the two assumes
that the air supply does not become saturated. Due to the effective cross
sectional area reduced by the area of the piston rod, the instroke force is less

27
than the outstroke force when both are powered pneumatically and by same
supply of compressed gas.
The relationship between the force, radius, and pressure can derived
from simple distributed load equation :

Where:
is the resultant force
is the pressure or distributed load on the surface
is the effective cross sectional area the load is acting on

OUTSTROKE
Using the distributed load equation provided the can be replaced
with area of the piston surface where the pressure is acting on.

Where:
represents the resultant force
represents the radius of the piston
is pi, approximately equal to 3.14159.

INSTROKE
On instroke, the same relationship between force exerted, pressure
and effective cross sectional area applies as discussed above for outstroke.
However, since the cross sectional area is less than the piston area the
relationship between force, pressure and radius is different. The calculation

28
isn't more complicated though, since the effective cross sectional area is
merely that of the piston surface minus the cross sectional area of the piston
rod.
For instroke, therefore, the relationship between force exerted, pressure,
radius of the piston, and radius of the piston rod, is as follows:

Where:
represents the resultant force
represents the radius of the piston
represents the radius of the piston rod
is pi, approximately equal to 3.14159.

SOLENOID VALVE
A solenoid valve is an electro-mechanical valve for use
with liquid or gas. The valve is controlled by an electric current through
a solenoid in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in
the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet
ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements

in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids.
They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe
switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of
the materials used, low control power and compact design.

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 Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently,
pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The
solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn,
opens or closes the valve mechanically. A direct acting valve has only a
small flow circuit, shown within section E of this diagram (this section is
mentioned below as a pilot valve). This diaphragm piloted valve multiplies
this small flow by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.
Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have
electrical interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold
the valve opened or closed while the valve is not activated.

A INPUT SIDE B DIAPHRAGM

30
C PRESSURE CHAMBER D PRESSURE RELIEF CONDUIT
E SOLENOID F OUTPUT SIDE
The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve. At the top
figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters
at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it
down. The function of this spring is irrelevant for now as the valve would
stay closed even without it. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center
which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it. This water
fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal
on both sides of the diaphragm, however the compressed spring supplies a
net downward force. The spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet
because water pressure is equalised on both sides of the diaphram.

In the previous configuration the small conduit D was blocked by a

pin which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a
spring. If the solenoid is activated by drawing the pin upwards via magnetic
force from the solenoid current, the water in chamber C will flow through
this conduit D to the output side of the valve. The pressure in
chamber C will drop and the incoming pressure will lift the diaphragm thus
opening the main valve. Water now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the conduit D is closed

again, the spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again
and the main valve closes. In practice there is often no separate spring, the
elastomer diaphragm is moulded so that it functions as its own spring,
preferring to be in the closed shape.

31
 From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a
differential of pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input
must always be greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should
the pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then
the valve would open regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot valve.

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve.
Others use a small, complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a
larger valve. While the second type is actually a solenoid valve combined
with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and packaged as a single
unit referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much less power
to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full
power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may
only need full power for a short period of time to open it, and only low
power to hold it.

TYPES
Many variations are possible on the basic, one way, one solenoid
valve described above:
one or two solenoid valves;
direct current or alternating current powered;
different number of ways and positions;

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PISTON PUMP

A piston pump compared to a plunger pump

A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the

high-pressure seal reciprocates with the piston. Piston pumps can be used to
move liquids or compress gases

GEAR BOX
Using the principle of mechanical advantage, a transmission or
gearbox provides a speed-torque conversion (commonly known as "gear
reduction" or "speed reduction") from a higher speed motor to a slower but
more forceful output or vice-versa.

Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing

in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of
pumping, milling, and hoisting.

Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the
speed of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor drive shaft). This means

33
that the output shaft of a gearbox will rotate at slower rate than the input
shaft. This reduction in speed will produce a mechanical advantage, causing
an increase in torque. A gearbox can be setup to do the opposite and provide
an increase in shaft speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest
gearboxes merely change the physical direction in which power is
transmitted.

Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select

one of several different gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios
(simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine
and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types
that increase the output speed.

Gears are a means of changing the rate of rotation of a machinery

shaft. They can also change the direction of the axis of rotation and can
change rotary motion to linear motion.

Unfortunately, mechanical engineers sometimes shy away from the

use of gears and rely on the advent of electronic controls and the availability
of toothed belts, since robust gears for high-speed and/or high-power
machinery are often very complex to design. However, for dedicated, high-
speed machinery such as an automobile transmission, gears are the optimal
medium for low energy loss, high accuracy and low play.

Gears are of several categories, and can be combined in a multitude of

ways, some of which are illustrated in the following figures.

34
Fig. Meshing Circular Spur Gears

Fig. Rack and Pinion Spur Gears

35
Fig. Circular Worm Gear and Mating Cylindrical Worm

Fig. Inside Spur Gear with Mating Pinion Spur Gear

36
SHAFTS
A shaft is one of the most important components in machines. Shafts
are used to support rotating elements. And transmit rotational motion and
power.

According to the shapes, there are crank shaft, the axis is not at a
horizontal line; straight shaft: The axis is at a horizontal line; flexible shaft,
convoluted by groups of steel wire, good flexibility.

According to the straight shafts, there is plain shaft, no-diameter-

change shafts, simple, is prone to machining, inconvenient to install the

37
components on the shafts; stepped shaft: inconvenient to install the
components on the shafts; hollow shaft and solid shaft

To machining techniques, straight shafts are the best, but difficult to

fixed. To the forces on the shafts, equality intensity shafts are good, but
difficult to machining and install. Hence, there are all stepped shafts.

The word shaft covers numerous variations and according to the

loads exerted on the shafts, the shafts can be classified into three groups:
(a) Shafts with only bending moments, usually called axle;
(b) Shafts with only torsional moments, usually called spindle.
(c) Shafts with bending and torsional moments;

WHEEL ALIGNMENT
The term wheel alignment is used in connection with the stability and
control of the vehicle while in motion. Wheel alignment means that while
moving straight ahead the wheels should be parallel. In the event they are
pointing inward, they are said to be toe in whereas if they are pointing
outward they are said to toe out.

38
 Both these situations are undesirable because in either case while
rolling forward each wheel will be simultaneously slipping laterally, due to
which a continuous cross tread scrubbing takes place.

The wheel axle fits into dropouts in the frame and forks. A pair of
wheels may be called a wheel set, especially in the context of ready-built
"off the shelf", performance-oriented wheels.

Tires vary enormously. Skinny, road-racing tires may be completely

smooth, or (slick). On the opposite extreme, off-road tires are much wider
and thicker, and usually have a deep tread for gripping in muddy conditions.

SPEED CONTROLLER & ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT :

An electric motors speed can be controlled by regulating of voltage &
current only.

We have choosen control of voltage by a rotary switch controlled

mechanically by two gear wires which turns the switch to & from as per
requirement, regulating the speed of the motor. We avoided regulation of
current as it well effect motor performance due to conversion of magnetic
energy into heat energy in the armature coils.

Electronic Circuit is the most sensitive part in the air compressor

vehicle. Due to non-availability of high power dc motor in 12 volt we were
forced to choose the dc motor requiring 24 volt dc energy.

39
 It marked a question on our project as three batteries in series will
generate 24 volt & our air compressor vehicle have to bear an extra weight
of two batteries, which was not viable.

We turn 12 volt dc to 24 volt dc by developing an electronic circuit

(keeping model of inverter in mind) to generate 24 volt through a reliable
circuit.

DC MOTORS
These are the motors that are commonly found in the toys and the tape
recorders. These motors change the direction of rotation by changing the
polarity. Most chips can't pass enough current or voltage to spin a motor.
Also, motors tend to be electrically noisy (spikes) and can slam power back
into the control lines when the motor direction or speed is changed.

Specialized circuits (motor drivers) have been developed to supply

motors with power and to isolate the other ICs from electrical problems.
These circuits can be designed such that they can be completely separate
boards, reusable from project to project.

A very popular circuit for driving dc motors (ordinary or gearhead) is

called an H-bridge. It's called that because it looks like the capital letter 'H'
on classic schematics. The great ability of an H-bridge circuit is that the
motor can be driven forward or backward at any speed, optionally using a
completely independent power source.

40
The H-Bridge Circuit

This circuit known as the H-bridge (named for its topological

similarity to the letter "H") is commonly used to drive motors. In this circuit
two of four transistors are selectively enabled to control current flow through
a motor.

Opposite pair of transistors (Transistor One and Transistor Three) is

enabled, allowing current to flow through the motor. The other pair is
disabled, and can be thought of as out of the circuit. By determining which

41
pair of transistors is enabled, current can be made to flow in either of the two
directions through the motor. Because permanent-magnet motors reverse
their direction of turn when the current flow is reversed, this circuit allows
bidirectional control of the motor.

THE H-BRIDGE WITH ENABLE CIRCUITRY

It should be clear that one would never want to enable Transistors One
and Two or Transistors Three and Four simultaneously. This would cause
current to flow from Power + to Power - through the transistors, and not the
motors, at the maximum current-handling capacity of either the power
supply or the transistors. This usually results in failure of the H-Bridge. To
prevent the possibility of this failure, enable circuitry as depicted in Figure is
typically used.

42
 In this circuit, the internal inverters ensure that the vertical pairs of
transistors are never enabled simultaneously. The Enable input determines
whether or not the whole circuit is operational. If this input is false, then
none of the transistors are enabled, and the motor is free to coast to a stop.

By turning on the Enable input and controlling the two Direction

inputs, the motor can be made to turn in either direction.

Note that if both direction inputs are the same state (either true or false)
and the circuit is enabled, both terminals will be brought to the same voltage
(Power + or Power - , respectively). This operation will actively brake the
motor, due to a property of motors known as back emf, in which a motor that
is turning generates a voltage counter to its rotation. When both terminals of
the motor are brought to the same electrical potential, the back emf causes
resistance to the motor's rotation.

BATTERY & CHARGER

An battery defines the rang, acceleration ability and recharge time for
the vehicle because the battery contains the energy to fuel an air vehicle.

Many different battery types are is use in air vehicle today. The most
common batteries in use today are flooded lead-acid, sealed gel lead-acid,
Nickel Cadmium (NiCad) and Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH).

Another factor that must be considered when making a battery

comparison is the recharge time. Lead acid batteries require a recharge

43
period, as long as 6 to 8 hours. Lead acid batteries, because of their chemical
makeup, cannot sustain high current or voltage continuously during charge.
The lead plates within the batteries heat rapidly and cool very slowly. Too
much heat results in a condition known as gassing where hydrogen gas in
released from the batterys vent cap. Over time, gassing reduces the
effectiveness of the battery and also increases the need for battery
maintenance. Batteries such as Ni cad and NiMH are not as susceptible to
heat and can be recharged very quickly, allowing for high current or high
voltage charges which can bring the battery from a 20% state of charge to an
80% state of charge is as quick as 20 minutes. But Lead acid batteries are
easily available so we decide to use Lead acid batteries.

BALL BEARING
A ball bearing is an engineering term referring to a type of rolling-
element bearing which uses balls to maintain the separation between the
moving parts of the bearing.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and

support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to
contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. Usually one of the

44
races is held fixed. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to
rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower
coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other
kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the
balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner
and outer races.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is semi conductor device consisting of three regions
separated by two P-N junctions. The three regions are Base, Emitter &
Collector.

Fig. Structure And Symbol Of P-N-P Transistor

The base may be of N- type or P- type. The emitter and collector

have same impurities but different from that of base. Thus if base is of N-
type then emitter and collector are of P- type then transistor is called P-N-P
transistor and vice versa transistor is called N-P-N transistor.

45
 The base is made thin and number density of majority carriers is
always less than emitter and collector. The base provides junction for proper
interaction between emitter and collector.

Electrons are majority charge carriers in N- region and in P-region,

holes are the majority charge carriers. Thus two types of charge carriers are
involved in current flow through N-P-N or P-N-P transistor.

DIODE
It is a P-type region and N-type region formed in the same crystal
structure, and hence a P-N junction is produced. Some of the conduction
electrons near the junction diffuse in to P-type semiconductor from the N-
type semiconductor across the junction combing with the holes. The loss of
electrons makes the N-type semiconductor positively charged and hence the
neutralization of the holes on the other hand makes P-type semiconductor
negatively charged. This region where positive and negative charges develop
is called depletion region.

Fig. Diode
If a P-region is made positive with respect to the N-region by an
external circuit then junction is forward biased and junction has a very low
resistance to the flow of current. Holes in the positive P-type material are
attracted across the junction to the negative side and the free electrons in the
N-type material are like wise attracted to the opposite side. If a positive

46
voltage is applied to N-zone with respect to the P-zone terminal, the P-N
junction is reverse biased.

Fig. Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a P-N Diode

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Led falls within the family of p-n junction devices. The light emitting
diode (led) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In
any forward biased p-n junction there is, within the structure and primarily
close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons. This
recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free
electron be transferred to another state.

The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of

energy is called electroluminescence. As shown in fig., with its graphic
symbol, the conducting surface connected to the p-material is much smaller,
to permit the emergence of the maximum number of photons of light energy.
Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected carriers due to the
forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of recombination.
There may, of course, be some absorption of the packages of photon energy

47
in the structure itself, but a very large percentage are able to leave, as shown
in the fig.

Fig. Process of the LED

RESISTANCE
Resistance is the electronic component used to control the current
passing through the circuit. They are calibrated in ohms. In the other words
resistance are circuit elements having the function introducing electrical
resistance into the circuit. There are three basic types :
1. Fixed Resistance
2. Rheostat
3. Potentiometer

A fixed Resistance is a two terminal resistance whose electrical

resistance is constant. A rheostat is a resistance that can be changed in
resistance value without opening the circuit to make adjustment.
potentiometer is an adjustable resistance with three terminals one each end
of the resistance element and third movable along its length.

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CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device capable of storing an electric charge (static
electricity). It consists of two metal plates separated by dielectric material.
Capacitors are available in values ranging from less than one picofarad to
thousands of microfarad. While using a capacitor its ratings must be
carefully observed to make certain that the potential to be applied across the
capacitor is not greater than the rated value.

TYPES OF CAPACITORS :
DEPENDS UPON THE BASIS OF DIELECTRIC USED:
Air insulated & vaccum capacitors
Paper insulated capacitors
Mica capacitors
Plastic film capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
Electrolytic & tantalum capacitors

TRANSFORMER
DEFINITION :
The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one
alternating voltage (current) into another voltage (current). However, power
remains the some during the transformation. Transformers play a major role
in the transmission and distribution of ac power.

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Principle :
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer
consists of laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary
and secondary coils are wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame,
linked by the common magnetic flux. When an alternating voltage is applied
across the primary coil, a current flows in the primary coil producing
magnetic flux in the transformer core.

This flux induces voltage in secondary coil. Transformers are

classified as:
(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.
(b) Transformation ratio:

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 CHAPTER 9

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

51
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

The advantages are well publicized since the developers need to make
their machines attractive to investors. Compressed-air vehicles are
comparable in many ways to electric vehicles, but use compressed air to
store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other
vehicles include:
Much like electrical vehicles, air powered vehicles would ultimately
be powered through the electrical grid. Which makes it easier to focus
on reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of
vehicles on the road?
Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power
off the electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution
created during fuel transportation would be eliminated.
Compressed air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by
about 20%, because there is no need to build a cooling system, fuel
tank, Ignition Systems or silencers.
Air, on its own, is non-flammable.
High torque for minimum volume.
The mechanical design of the engine is simple and robust.
Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.
Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less
pollution than batteries.
Compressed-air vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation
problems associated with current battery systems.

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 The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than
batteries can be recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid
fuels.
Lighter vehicles would mean less abuse on roads. Resulting in longer
lasting roads.
The price of fueling air-powered vehicles will be significantly cheaper
than current fuels.

DISADVANTAGES
Like the modern car and most household appliances, the principal
disadvantage is the indirect use of energy. Energy is used to compress air,
which - in turn - provides the energy to run the motor. Any conversion of
energy between forms results in loss. For conventional combustion motor
cars, the energy is lost when oil is converted to usable fuel - including
drilling, refinement, labor, storage, eventually transportation to the end-user.
For compressed-air cars, energy is lost when electrical energy is converted to
compressed air.
When air expands, as it would in the engine, it cools dramatically
(Charles law) and must be heated to ambient temperature using a heat
exchanger similar to the Intercooler used for internal combustion
engines. The heating is necessary in order to obtain a significant
fraction of the theoretical energy output. The heat exchanger can be
problematic. While it performs a similar task to the Intercooler, the
temperature difference between the incoming air and the working gas

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 is smaller. In heating the stored air, the device gets very cold and may
ice up in cool, moist climates.
Refueling the compressed air container using a home or low-end
conventional air compressor may take as long as 4 hours though the
specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only 3
minutes.
Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are sometimes
immersed in water to cool them down when they are being filled. That
would not be possible with tanks in a car and thus it would either take
a long time to fill the tanks, or they would have to take less than a full
charge, since heat drives up the pressure.
Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the
tanks; the only published test of a vehicle running on compressed air
alone was limited to a range of 7.22 km.
A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion batteries
out-perform both compressed air and fuel cell vehicles more than three-fold
at same speeds. MDI has recently claimed that an air car will be able to
travel 140km in urban driving, and have a range of 80 km with a top speed
of 110km/h on highways, when operating on compressed air alone.

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CHAPTER 10

FUTURE WORK

55
 FUTURE WORK

We have made the air compressor based vehicle by dc motor speed

control using automobile designing approach. Through this, we were able to
achieve the speed control using a dc motor.

We have used to control the dc motor with the help of air compressor
and solenoid valve is one of the first experiments. Whenever we want to
control the volume regulator and speed of the dc motor then it is no so easy.
If we want to control the volume of dc motor with the help of switches the it
is very difficult to control the dc motor and similarly for various types of
elements and battery.

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CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION

57
 CONCLUSION

Mechatronics involves the bringing together of a number of

technologies : mechanical engineering, automobile engineering, electrical
engineering, and control engineering. This can be considered to be the
application of electronic and electric circuit, to mechanical engineering
problems. Mechatronics provides an opportunity to take a new look at
problems, with mechanical engineers not just seeing a problem in terms of
mechanical principles but having to see it in terms of a range of
technologies. The electronics, etc. Should not be seen as a bolt on item to
existing mechanical hardware. A mechatronics approach needs to be adopted
right from the design phase. There needs to be a complete rethink of the
requirements in terms of what an item is required to do.

There are many applications of mechatronics in the mass produced

products used in the home. They are to be found in cars in the active
solenoid valve, air compressor, piston, engine control, speed control through
volume regulator etc.

Pollution is one of the major problems faced by the peoples in a

routine life. Increasing use of different types of automobile plate and
important role to create this big problem, several affords are made by the
automobile sector to solve this big problem. Our project, electric system will
be very effective to reduce this problem in a cheaper way.

58
 Air is alternative than other fuels so during our study we appreciated
the importance of electric conversion and found that it is really helpful in
controlling the pollution and also less expensive than the petrol.

We faced a few problems while converting a electric system into the

petrol system but were able to find a final solution to them with proper
guidance of our guide and references.

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CHAPTER 12

REFERENCES

60
 REFERENCES

1. A course in Internal Combustion Engine : By M.L. Mathur &

R.S. Sharma

2. Automotive Mechanics : By William.H.Crowse

& Anglin,

3. A Text Book of I.C. Engine : By V. Ganeshan

4. Automobile Engineering : By K.M. Gupta

5. Automobile Engineering : By R.B. Gupta

6. Power Electronics : By S.M. Rai & M.S. Qureshi

7. Pneumatic System: Principles & Maintenance : By S.R. Majumdar

8. Design and Control for The Pneumatic : By Cheng, Chi-Neng.

Cylinder Precision

WEBSITE :
www.google.com
WWW.AUTOINDIA.COM
http://industrialvalveresource.com
safety devices , www.isuzu.com , isuzu motors, america.
WWW.PHILIPSSEMICONDUCTOR.COM
www.auto123.com

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