Q1.

A] Sensors

In the broadest definition, a sensor is an electronic component, module, or subsystem whose

purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other
electronics, frequently a computer processor. A sensor is always used with other electronics,
whether as simple as a light or as complex as a computer.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor)
and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of
which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-
use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of
temperature, pressure or flow measurement,[1] for example into MARG sensors. Moreover,
analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used.
Applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine,
robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life.

A good sensor obeys the following rules:[citation needed]:

it is sensitive to the measured property

it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and

it does not influence the measured property.

The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property.

Chemical sensor[edit]
A chemical sensor is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the
chemical composition of its environment, that is, a liquid or a gas phase.[2] The information is
provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a
certain chemical species (termed as analyte)

Biosensor[edit]
Main article: biosensor
In biomedicine and biotechnology, sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological
component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers, are called biosensors.
Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (=carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is
referred to as sensor or nanosensor.

B] Actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or controlling a
mechanism or system.
An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low
energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human
power. The supplied main energy source may be electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure,
or pneumatic pressure. When the control signal is received, the actuator responds by converting
the energy into mechanical motion.
An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control
system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer
driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.[1]

Hydraulic[edit]

A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotatory
or oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert
a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited acceleration.

Pneumatic[edit]

A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure into
either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine controls because it
can quickly respond in starting and stopping as the power source does not need to be stored in
reserve for operation.

Electric[edit]

An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque.
The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves. It is one of the
cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does not directly involve oil or
other fossil fuels.[4

Thermal or magnetic (shape memory alloys)[edit]

Actuators which can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy have been used in
commercial applications. They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high power
density. These actuators use shape memory materials (SMMs), such as shape memory
alloys (SMAs) or magnetic shape-memory alloys (MSMAs).

Mechanical[edit]

A mechanical actuator functions to execute movement by converting one kind of motion, such
as rotary motion, into another kind, such as linear motion. An example is a rack and pinion. The
operation of mechanical actuators is based on combinations of structural components, such
as gears and rails, or pulleys and chains.

Performance metrics for actuators include speed, acceleration, and force (alternatively, angular
speed, angular acceleration, and torque), as well as energy efficiency and considerations such
as mass, volume, operating conditions, and durability, among others.
Force[edit]

When considering force in actuators for applications, two main metrics should be considered.
These two are static and dynamic loads. Static load is the force capability of the actuator while
not in motion. Conversely, the dynamic load of the actuator is the force capability while in motion.
The two aspects rarely have the same weight capability and must be considered separately.

Speed[edit]

Speed should be considered primarily at a no-load pace, since the speed will invariably decrease
as the load amount increases. The rate the speed will decrease will directly correlate with the
amount of force and the initial speed.

Operating conditions[edit]

Actuators are commonly rated using the standard IP Code rating system. Those that are rated for
dangerous environments will have a higher IP rating than those for personal or common
industrial use.

Durability[edit]

This will be determined by each individual manufacturer, depending on usage and quality.

C]
Building automation is the automatic centralized control of a building's heating, ventilation and
air conditioning, lighting and other systems through a building management system or building
automation system (BAS). The objectives of building automation are improved occupant comfort,
efficient operation of building systems, and reduction in energy consumption and operating costs,
and improved life cycle of utilities.
Building automation is an example of a distributed control system the computer networking of
electronic devices designed to monitor and control the mechanical, security, fire and flood safety,
lighting (especially emergency lighting), HVAC and humidity control and ventilation systems in a
building.[1][2]
BAS core functionality keeps building climate within a specified range, provides light to rooms
based on an occupancy schedule (in the absence of overt switches to the contrary), monitors
performance and device failures in all systems, and provides malfunction alarms to building
maintenance staff. A BAS should reduce building energy and maintenance costs compared to a
non-controlled building. Most commercial, institutional, and industrial buildings built after 2000
include a BAS. Many older buildings have been retrofitted with a new BAS, typically financed
through energy and insurance savings, and other savings associated with pre-emptive
maintenance and fault detection.
The term building automation system, loosely used, refers to any electrical control system that is
used to control a buildings heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system. Modern BAS
can also control indoor and outdoor lighting as well as security, fire alarms, and basically
everything else that is electrical in the building. Old HVAC control systems, such as 24 V DC
wired thermostats or pneumatic controls, are a form of automation but lack the modern systems
flexibility and integration.
D]
A digital signal is a signal that is constructed from a discrete set of waveforms of a physical
quantity so as to represent a sequence of discrete values.[1][2][3] A logic signal is a digital signal
with only two possible values,[4][5] and describes an arbitrary bit stream. Other types of digital
signals can represent three-valued logic or higher valued logics.
Alternatively, a digital signal may be considered to be the sequence of codes represented by
such a physical quantity.[6] The physical quantity may be a variable electric current or voltage, the
intensity, phase or polarization of an optical or other electromagnetic field, acoustic pressure,
the magnetization of a magnetic storage media, etcetera. Digital signals are present in all digital
electronics, notably computing equipment and data transmission.
With digital signals, system noise, provided it is not too great, will not affect system operation
whereas noise always degrades the operation of analog signals to some degree.

E]

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.[1]

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.[2]

Transducer types[edit]

Passive[edit]

Passive sensors require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation
signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example,
a thermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric current through it,
its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across the
thermistor, LVDT.[3][2]

Active[edit]

Active sensors generate electric signals in response to an external stimulus without the need of
an additional energy source. Such examples are a photodiode, and
a piezoelectric sensor, thermocouple.[4]

Sensors[edit]

A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus.[5] Transducer is the other
term that is sometimes interchangeably used instead of the term sensor, although there are
subtle differences. A transducer is a term that can be used for the definition of many devices
such as sensors, actuators, or transistors.[6][2]
Actuators[edit]

An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is

operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic fluid
pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the
mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be
simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer
driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.[2]

Bidirectional[edit]

Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert
electrical signals into physical phenomena. Examples of inherently bidirectional transducers
are antennae, which can convert conducted electrical signals to or from propagating
electromagnetic waves, and voice coils, which convert electrical signals into sound (when used in
a loudspeaker) or sound into electrical signals (when used in a microphone). Likewise, DC
electric motors may be used to generate electrical power if the motor shaft is turned by an
external torque.[2]

Ideal characteristics[edit]

High dynamic range[2]

High repeatability

Low noise

Low hysteresis

Q2.1
A Building Management System that operates on open protocols over the IP
network functions as an intelligent tool that monitors and controls every aspect
of the data center. By understanding the mechanical, security and electrical
components in a data center, a data center or facility manager can determine
which best practices to implement that will protect IT assets and minimize costs
and downtime in this environment. Building Management Systems take
advantage of centralized monitoring and control to manage data center facilities
targeting the entire site all the way down to the server rack. In fact, the BMS
server is routinely installed inside a rack in the data center that it monitors
because it depends on this controlled environment. An integrated Building
Management System addresses and serves the complexity, scalability and
flexibility required for data centers. Yet integrated control and monitoring
delivers more than lower operating costs. The BMS extends the life of the HVAC
system components and supports the overall infrastructure, as well as the IT
equipment that operates in the data center. Together, an integrated Network
Management System and BMS proactively monitor data center operations
delivering high-reliability. The goal of this paper is to examine these systems and
offer some energy-efficient techniques to assure that capital expenditures in the
facility and equipment follow an optimal projected lifecycle.
Q2.2
The DDC directly interfaces to the process for data acquisition and control
purpose. Because of the nature of digital devices, signals from the plant have to
be converted into a suitable form before they can be transferred for processing
by computer. Similarily, signal generated by the computer must be presented in
a form compatible with the plant. The Fig.1 shows the various functional blocks
of a DDC system.

Fig.1
The multiplexer acts like a switch under microprocessor control. It switches and
presents at its output the analog signal from a sensor / transmitter. ADC
transforms analog values obtained from sensors into digital signal so that a
digital processing unit can work on them. The output of digital control logic is
linked with final control elements through DAC. If pneumatic or hydraulic action
is required, it is accomplished with electronic-to-pneumatic or electronic-
tohydraulic converters. The microprocessor performs the following tasks 1. It
reads the various process variables from different transmitters through
multiplexer and ADC. 2. It determines the error for each control loop and
executes control strategy for each loop. 3. It outputs the correction value to
control valve through DAC. Other important pieces of hardware that form part of
a digital control loop are Sampler: The sampler is essentially a switch, operating
usually at fixed intervals of time. When the switch closes, it grabs or samples the
signal at that instant of time. Thus, if the source signal is continuous, the output
of the sampler is a series of pulses, and the magnitude of each pulse is equal to
the magnitude of the continuous signal at the instant of sampling. Sample hold
devices: The computer output of DAC is a train of pulses. If this is a control
signal, the process will be driven by pulses. This is not acceptable driving the
valve at certain opening when pulse is present and closing the valve in between
the pulses. To overcome this problem Sample hold device is used which holds the
signals from DAC. The most common type is the Zero Order hold (ZOH), where
each pulse is held until the next pulse comes along.

Q2.3

Types of inputs and outputs[edit]

Sensors[edit]

Analog inputs are used to read a variable measurement. Examples

are temperature, humidity and pressure sensors which could be thermistor, 420 mA, 0
10 volt or platinum resistance thermometer (resistance temperature detector), or
wireless sensors.

A digital input indicates if a device is turned on or not - however it was detected. Some examples
of an inherently digital input would be a 24 V DC/AC signal, current switch, an air flow switch, or
a volta-free relay contact (dry contact). Digital inputs could also be pulse type inputs counting the
frequency of pulses over a given period of time. An example is a turbine flow meter transmitting
rotation data as a frequency of pulses to an input.

Nonintrusive load monitoring[4] is software relying on digital sensors and algorithms to discover
appliance or other loads from electrical or magnetic characteristics of the circuit. It is however
detecting the event by an analog means. These are extremely cost-effective in operation and
useful not only for identification but to detect start-up transients, line or equipment faults, etc.[5][6]

Controls[edit]

Analog outputs control the speed or position of a device, such as a variable frequency drive, an I-
P (current to pneumatics) transducer, or a valve or damper actuator. An example is a hot water
valve opening up 25% to maintain a setpoint. Another example is a variable frequency
drive ramping up a motor slowly to avoid a hard start.

Digital outputs are used to open and close relays and switches as well as drive a load upon
command. An example would be to turn on the parking lot lights when a photocell indicates it is
dark outside. Another example would be to open a valve by allowing 24VDC/AC to pass through
the output powering the valve. Digital outputs could also be pulse type outputs emitting a
frequency of pulses over a given period of time. An example is an energy meter calculating kWh
and emitting a frequency of pulses accordingly

Q3.1

Characteristics[edit]

Building management systems are most commonly implemented in large projects with extensive
mechanical, HVAC, electrical systems. Systems linked to a BMS typically represent 40% of a
building's energy usage; if lighting is included, this number approaches to 70%. BMS systems
are a critical component to managing energy demand. Improperly configured BMS systems are
believed to account for 20% of building energy usage, or approximately 8% of total energy usage
in the United States.[1][2]

In addition to controlling the building's internal environment, BMS systems are sometimes linked
to access control (turnstiles and access doors controlling who is allowed access and egress to
the building) or other security systems such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) and motion
detectors. Fire alarm systems and elevators are also sometimes linked to a BMS, for monitoring.
In case a fire is detected then only the fire alarm panel could shut off dampers in the ventilation
system to stop smoke spreading and send all the elevators to the ground floor and park them to
prevent people from using them.

Building management systems have also included disaster-response mechanisms (such as base
isolation) to save structures from earthquakes. In more recent times, companies and
governments have been working to find similar solutions for flood zones and coastal areas at-risk
to rising sea-levels. One such example is the SAFE Building System by Arx Pax Labs, Inc.,
[3]
which is designed to float buildings, roadways, and utilities in a few feet of water. The self-
adjusting floating environment draws from existing technologies used to float concrete bridges
and runways such as Washingtons SR 520 and Japans Mega-Float.[4]

Illumination (lighting) control

Electric power control

Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)

Security and observation

Access control

Fire alarm system

Lifts, elevators etc.

Plumbing

Closed-circuit television (CCTV)

Other engineering systems

Control Panel

PA system

Alarm Monitor

Security Automation

Benefits[edit]

Possibility of individual room control

Increased staff productivity

Effective monitoring and targeting of energy consumption

Improved plant reliability and life

 Effective response to HVAC-related complaints

Save time and money during the maintenance.

Building managers[edit]

Higher rental value

Flexibility on change of building use

Individual tenant billing for services facilities time saving

Remote monitoring of the plants (such as AHU's, fire pumps, plumbing pumps, electrical
supply, STP, WTP, greywater treatment plant etc.)

Ease of maintenance
Maintenance companies[edit]

Ease of information availability

Computerized maintenance scheduling

Effective use of maintenance staff

Early detection of problems or service work easy

More satisfied occupants

Additional benefits[edit]

Data is consolidated onto a single system to improve reporting, information management

and decision-making. Integrating and managing the HVAC, energy, security, digital video and
life safety applications from a single workstation allows facility-wide insight and control for
better performance.

Increased operational savings Efficient resource deployment can result in reduced

operational costs, empowering operators, simplifying training and decreasing false alarms.

Energy efficient Real-time view into facility operations and deep trend analysis provide
data-driven insight to optimize your energy management strategies and minimize operational
costs.

Flexibility to grow and expand The powerful combination of open systems protocols
and a scalable platform means the BMS can help support growth and expansion of the
system in the future.

Reduced risk Strategic mobile or desktop control, exceptional alarm management and
integrated security solutions helps to see the big picture, helping to speed up response time
and mitigate risks for the property, people and business.

Intelligent reporting Comprehensive reporting with functionality for customizable reports

delivers greater transparency into system history and promotes compliance.
BMS deals with energy demand management. EDM integrates energy policies and regulations in
to overall company operations. It incorporates energy targets into overall business strategies.
EDM conduct management reviews and establishes a system to collect, analyse and report data
related energy consumption and ensure correctness and integrity of that data.

Q3.2

The Fig.2 depicts a DDC flow control loop

The output of the flow transmitter is converted into an electrical signal using P/I (Pressure-to-
Current) converter. The resulting 4-20 mA current signal is converted into a voltage signal
and supplied to the computer. The ADC output is subsequently acted upon by the discretized
version of controller stored in the computer. The discrete output from the computer is
converted back into continuous signal (voltage) by using a DAC, which is further converted
to 4-20 mA signal. This current signal is connected to I/P (Current-to-Pressure) converter,
producing a pneumatic signal in 3-15 psig range, which operates the valve.

The Fig.3 shows the block diagram of a process control loop with digital controller. Step-like
continuous signals are represented as and sampled signals are represented as
y(k), u(k), r(k). The controlled variable is measured and the continuous electrical signal is fed
to the ADC, where it is sampled at a predetermined frequency. The value of the discrete
signal thus produced from the sampler is then compared with the digitized value of the set
point stored in the computer

The sampling period, which is the time between the successive samples, is usually constant
and is decided by the type of process and the disturbance. An appropriate computer program
representing the controller (called the control algorithm) is executed which yields a discrete
controller output. This discrete signal is then converted into a continuous electrical signal by
means of a DAC followed by a sample hold device.

The flow chart for implementing a DDC loop is shown in Fig.4.