Ocean Energy State of The Art PDF

Ocean Energy: State of
the Art
Glossary
AC Alternating Current
ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
DC Direct Current
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GW Gigawatt
GWh Gigawatt hour
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt Hour
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt Hour
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OPEX Operational Expenditure
OSWC Oscillating Wave Surge Converter
OWC Oscillating Water Column
PCM Power Conversion Module
PTO Power Take Off
TEC Tidal Energy Converter
TRL Technology Readiness Level
WEC Wave Energy Converter
Definitions
Term Definition
Array A set of multiple devices connected to a common electrical grid connection.
Capacity Factor The ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time
compared to its theoretical power output if the plant was to operate at full
load over the same period.
Rated Power Ocean energy technologies are designed to achieve a rated power output
when design conditions are met. The rated power is the peak power output
of the device, and each ocean energy device will be rated at a specific wave
height and period (wave devices) or at a specific tidal current velocity (tidal
devices).
Theoretical Resource A high level overview of the theoretical maximum potentially extractable
energy contained within the overall resource.
Technical Resource The actual value of the theoretical resource that can be exploited using
existing technology options, taking account of current technology
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limitations. Constraints such as water depth, estimated spacing
requirements, and device capture and conversion efficiency assumptions
will need to be considered.
Practical Resource The actual value of the technical resource that can be exploited once grid
connection; military zone; shipping lane; wind energy development; fishing;
environmental; economic constraints, etc. have been accounted for.
Tidal Range The difference in height between high and low water.
Fetch The length of water over which a wind has blown which, together with the
strength of the wind, determines the size of the waves produced.
Bathymetry Measurement and mapping of water depths, characterisation of depth

profile of ocean floor.
Prime Mover A mechanism that converts natural energy into mechanical work.
Surge Linear, horizontal (front/back) motion.
Heave Linear, vertical (up and down) motion
Sway Linear, horizontal (side to side) motion
Roll Rotation about the horizontal surge axis
Pitch Rotation about the horizontal sway axis
Yaw Rotation about the vertical heave axis
Directionality At any point in the ocean, the wave climate is the result of waves arriving
from different directions. Wave directionality refers to distribution of waves
from different directions.
Angle of Attack In fluid dynamics, the Angle of Attack is the angle between a reference line
on a body (such as the chord line of an airfoil or hydrofoil) and the vector
representing the direction of the incoming fluid flow.
CAPEX Capital Expenditure. The funds required at the beginning of a project for the
purchase and construction of operating assets and necessary infrastructure.
OPEX Operating Expenditure. The financial cost of operating and maintaining the
asset(s) over the lifetime of the project.
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Table of Contents
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 5
2. Ocean Energy ................................................................................................................................. 7
3. Technical Components of Ocean Energy Array Projects ................................................................ 8
3.1. Project and Component Overview ........................................................................................ 8
3.2. PTO Permutations.................................................................................................................. 9
3.3. Grid Connection ................................................................................................................... 10
3.4. Development Steps and Technology Readiness .................................................................. 10
4. Wave Energy Converters .............................................................................................................. 13
4.1. Types of WEC ....................................................................................................................... 15
4.1.1. Attenuator (A) ............................................................................................................. 15
4.1.2. Point Absorber (B)....................................................................................................... 15
4.1.3. Oscillating Wave Surge Converter (OWSC) (C) ........................................................... 15
4.1.4. Oscillating Water Column (OWC) (D) .......................................................................... 16
4.1.5. Overtopping (E) ........................................................................................................... 16
4.1.6. Pressure Differential (F) .............................................................................................. 16
4.1.7. Bulge Wave (G) ........................................................................................................... 16
4.1.8. Rotating Mass (H) ....................................................................................................... 16
4.1.9. Other (I)....................................................................................................................... 17
4.2. International Examples (Wave) ........................................................................................... 17
4.2.1. Attenuator .................................................................................................................. 18
4.2.2. Point Absorber ............................................................................................................ 20
4.2.3. OWSC .......................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.4. OWC ............................................................................................................................ 25
4.2.5. Overtopping ................................................................................................................ 28
4.2.6. Pressure Differential ................................................................................................... 29
4.2.7. Rotating Mass ............................................................................................................. 30
4.3. Evolution of Devices (Wave) ................................................................................................ 31
4.3.1. Use of Advanced Materials ......................................................................................... 31
4.3.2. Design Modifications .................................................................................................. 31
4.3.3. Cost-Reduction in installation ..................................................................................... 32
4.4. Radical New Concepts (Wave) ............................................................................................. 32
5. Tidal Energy Converters ............................................................................................................... 34
5.1. Types of TEC......................................................................................................................... 35
5.1.1. Horizontal Axis Turbine (A) ......................................................................................... 35
5.1.2. Vertical Axis Turbine (B).............................................................................................. 35
5.1.3. Oscillating Hydrofoil (C) .............................................................................................. 36
5.1.4. Enclosed Tips (Ducted) (D) .......................................................................................... 36
5.1.5. Helical Screw (E).......................................................................................................... 36
5.1.6. Tidal Kite (F) ................................................................................................................ 36
5.1.7. Other (G) ..................................................................................................................... 36
5.2. Further Permutations .......................................................................................................... 36
5.3. International Examples (Tidal) ............................................................................................. 39
5.3.1. Horizontal Axis ............................................................................................................ 41
5.3.2. Vertical Axis................................................................................................................. 50
5.3.3. Oscillating Hydrofoil.................................................................................................... 52
5.3.4. Enclosed tips ............................................................................................................... 53
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5.3.5. Helical Screw ............................................................................................................... 55
5.3.6. Other ........................................................................................................................... 56
5.3.7. Multiple Rotor Platforms ............................................................................................ 57
5.4. Evolution of Devices (Tidal) ................................................................................................. 58
5.5. Radical New Concepts (Tidal) .............................................................................................. 61
6. Arrays ........................................................................................................................................... 62
7. Strategic Technology Challenges.................................................................................................. 65
7.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 65
7.2. Building upon Existing Knowledge....................................................................................... 65
7.3. Key Challenge Areas ............................................................................................................ 67
7.3.1. Predictability ............................................................................................................... 67
7.3.2. Manufacturability ....................................................................................................... 68
7.3.3. Installability ................................................................................................................. 68
7.3.4. Operability .................................................................................................................. 69
7.3.5. Survivability ................................................................................................................. 69
7.3.6. Reliability .................................................................................................................... 69
7.3.7. Affordability ................................................................................................................ 69
7.4. Development Activities and Themes an Example ............................................................ 69
7.5. Synergies with Other Sectors .............................................................................................. 73
7.5.1. Aviation ....................................................................................................................... 73
7.5.2. Construction................................................................................................................ 73
7.5.3. Mining ......................................................................................................................... 74
7.5.4. Defence ....................................................................................................................... 74
7.5.5. Offshore Wind............................................................................................................. 74
7.5.6. Oil and Gas .................................................................................................................. 74
7.5.7. Shipping ...................................................................................................................... 75
8. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 76
9. Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 77
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1. Introduction
There is a global awareness of the need for transition to a lower carbon energy system. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are recognised factors in climate change,
and as such, decarbonisation of the energy sector is receiving precedence in international energy
policy. Low carbon technological innovation is fundamental in achieving the targets that have been
set. Within the energy sector, renewable technologies face both opportunities and challenges. The
ocean energy sector has attracted significant levels of political and industrial interest. Policymakers
and investors are encouraged to actively support innovation when tangible and credible outcomes
exist, but the drive for accelerated change can also present unrealistic short-term expectations.
Concurrently, the requirement for accelerated development and deployment presents a very serious
technical and financial challenge. The drivers and uncertainties that exist within the ocean energy
sector need to be understood. There is also an urgent need to recognise the relative impact of these
uncertainties on the management of the development strategy that will help accelerate deployment
of ocean energy.
There is a significant wave and tidal resource in Europe. There are, however, significant barriers and
obstacles to large scale deployment of technology capable of harnessing this resource. Currently, the
cost of ocean energy is significantly higher than that of offshore wind. In order to become a
recognised and established part of the European energy mix, ocean energy generation will need to
become competitive with alternative forms of renewable power. Technical potential is not perceived
to be a significant barrier to global deployment, however, the cost reduction potential that results
from innovation remains uncertain. This document presents an analysis of the existing technology
concepts within ocean energy, and will identify drivers for future technology developments and
identify areas for future cost reduction.
Accelerated development of ocean energy could offer a wide range of long-term benefits including:
enabling new routes to decarbonisation of the energy supply, creation of a diverse generation
portfolio, greater security of supply, and potential economic opportunities for the development of a
home and export market for device developers and supply chain industries. Meeting the targets will
require coordination and cooperation amongst European member states to drive low carbon
technology innovation investment made now could offer a substantial reward in the long-term.
It is important to clarify here that the term ocean energy, in this project, applies only to the wave
and tidal stream energy sectors. The wave and tidal stream sectors have been identified as
technology with the potential to offer a significant contribution to the European energy system in
the medium to long term. While the majority of the sector is still demonstrating operational
performance and maintainability at an individual device level, the next stage of the development
process will involve deployment of arrays of multiple devices.
Given the nascent stage of ocean energy sector, it is necessary to investigate the future market
potential, together with opportunities for cost reduction, in order to accelerate the rate of
deployment.
The content of this report draws extensively on existing literature. The report explores the existing
wave and tidal energy technologies across a variety of design types that are currently being
developed and deployed. Each design type has different means of power production and each
concept has its own perceived advantages and disadvantages. International examples of wave and
tidal energy converters for each design type are provided. Evolution of designs has, in some cases,
allowed a more refined concept; the more advanced technologies may be in the second or third
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iteration of device. Further permutations of sub-components are also possible within a certain
design type, and this is considered within the report. A review of knowledge on the identified key
technological concepts, both those presently installed or under development, is presented. The
report seeks to set the scene for the identification of technical improvements that will make device
designs more durable and cost effective, while exploring opportunities for radical new designs that
could open up step change innovation within the wave or tidal sector.
The SI Ocean project aims to enhance cooperation between key ocean energy stakeholders, and
create long lasting partnerships within the industry. By establishing a set of firm recommendations
to address non-technical barriers in ocean energy, SI Ocean will help to accelerate commercialisation
of the wave and tidal industry, creating new jobs and providing a secure, sustainable and
competitively priced renewable energy source for Europe by 2020.
The report opens with a high level introduction to Ocean Energy in Chapter 2. This is followed in
Chapter 3 with further detailed information on the technical components that make up an Ocean
Energy array project. A brief introduction is then made into ocean energy arrays in Chapter 4
Once the introduction to the Ocean Energy sector as a whole has been made, the report proceeds to
introduce the wave energy sector Chapter 4. A discussion of the different types of wave energy
converter technology is presented in Chapter 4.1, which is followed by Chapter 4.2 examining
international examples of each of the technology types. Chapter 4.3 discusses the evolution of wave
energy converters, taking a number of examples from industry. The section on wave energy
converters concludes with Chapter 4.4, which discusses radical new concepts in the field of wave
energy.
Chapter 5 introduces the tidal energy sector. This is followed by a discussion of the different types of
tidal energy converter technology in Chapter 5.1. Chapter 5.3 examines international examples of
each of the technology types and Chapter 5.4 discusses the evolution of tidal energy converters,
taking a number of examples from industry. The section on tidal energy converters concludes with
Chapter 5.5, which discusses radical new concepts in the field of tidal energy.
A combined assessment of the strategic technology challenges for the ocean energy sector is then
presented in Chapter 7, setting the scene for future work within the SI Ocean project.
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2. Ocean Energy
Approximately 70% of the surface of the earth is covered by water. Several countries in Western
Europe are exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, which contains particularly energetic wave resource.
Countries such as Denmark, UK, Ireland, France, Spain and Portugal (the Atlantic Arc region) are well
placed to develop wave and tidal energy projects in their adjacent
ocean, where specific priority sites can be identified. The ocean
contains a vast energy resource, and there are a number of ways
in which this energy can be harnessed.
The scope of the SI Ocean project considers only wave and tidal
stream energy. These two forms of ocean energy present very
different resource characteristics and challenges.
Wave energy forms as kinetic energy from the wind is

transmitted to the upper surface of the ocean. The height and
period of resulting waves will vary depending on the energy flux between the wind and the ocean
surface. Much work has been carried out in the field of research and development of technology
capable of harnessing energy from the waves. At present there is very little design consensus
surrounding the design of wave energy technology, and there are several areas in which a wave
energy converter can be placed in order to harness the energy most efficiently.
With tidal energy, large bodies of water such as oceans and seas are acted upon by the gravitational
forces of the sun and moon, which in combination with the rotation of the earth on its axis, cause
movements of the oceans and seas, known as tides. The motion of the moon and sun relative to the
earth causes a periodic variation in the forces that generate the tides. Vertical movement (range)
can be seen in the difference in water level at high and low tide, and horizontal motion of water is
known as a tidal current.
In recent years, international interest and development activity within the wave and tidal energy
sectors has increased. A range of scale and full scale ocean energy test centres have been
constructed in Europe, the USA and Canada [1]. Plans for new test centres in Asia are also being
progressed[2]. International interest and a vast potential for growth in the ocean energy sector has
led to the development of protocols and guidelines for ocean energy device developers, and
international standards specifically for the ocean energy sector are in the process of being written
[3].
The wave and tidal energy sectors are at the cutting edge of engineering design, with positive steps
towards commercial viability now being demonstrated. The most advanced device developers are
now progressing beyond single devices and are planning multiple-device developments and multi-
megawatt projects. Further investment in ocean energy technologies is being made through the
backing of major utilities and OEMs, some of whom are becoming major shareholders in device
development companies.
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3. Technical Components of Ocean Energy Array Projects
Energy extraction from each resource type (wave or tide) will require very different principles of
operation. There has been some convergence within devices in the tidal energy sector with many of
the developers focussing on horizontal axis turbines; significant design diversity still exists within the
wave energy sector. In order to give some context as to the components within an ocean energy
project, the purpose of an ocean energy device must be defined, together with an explanation of the
importance of arrays within ocean energy projects. Each of the key components that constitute an
ocean energy array project will also be discussed.
The purpose of an ocean energy device is to extract energy from the available resource and convert
it into an energy form suitable for transportation and use - electricity. Although individual devices
vary from developer to developer, several common systems are present within all ocean energy
conversion device designs. As discussed by The Carbon Trust [4], the common systems within wave
or tidal energy converters include: Structure and Prime Mover, Foundations and Moorings, Power
Take Off (PTO), Control, Installation, Connection, and Operation and Maintenance (O&M).
3.1. Project and Component Overview

An overview of the key components and cost centres that require consideration for ocean energy
array projects is provided below:
Structure & Prime Mover: The physical structure of the device which captures
energy and the main interface between the resource and the power take off
equipment within the ocean energy converter. The predominant structural
material is steel, although certain concepts are exploring alternatives. Prime
movers such as turbine blades are made of composite materials.
Foundations & Moorings: The method used to secure the device to the sea bed.
This includes permanent foundation constructions such as gravity bases or pile-
pinned foundations, or could consist of moorings such as tight or slack moored
systems.
Power Take Off: The means by which the mechanical energy extracted from the
waves or tides is converted into electrical energy. Several types of Power take Off
(PTO) exist including mechanical, hydraulic, or direct drive using permanent
magnet generators.
Control: Systems and software to safeguard the device and optimise the
performance under a range of operating conditions. Control systems may adjust
certain parameters of the device autonomously in order to ensure favourable
operation.
Installation: The method of placing the structure and device at its power
generating location. This includes all vessels and ancillary equipment needed to
fully deploy an ocean energy device.
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Connection: The cables and electrical infrastructure for connecting the power
output from the device to the electricity network. In order to export the generated
electricity to the grid, power conditioning systems and transformers will be
needed, which provide a grid code compliant electrical output.
Operations & Maintenance: Periodic repair and reconditioning work will be

required on all ocean energy devices. As well as the physical maintenance of
mechanical and electrical components within the device, operation and
maintenance will also have to consider access to the device, and device retrieval.
Note: Other ongoing costs for ocean energy projects include site leases and insurance.
3.2. PTO Permutations

The primary mechanisms for PTO within a wave energy converter are identified in Figure 1.
Permutations in PTO can lead to similar device structures having significantly different mechanisms
for energy conversion. The identified mechanisms have been categorised into three topics,
Turbine, Hydraulic, and Linear Electrical Generators. The Turbine PTO uses air as the fluid
through which energy extraction takes place. Changes in pressure due to a fluctuating wave height
can be used to draw in or exhaust air from a chamber through a turbine. Hydraulic PTO requires
some form of mechanical stroking motion in order to pump high pressure fluid through a motor.
Direct drive systems also exist where relative movement between two bodies in most cases a
linear motion - can be converted directly into electricity.
Most wave devices under development today use a hydraulic or turbine PTO. Direct drive linear or
rotary generators may provide a route to reduced costs within future generations of WEC.
Figure 1: WEC PTO Permutations (Source [5])
These PTO design variations within a particular type of device can also be observed in tidal energy
devices. There are subtle differences between tidal devices and that of wave energy converters, and
the various PTO permutations for tidal energy converters are summarised in the following diagram.
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Figure 2: TEC PTO Permutations
Mechanical PTO utilises a gearbox and generator configuration similar to certain designs of wind
turbine. Hydraulic PTO uses stroking or rotary motion to pump high pressure fluid thorough a motor.
Direct drive generators can convert slow speed mechanical rotary motion directly into electricity
without the need for a gear box.
Most tidal turbines under development today use mechanical or direct drive PTO connected to a
horizontal or vertical axis prime mover.
3.3. Grid Connection

An important factor in any ocean energy project is the need for electrical connection between the
generating device and the local grid network. The identifiable ocean energy resource is often
situated away from densely populated areas; the resource far outweighs the demand from local
communities in many cases. It is intended that electricity generated through ocean projects will be
transported to regions where there is greater demand. For this to take place, the necessary
infrastructure for electricity transportation is needed. There are two stages of grid connection in an
ocean energy device. The first stage is to connect the device to an export cable, bringing electricity
to shore. Device connection can be carried out using dry-mate or wet mate connectors. Dry mate
connectors require the connector to be above the water surface when the connection is made. The
connected cable is then lowered in to position. Wet-mate connectors allow a connection to be made
sub-sea, which would allow an ocean energy device to be placed into position prior to the cable
being connected. The second stage of grid connection involves voltage step-up and connection to
the distribution and transmission grid network. On-shore substations and transformers will step up
the voltage to the applicable level before connection to the distribution or transmission grid.
3.4. Development Steps and Technology Readiness

There are several steps that developers must progress through on the journey between initial
concept and commercial product. Figure 3 shows the different stages a concept will move through
towards commercialisation and highlights how development costs increase progressively through
the stages.
Figure 3: The Technology Journey (Source: Carbon Trust [6])
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It would be pertinent to define here the term Technology Readiness Level. A number of steps have
been set in place to pave the way for a staged growth of a new wave energy concept or design.
Technology development, from first concept to commercial operation, is expected to progress
through defined stages. In order to track the progress of ocean energy devices from concept
through to final product a table of Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) has been produced [7]. These
TRLs define the status of a particular technology, and can be useful in identifying the market
readiness of a particular device, and is described in Table 1.The information contained within this
table utilises definitions from the US DoE Marine and Hydrokinetic database [8], and information
obtained through discussion within the SI Ocean partners.
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Table 1: Technology Readiness Levels
TRL Description Indicative Ocean Energy Device
Basic principles observed and Discovery/Concept Definition;
1
reported Scientific research begins to be translated into applied research and
development where basic principles are observed and reported.
Technology concept and application are formulated and investigated
Technology concept and/or through analytic studies and in-depth investigations of principal design
2
application formulated considerations. This stage is characterised by paper studies, concept
exploration, and planning.
Scale Guide 1:25 1:100 (Small Scale)
Early Stage Development, Design and Engineering;
Analytical and experimental Active research is initiated, including engineering studies and laboratory
3 critical function and/or studies to physically validate analytical predictions of separate elements
characteristic proof of concept of the technology.
Scale Guide 1:25 1:100 (Small Scale)
Proof of Concept;
Early stage proof-of-concept system or component development, testing
Component and/or partial
and concept validation. Critical technology elements are developed and
4 system validation in a laboratory
tested in a laboratory environment, and computer simulation of the
environment
device will be carried out.
Scale Guide 1:10 1:25 (Medium Scale)
Technology Laboratory Demonstration;
Basic technological components are fabricated at a scale relevant to full
Component and/or partial
scale and integrated to establish and verify subsystem and system level
5 system validation in a relevant
functionality and preparation for testing in a simulated environment.
environment
Subsystem level interfacing testing demonstrated at model scale.
Scale Guide: 1:2 1:5 (Large Scale)
System Integration and System Technology Laboratory Demonstration;
System level interfacing/integration testing demonstrated at model or
prototype scale. At this level, representative model or prototype system at
a scale relevant to full scale, which is beyond that of TRL 5, is tested in a
System/subsystem model relevant environment, such as a test facility capable of producing
6 validation in a relevant simulated waves/currents and other operational conditions, while
environment monitoring device response and performance. Furthermore, the devices
foundation concept shall be incorporated and demonstrated. This stage
represents a major step up in a technology's demonstrated readiness and
risk mitigation and is the stage leading to open water testing.
Open Water System Testing and Demonstration;
Testing may be initially performed in water at a relatively benign location,
with the expectation that testing then be performed in a fully exposed,
System prototype demonstration
7 open water environment, where representative operating environments
in an operational environment
can be experienced. The final foundation/mooring design shall be
incorporated into testing at this stage.
Open Water System Operation;
The prototype in its final form (at or near full scale) is to be tested, and
qualified in an open water environment under all expected operating
Actual system completed and
conditions to demonstrate readiness for commercial deployment in a
8 service qualified through test
demonstration project. Testing should include extreme conditions.
and demonstration
Production of GWh scale electricity, operating continuously for at least
one year.
Scale Guide: 1:1 1:2 (Pre Commercial Demonstrator)
Commercial Scale Production / Operation;
Final commercial unit, economic deploymentwhen the technology is ready
Actual system proven through
9 for mass production and has proven to operate as designed for several
successful mission operation
years. Array scale projects.
1
Scale Guide: 1:1 (Full Scale )
1
The term full-scale for each device is based on the developers stated full-scale. In some cases full-scale
may be MW-scale, and in some cases it may be kW scale.
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4. Wave Energy Converters
This section provides an overview of the current status of Wave Energy Converters. It also introduces
the different prime-mover concepts that are being developed for extracting useful energy from
ocean waves.
The wave energy sector is reaching a significant milestone in the development of the industry, with
positive steps towards commercial viability being taken. The more advanced device developers are
now progressing beyond single unit demonstration devices and are proceeding to array
development and multi-megawatt projects. The backing of major utility companies is now
manifesting itself through partnerships within the development process, unlocking further
investment and, in some cases, international co-operation.
At a simplified level, wave energy technology can be located near-shore and offshore. Wave energy
converters can also be designed for operation in specific water depth conditions: deep water,
intermediate water or shallow water. The fundamental device design will be dependant on the
location of the device and the intended resource characteristics.
Figure 4: Mooring and Foundation Configurations for WECs
The energy contained within the waves manifests itself in the form of kinetic motion of water
particles, with the energy imparted to the waves from the wind. The particle motion varies relative
to the water depth. Far offshore, particle motion is circular. As the waves approach the shore,
interference from the seabed (drag) causes the water particle motion to become more ellipsoidal in
shape. At the shore, waves break as the upper surface of the wave begins to travel faster than the
water particles closer to the sea bed. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5. The orbital particle
motion decreases exponentially with increasing water depth, which can be seen in the reducing path
size for water particles deeper within the water column.
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Figure 5: Wave Particle Motion
The near-shore environment is more benign and accessible than the deep water environment, but
still allows access to a significant extractable wave energy resource. The near shore environment is
shielded from the largest ocean waves, and offers an increased directionality with regards to force in
the surge direction. As waves approach the shore, the wave speed and wave length decrease,
resulting in an increased energy per unit area, known as wave shoaling. On the other hand, there is a
trade-off, as compared to the deep offshore environment there is a lower resource in the near shore
waves, as energy is lost due to drag with the seabed.
Much of the European ocean wave energy resource lies in deeper waters, as wave energy levels
increase predominantly with increasing westerly distance from shore [9]. The areas of deep water
that are suitable for wave device deployment are significantly larger than the areas available for
near-shore device deployment, and so there is probably a larger market for deep water devices.
There are many more constraints to development in the near shore environment, including
geotechnical constraints, which reduce the relative level of practical near shore resource. There are
also challenges in the deep offshore environment, as water depth can increase costs significantly.
Technology and financial limitations restrict the depth to which deployment can take place, but
emerging technologies may open up markets in water depths of greater than 250m.
Site characterisation is an essential part of the development process for any proposed site. Wave
resource characterisation can be quantified using wave buoys or through use of land based wave
radar systems. Ideally, two or three years of wave data could allow for an estimation of the wave
climate at a particular site, although a larger data set consisting of ten years data would provide a
more accurate estimation of extremes.
The location of a wave energy device will largely influence the type of mooring used. Shoreline
devices will typically require significant civil engineering works to integrate the device into a natural
rock face or a man made breakwater. Near-shore devices will make use of either pinned pile
foundations, or will rely on gravity mass to hold the device in place. Devices located off shore have
the option of tight moorings or slack moorings, which may be dependant on the type and location of
the structure and PTO system.
A significant challenge for the wave energy industry is demonstrating the survivability of a device.
The ratio of working loads to extreme loads is such that devices need to be over-engineered in
comparison to the expected average operating conditions in order to survive the extreme load
scenarios that could occur during storm conditions. As with other design decisions, the exact design
of WECs will be the result of a cost-engineering exercise that aims to minimise the levelised cost of
electricity from the WEC
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4.1. Types of WEC
Various international examples of technology that has been designed to extract energy from the
waves will be discussed in following sections of this report, but first, the classification of devices
must be defined. For the purpose of this report, classification will follow that used by EMEC[10], in
which the following notation is used:
Table 2: WEC Types

Device Type Classification (Wave)
Attenuator A
Point Absorber B
Oscillating Wave Surge Converter (OWSC) C
Oscillating Water Column (OWC) D
Overtopping/Terminator E
Submerged Pressure Differential F
Other - Bulge Wave G
Rotating Mass H
Other I
Each type of device is designed to extract energy in different ways using the surge, heave or sway
motions of the waves (or a combination of each). Descriptions on these wave motions, and the
rotation around each axis (roll, pitch, and yaw) is provided in the Glossary and Definitions at the
beginning of this report.
4.1.1. Attenuator (A)

Description: Attenuator type wave energy converters use the
energy within oncoming waves to induce an oscillatory motion
between two (or more) adjacent structural components. The motion
can be resisted by hydraulic rams which pump high pressure hydraulic
fluid through a motor, or by a direct drive power take off system, to
generate electricity. Attenuator type wave energy converters can be
surface floating or fully submerged, the former is most common.
Attenuators tend to yaw automatically to face the predominant wave direction. Image Source:
http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.2. Point Absorber (B)

Description: Point Absorber type devices use buoyant forces to
induce a heaving motion of one body relative to a secondary fixed
body. The fixed body may be moored to the sea bed, or held in place
by gravitational forces through a large foundation mass. Point
absorbers are non-directional, as they can receive incoming waves
from any incident angle. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.3. Oscillating Wave Surge Converter (OWSC) (C)

Description: A type of device that can use near-shore wave particle
motion. Generally located in near-shore regions, where the water
particle motion becomes more ellipsoidal in shape, these devices use
the surge motion of the waves to induce oscillating motions of a body
in the horizontal direction. OWSC are typically bottom mounted
Page 15
devices, fixed directly to the sea bed, but concept floating OSWC devices are under development.
Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.4. Oscillating Water Column (OWC) (D)

Description: Oscillating water columns (OWC) use a chamber that is
part filled with water to drive air through a turbine. Variations in the
wave height cause the water in the column to rise and fall, acting like a
large piston on the volume of air within the chamber. As the water level
rises, the pressure in the chamber rises, and air is exhausted from the
chamber driving a turbine. When the water level decreases, the air flow
reverses and air is drawn into the chamber, once again driving a turbine.
OWC devices can be contained within a fixed structure at the shoreline, located near shore bottom
as a bottom mounted structure, contained within a man-made breakwater, or can moored in deeper
water as a floating system. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.5. Overtopping (E)

Description: An overtopping device (also known as a terminator
device) converts wave energy into potential energy. The design causes
waves to break across the device, and the surge energy in the breakers
allows water to be collected in a reservoir above the free water surface.
Water contained in the reservoir can produce energy by flowing through
a low-head hydraulic turbine. Overtopping devices can shore based as
part of a shoreline structure or man-made breakwater, or they can be
floating devices located in deeper water. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.6. Pressure Differential (F)

Description: Pressure Differential devices rely on oscillating
hydrodynamic pressure caused by passing waves. The devices can be
floating or fully submerged. Submerged devices experience an induced
motion as waves pass over the device, creating a temporary vertical
force on the body. Once the wave has passed, the reduced pressure
differential causes the body to return down to its starting position.
Floating pressure differential devices could utilise the increased pressure
due to passing waves to compress air through a turbine. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.7. Bulge Wave (G)

Description: In bulge wave technology, a flexible tube filled with fluid is
moored to the seabed, allowing the device to orientate into oncoming
waves. As waves pass over the device, differential pressure will cause
the water contained within the flexible tube to be squeezed, forming a
bulge wave. This bulge wave travels along the device, at a speed
proportional to the wave velocity and the flexibility of the tube, gaining
energy as the bulge grows. This energy can be used to drive a turbine located at the end of the tube.
4.1.8. Rotating Mass (H)

Description: Rotating mass devices utilise the wave motion to cause
pitch and roll of a floating body. Within the floating body, an eccentric
mass will be excited, and will begin to rotate. The rotation will drive an
electrical generator contained within the device. A further permutation
Page 16
of the rotating mass device uses gyroscopic effect. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
4.1.9. Other (I)

Description: Devices in the Other category do not fit into any of the above headings, but
instead employ a novel or unconventional technique for extracting energy from the waves.
4.2. International Examples (Wave)

At present, wave energy converters are in the R&D phase of technology development. Certain device
developers have had a grid connected device for a number of years, but the sector as a whole does
not have any commercially available production wave devices. There exist over 100 concepts, with
development of devices taking place in over 30 countries across the globe. Projects within a visible
development pipeline are now underway, and several test centres have increased the availability for
grid connected berths in which to test wave energy conversion concepts. Test centres include the
European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC), Wave Hub, Biscay Marine Energy Platform (BiMEP), and the
Danish Wave Energy Centre (DanWEC). Several device developers have now experienced several
months of at-sea testing, and certain devices are nearing a commercially viable stage. This section
aims to present a review of the status of the wave energy sector, providing an overview of relevant
technological developments that are adding to the knowledge and experience of the industry.
A list of wave energy technologies and device developers, together with information on device type
and technology readiness levels, can be found on the United States Department of Energy Marine
Hydrokinetic Database [11]. This reference database is fully searchable, and there are advanced
search options available for convenient site navigation. Information on devices and developers is
also contained on the EMEC website [10]. This document includes a representative list of
technologies in each WEC type. However, the list is not exhaustive, as other potential technologies
have not being included due to the limitation of the report length. A summary of device developers
within each of the technology types is shown in Table 3 below.
Table 3: A Selection of WEC Device Developers

Device Type Device Developers at Various Stages of Development
Attenuator Pelamis, Dexa-Wave, AlbaTERN
Point Absorber Ocean Power Technologies, Wavestar, Seatricity, CETO
Wave Energy Technology, SeaRaser, SeaNergy
Oscillating Wave Surge Converter Aquamarine Power, Waveroller, Langlee Wave Power
(OWSC)
Oscillating Water Column (OWC) Voith Hydro WaveGen, WavEC Pico Plant, Oceanlinx,
Ocean Energy
Overtopping/Terminator Wave Dragon, Waveplane
Pressure Differential AWS Ocean Energy
Rotating Mass Wello Oy
Bulge Wave Checkmate Seaenergy
A selection of these devices will now be discussed in greater detail in the sections that follow. The
wave energy sector contains a number of devices that are at different levels of technology readiness.
Advanced concepts have significant at sea testing, and this has been made clear throughout the
section. In the individual device information, in the instance that a device is in the pre-deployment
stages of development, the rated power output is indicated in parenthesis.
Page 17
4.2.1. Attenuator
Pelamis Wave Power
Pelamis is a semi-submerged wave energy converter consisting of individual tubular sections, each
linked to neighbouring segments by universal joints. Motion is induced in each section as a wave
passes down the length of the device; movement between neighbouring segments will be resisted
by hydraulic rams, which pump hydraulic fluid through pressure smoothing accumulators then on to
a hydraulic motor. This motor is connected to a generator. Pelamis will be moored in water depths
exceeding 50m, and the design of the device is such that it is able to weathervane to face oncoming
waves - a self-referencing mechanism that allows the device to maintain a directional heading
perpendicular to the oncoming wave direction. The weathervane concept also allows the Pelamis
device to enter a survival mode in which the WEC rides underneath extreme waves which would
otherwise impart extreme forces.
Pelamis Wave Power (Source: http://www.pelamiswave.com)
The current model of device, the P2, has a rated power output of 750kW. At present, there are two
Pelamis P2 machines undergoing grid-integrated testing at the European Marine Energy Centre in
Orkney, UK. Two utility companies, E-On and ScottishPower Renewables, have entered into an
agreement to carry out joint testing of their respective device, with knowledge gained over the
course of the testing being shared between the two utilities. Pelamis have recently secured an order
for a third device from Swedish utility company Vattenfall.
Pelamis are involved in the development of array projects in the Pentland Firth (Marwick Head) and
Shetland (Aegir) together with utility partners, in addition to the development of two sites
autonomously, Farr Point and Bernera.
Country of Origin UK
Rated Power Output 750kW
Water Depth Min/Max 50m / 250m
Mooring Type Slack Moored
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
6
Devices
Target Market Deep offshore
PTO Hydraulic
Deployment Vessel Tug boat, Anchor handling vessel
Maintenance Strategy Return to base
Aguadoura 3 x 750kW
Projects to Date
EMEC 2 x 750kW
Page 18
Dexawave
Dexawave is a Danish wave energy device developer producing a hinged raft WEC, where motion
between the raft sections is resisted by hydraulic rams. Dexawave are participating in an FP7 project
titled Aquagen. The aims of this project are to develop and demonstrate an environmentally
friendly PTO system, with water replacing hydraulic oil as the working fluid. Investigation into
alternative materials such as steel reinforced concrete is underway for future devices. Dexawave is
also in the early stages of development of a wave farm project on the island of Malta in the
Mediterranean Sea.
Dexawave (Source: http://www.dexawave.com)
Country of Origin Denmark

Rated Power Output 5kW, (250 kW)
Water Depth Min/Max 25m / Unknown
Mooring Type Slack moored
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Target Market Intermediate offshore
PTO Hydraulic
Deployment Vessel Tug boat
Minor maintenance: on site
Maintenance Strategy
Major maintenance: Return to base
Projects to Date Hanstholm, Denmark 5kW
Page 19
4.2.2. Point Absorber
Ocean Power Technologies (OPT)
OPT's PowerBuoy is a semi-submerged floating device consisting of a toroidal float that moves with
respect to an inertially stable spar structure tethered to the sea bed. This device is a self reacting
heaving buoy, slack moored in deep water. The mechanical stroking motion of the buoy relative to
the spar is converted to an electrical output via a sophisticated power take-off driving an electrical
generator. In extreme waves, the structure can lock up and cease movement, protecting the device
in the event of storm waves.
To date, OPT have deployed the 150kW variant of the PowerBuoy in various wave climates. OPT are
currently developing a 500kW PowerBuoy device.
Ocean Power Technologies (Source: http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com)
Country of Origin USA

Rated Power Output 150 kW, (500kW)
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
4
Devices
PTO Direct Drive
Buoy tender, tug boat, crane or A-
Deployment Vessel
frame vessel
Atlantic City (USA) 1 x 40kW;
Oahu (Hawaii) 1 x 40kW;
Projects to Date
Santoa (Spain) 1 x 40kW;
Scotland, UK 1 x 150kW
Page 20
Seabased
Seabased are a Swedish device developer, developing a taut moored point absorber that utilises a
float on the surface of the water to move a linear direct-drive neodymium-iron-boron magnet
generator located within a tower on a sea bed foundation. End stops prevent the linear generator
from exceeding the allowable travel. The sea bed mounted generators are anchored using a
concrete gravity foundation. The dimensions of the foundation are designed to withstand the wave
loading, and installation can take place without requirement for seabed preparation.
Seabased (Image Source: Elforsk Rapport 11:02 [12])
A wave research project was initiated by Uppsala University in 2006, and it is anticipated that this
project will remain in operation until 2016. Seabased have received funding from the EC and the
Swedish Energy Agency to develop a 10MW demonstration array, which will consist of up to 420
units, deployed near Sotens, Sweden.
Country of Origin Sweden

Rated Power Output 30kW (50kW)
Mooring Type Taut moored
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
3
Devices
PTO Direct Drive Linear Generator
Deployment Vessel Crane Barge
Projects to Date Lysekil, Sweden multiple 30kW devices
Page 21
4.2.3. OWSC
Aquamarine Power Oyster
Oyster, developed by Aquamarine Power, is a near-shore hydroelectric wave energy converter. The
main structure of the device is a buoyant, bottom-hinged flap. As waves approach the shore, a
reduction in water depth and drag from the sea bed results in an ellipsoidal wave particle motion.
Oyster uses this motion to oscillate the buoyant hinged flap backwards and forwards with the wave
surges. The oscillation is used to pump fresh water through a high-pressure pipeline to an onshore
hydroelectric power plant. Double acting hydraulic cylinders allow both the forward and backward
motion to pump. The pressurised water drives a Pelton wheel turbine connected to an electrical
generator, located on the shore. Multiple Oyster devices can be connected to a pipe manifold to
allow the operation of a farm of devices requiring only a single onshore hydroelectric system.
Aquamarine Power Oyster (Source: http://www.aquamarinepower.com)
The current design water depth for Oyster is 10 to 15m, approximately 500m from the shore. A
315kW Oyster 1 proof-of-concept device operated at sea at the European Marine Energy Centre
(EMEC) in northern Scotland between 2009 and 2011. The second-generation 800kW Oyster 800
began operation testing at sea in June 2012 when it produced first electrical power to the grid.
Planned installation of a third-generation Oyster 801 machine is scheduled 2013. The first and
second generation Oyster devices were constructed from steel. The next-generation Oyster 801 is to
be constructed from fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP).
Mooring Type Bottom fixed, pin pile
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
2
Devices
Target Market Near Shore
Hydraulic, high pressure water pumped from device to
PTO
a shore based Pelton turbine.
Electrical PTO components and hydroelectric turbine
located onshore. Calm weather window required for
any offshore maintenance work.
Projects to Date EMEC, UK 1 x 315kW, 1 x 800kW
Page 22
AW Energy WaveRoller
WaveRoller is a hinged flap, bottom mounted device consisting of three oscillating plates on a single
gravity base foundation. The back and forth movement of surging waves moves the plate, and the
kinetic energy that is produced can be converted to hydraulic pressure of a working fluid, using a
piston pump. This energy can be converted to electricity by a closed hydraulic system in combination
with a hydraulic motor/generator system.
WaveRoller is a modular concept, which means that the plant capacity is formed by connecting
multiple production modules into a WaveRoller plant. Each production module can consist of 3-5
wave flap elements installed into a common generation system.
Waveroller (Source: http://aw-energy.com)
Country of Origin Finland

Rated Power Output 300kW (500kW 1MW per panel)
Mooring Type Bottom fixed, gravity mass, ballast water
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Hydraulic, high pressure fluid pumped
PTO
through accumulators and hydraulic motor.
Return to base. Device will use pressurised
air to remove ballast water, the device will
then float to the surface and be towed to
shore for maintenance
Projects to Date Peniche, Portugal 1 x 300kW
Page 23
Langlee Wave Power
Langlee Wave Power, a Norwegian wave energy company, is developing a floating steel structure
containing hinged wings that move backwards and forwards, synchronising their movement with
the passing wave motion. The movement of the wings drives a hydraulic system to power electric
generators. The wings are able to freely rotate through 360, and so there is no end stop that could
cause damage to the structure or water wings.
Langlee Wave Power (Source: http://www.langleewavepower.com/)
At present, both the 50kW and 250kW prototypes are in the development phase, but it is hoped that
the Langlee device will be ready for deployment in 2013.
Country of Origin Norway

Rated Power Output (50kW), (250 kW)
Mooring Type Slack Moored
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
0
Devices
Target Market Intermediate and deep offshore
PTO Hydraulic
Deployment Vessel Tug boat, Anchor handling vessel
On site maintenance every 5 years:
Service of generator, anode
Maintenance Strategy replacement, mooring inspection,
fatigue inspection
Major Maintenance: Return to base
Projects to Date N/A
Page 24
4.2.4. OWC
Voith Hydro Wavegen
Voith Wavegen has successfully completed two OWC projects, the LIMPET device, and an OWC
contained within a breakwater in Mutriku, Spain.
LIMPET (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer) is a shoreline based Oscillating Water
Column energy converter located on the island of Islay, on the west coast of Scotland. The rise and
fall of water height within the water column causes air to flow in and out of the structure through a
turbine. Installed in 2000, the device has a peak power output of 500kW and is grid connected. A
breakwater was constructed in the town Mutriku, Basque country, Northern Spain, which
incorporated a 300kW power generation system. This system comprises of 16 individual OWC wave
energy units, contained within a 100m section of the breakwater. Whilst the breakwater was
deemed necessary for additional protection to both fishing and recreational boats, incorporating a
wave energy generation plant into the breakwater maximised the utility of the project.
Voith Wavegen (Source: www.wavegen.co.uk)
Country of Origin UK, Germany

Rated Power Output 300kW, 500kW
Water Depth Min/Max 15m nominal mean
Mooring Type Shore based structure
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
2
Devices
Pneumatic, Wells turbine and induction
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel N/A
Due to the location of the device, all
Maintenance Strategy maintenance and major repair works can be
carried out on shore
Projects to Date Islay, UK; Mutriku, Basque Country, Spain
Page 25
WavEC Pico Plant
The WavEC Pico Demonstrator is also a shoreline oscillating water column structure, equipped with
a horizontal-axis Wells turbine-generator set and a guide vane stator installed on each side of the
rotor. To avoid over pressure within the air chamber, a pressure relief valve controls the pressure,
ensuring that the turbine does not stall. This system has been operated and maintained by WavEC.
WavEC Pico Plant (Source: http://www.wavec.org/en)
The Pico North coast was chosen as the location of the WavEC OWC device, due to the high energy
levels and suitable geographic conditions for this type of device. Suitable water depths in front of the
WEC, in addition to ease of access from local roads and a suitable grid connecting point, were
present at the chosen location. The goal of the project was to demonstrate the viability of OWC
technology for production of electricity to a small grid.
Since 2006, WavEC has been responsible for the maintenance and operation of the plant. Significant
improvements such as a reduction in turbine-generator vibrations have been achieved since 2009,
helping the plant to achieve better levels of efficiency. After further upgrades, the Pico plant is now
ready to accommodate two turbine ducts of equal size (suitable for testing equipment between
100KW and 700kW). Between 2007 and 2012, the Pico plant produced over 51MWh of electricity
during 2730 hours of operation.
Country of Origin Spain

Water Depth Min/Max Unknown
Mooring Type Shore based structure
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel N/A
Due to the location of the device, all
Maintenance Strategy maintenance and major repair works can
be carried out on shore
Projects to Date Pico, Azores
Page 26
Ocean Energy Limited
Within the OWC family, an Irish developer is currently undergoing testing of a floating platform
OWC. The OEBuoy device uses wave energy to compress air in a plenum chamber and pump it
through an air turbine. The power conversion system is therefore isolated from the seawater. The
device is a floating system with the opening of the OWC facing away from the oncoming wave
direction.
The OE Buoy has undergone three full phases of scaled testing, from 1:50 scale to 1:4 scale. Initial
testing of the OE Buoy concept was carried out at the Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre
(HMRC) in University College Cork, Ireland. The three-quarter scale OEBuoy is deployed at the scale
test site in Spiddle, near Galway, Ireland, for data collection purposes as part of the EU funded
CORES project. OE Buoy has only one moving part and has completed over 3 years of testing in
Atlantic waves. A full scale OE Buoy is planned for deployment at the Wave Hub test facility in
Cornwall, UK.
Ocean Energy Limited (Source: http://www.oceanenergy.ie)
Country of Origin Ireland

Rated Power Output Unknown
Mooring type Slack moored
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Target Market Deep Offshore
PTO
generator
Minor maintenance: on site
Projects to Date Spiddle, Galway, Ireland
Page 27
4.2.5. Overtopping
Wave Dragon
Wave Dragon is an overtopping type floating wave energy converter. The structure comprises of a
reservoir, which stores water at a height above the sea level. Two reflector arms focus oncoming
waves onto a ramp, which directs some of the water from the oncoming waves up into the reservoir.
Water in the reservoir is used to drive a hydro electric turbine, making use of the pressure head
between the water in the reservoir and the surrounding sea.
Wave Dragon (Source: http://www.wavedragon.net)
Wave Dragon deployed a 58 m wide prototype in 2003 off the coast of Denmark at Nissum Bredning.
A modified prototype was deployed in 2006 in a more energetic wave climate. In total, Wave Dragon
accumulated over 20,000 hours of operational experience between 2003 and 2009, with grid
connection allowing generated electricity to be supplied to domestic homes. There are plans for a
full scale demonstration device to be deployed off the coast of Wales, and a wave farm off the coast
of Portugal is also in the development pipeline.
Country of Origin Denmark

Rated Power Output 20kW, (4MW)
Water Depth Min/Max 25m / unknown
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Direct drive permanent
PTO
magnet generator
Maintenance and major
Maintenance Strategy repair works can be carried
out at site
Projects to Date Nissum Bredning, Denmark
Page 28
4.2.6. Pressure Differential
AWS Ocean Energy
AWS Ocean Energy is developing a multi-cell array of flexible membrane absorbers, which operate
by converting the pressure differential from passing waves into pneumatic power, the AWS-III. By
compressing air within a cell, the compressed air can be used to drive an air turbine. The cells are
inter-connected in order to allow air to flow between cells in anti-phase.
A typical device will be made up of 12 cells, with the full scale device anticipated to be more than
60m in diameter. The AWS-III will be slack moored in water depths of around 100m using standard
mooring spreads.
The AWS-III is designed for ease of operation and maintenance. The large structure provides an
inherently stable platform allowing safe on-site maintenance. The modular design allows rapid
removal and replacement of the flexible wave absorber cells.
AWS Ocean Energy (Source: http://www.awsocean.com)
Rated Power Output (2.5MW)
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Pneumatic, Wells turbine and
PTO
induction generator
Maintenance and major
Maintenance Strategy repair works can be carried
out at site
Projects to Date Loch Ness, Scotland
Page 29
4.2.7. Rotating Mass
Wello Oy Penguin
Wello Oy is a Finnish company Founded in 2007. The Penguin WEC is designed to capture rotational
energy generated by the movement of its asymmetrically shaped hull, which rolls, heaves and
pitches with each passing wave. This motion is used to accelerate and maintain the revolutions of a
spinning eccentric mass housed inside the hull, which in turn drives an electric generator to produce
electricity that can be exported via a sub sea cable.
Fabricated in Riga, Latvia, the Penguin device is a 220-tonne structure (excluding ballast) that is
around 30 meters in length, and has a draft of seven metres. The device has been undergoing testing
at Lyness since arriving in Orkney in June 2011 and was first deployed at the Billia Croo wave test site
in summer 2012.
Wello Oy Penguin (Source: http://www.wello.eu)
Country of Origin Finland

TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Target Market Deep Offshore
Eccentric rotating mass connected to a direct
PTO
drive permanent magnet generator
Minor maintenance: On site
Projects to Date EMEC, UK
Page 30
4.3. Evolution of Devices (Wave)
Device evolution is a necessary part of the cost reduction process in order to bring the total levelised
cost of energy to a level which competes with other, more mature, sources of renewable energy
such as wind; typical first generation technology will require substantial reductions in cost in order
to attain a level of cost-competitiveness. More radical changes to the principles of operation of a
device may result in step change performance or cost of energy improvements, and this will be
discussed in greater detain within Section 4.4.
Progression can be made through successive iterations to the design to create performance
improvements: This may be to increase the maximum power output of each device, to improve the
capacity factor, or to increase the range of operating conditions in which the device can produce grid
compliant electricity. The evolution could involve a radical overhaul of the design of a major
component, such as the mooring system. Alternatively, the evolution may take place in the form of a
component change or upgrade; a sub-system change, but the overall design of the device would not
be fundamentally altered.
Three examples will be considered here: Evolution through use of advanced materials; design
modification; and cost-reduction in installation techniques.
4.3.1. Use of Advanced Materials

The majority of ocean energy converters are fabricated from steel, a metal that offers good (and
well understood) fatigue and stress limits. Some device developers are investigating the use of Steel
Reinforced Concrete, or Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for certain components. FRP offers some
cost and weight saving advantages over steel, but the fatigue and stress limits are not yet well
understood in comparison to steel. This material has been proven in the marine environment, albeit
in a very different application to ocean renewable energy, and is used extensively in other
applications such as civil infrastructure and boat design. Aquamarine Power plans to use FRP in their
next generation Oyster flap device, and Pelamis are considering the use of concrete tubes in their
next prototype. Other wave devices are being designed to use rubber or other flexible materials as
the main structural component.
4.3.2. Design Modifications

Pelamis Wave Power (see Section 4.2.1) made structural design changes to their 750kW P1 device,
which was deployed initially at EMEC in 2006 and then the Aguadoura wave power project in
Portugal. The Power Conversion Modules (PCM) in the original device, housing the hydraulic PTO
components, were located as separate segments contained between the longer steel tubular
segments. Single axis hinge joints at each end of the PCM facilitated heave or sway motion. In the
next generation P2 device, the PCM was incorporated into the main tubular steel segment, and a
universal joint allowing heave, sway and rotational movement connected neighbouring steel
segments. This revised set up allows a more efficient power take off and greater device flexibility.
Pelamis Wave Power P1 (left) and P2 (right) Devices (Source: www.pelamiswave.com)
Page 31
The design of improved control systems could also increase the level of energy extraction achieved
for certain devices, without the need for new hardware. This will be discussed in further detail
within Section 7.
Device developers continue to research routes for design optimisation, and progression on to
further generations of device are likely to see additional reductions in the levelised cost of energy.
By modifying the structural material from steel to concrete, Pelamis hope to achieve some further
cost improvements without affecting the performance of the device. It is likely that there will be a
phased transition in to the use of concrete within future devices, until the material has proven its
capability through long term operation and reliability.
4.3.3. Cost-Reduction in installation

Sea bed preparation techniques are sometimes necessary for certain device foundations; it is
sometimes necessary to use sea bed piling methods to secure devices against unwanted movement.
In the OWSC design, Aquamarine Power designed a hinged flap that oscillates with the wave motion,
called Oyster (see Section 4.2.3). In the first deployment of the technology, foundation requirements
resulted in the need for four drilled piles. Any sea bed operations such as piling require expensive
vessel operations. In order to reduce the costs of successive designs, the second iteration of the
Aquamarine Power Oyster was designed for installation using only two piles. Further iterations of
the device may enable installation costs to reduce further still by designing for a single monopole per
device. Further cost reductions could be made, as drilling operations for multiple devices could take
place in one vessel mobilisation, mitigating the need for multiple vessel mobilisations and expensive
cost overruns.
First, Second and conceptual Third Generation Aquamarine Power Oyster WEC (Source:
http://www.aquamarinepower.com,ETP [13])
However it is achieved, device evolution is fundamental to the commercialisation of wave energy

technology; without device evolution and subsequent cost reductions, the market for wave energy
will not develop. The three examples outlined above only represent some of the methods that have
been adopted within the industry, but represent the challenges that the sector as a whole faces in
the drive to reach cost-competitiveness with more mature forms of renewable energy.
4.4. Radical New Concepts (Wave)

There are some innovative new concepts emerging in the wave energy sector. The idea of a radical
concept may challenge the fundamental principles of operation of a wave energy converter, or it
may look at revolutionary materials that have not yet been used within the sector. A radical concept
must open up potential routes to significant step change cost reduction. By their very nature, radical
concepts are not necessarily proven technologies, and they must be distinguished from fully fledged,
working, demonstration prototypes.
Page 32
One such radical concept in the wave energy sector is the Anaconda, a device being developed by
Checkmate Seaenergy. Anaconda uses bulge wave technology, a concept that does not fall under
any of the previous wave energy device types discussed. The device is essentially a large rubber tube
filled with water, moored to the sea bed. Anaconda will float just below the surface of the water,
and will align itself to face the incident wave direction. As a wave passes the device, the rubber tube
will lift and become squeezed by the surrounding wave, and a bulge of water will form within the
rubber tube. This bulge will travel the length of the device, gathering energy from the wave as it
progresses through the tube. Resonance can be achieved by ensuring that the speed of the bulge
wave is identical to the speed of the forcing ocean wave, this ensures that high power capture is
achieved. The bulge wave will drive a generator located at the stern of the device. Anaconda has
been through a rigorous testing procedure at scale, providing proof of concept, at QinetiQs Haslar
Marine Technology Park at Gosport, Hampshire. The next phase of development will require
significant funding investment in order to produce a full scale prototype. A full scale Anaconda is
anticipated to be around 200m long, with a diameter of 5.5mand power output of 1MW.
Conceptual Seaenergy Anaconda WEC (Source: http://www.checkmateseaenergy.com)
Another new concept under development is the AlbaTERN Squid, a device that has been
underpinned by extensive laboratory testing at scale level. A central buoyant absorber is filled with
water so that it sits just below the surface. The absorber is moved by the passing waves, and the
relative motion between the absorber and the link arms is used to pump hydraulic fluid through a
generator, producing electricity. Progression of the concept has taken it into a scale deployment at
sea, at one of the nursery berths at the EMEC test facility in Orkney, UK. This device is rated at
7.5kW, with an opportunity for modular deployment in what the developers call a WaveNET array,
which will consist of several Squid devices moored to a common platform.
AlbaTERN Squid WEC (Source: http://www.orkneymarinerenewables.com, http://albatern.co.uk)
The current project has paved the way for a larger, more powerful, version of the Squid device, rated
at 75kW, to enter the development process. Development of this device will take place in 2013.
Inevitably radical new concepts will require refining, a development process likely to take a number
of years. Recent advances in computational modelling have also accelerated the rate at which
designs can be tested in a wide range of simulated conditions. Innovative technology could be game-
changing in the challenge to achieve a cost effective ocean energy converter, however this is not a
near term solution, and much work is required to progress the design from concept to commercial
operation.
Page 33
5. Tidal Energy Converters
This section gives an overview of the current status of Tidal Energy Converters. It also introduces the
different prime-mover concepts that are being developed for extracting useful energy from ocean
tidal currents.
As with the wave energy sector, the tidal energy sector is reaching a significant milestone in the
development of the industry; tidal technologies are taking a step towards commercial viability, with
the more advanced device developers now progressing beyond single unit demonstration devices
and proceeding to array development and multi-megawatt projects. The backing of major OEMs will
enhance the ability of technology developers to continue to optimise the development process,
potentially unlocking further investment from utilities as array scale projects enter the planning
phase.
There are three principal hydraulic mechanisms by which tidal currents operate: Tidal streaming,
hydraulic current and resonant basins. Tidal streaming occurs as a result of the need for continuity
within a fluid flow: As water flows through a constriction, the flow is accelerated. Hydraulic currents
occur when two large bodies of water are connected, but are out of phase or have non-concurrent
tidal ranges; the difference in water level in each body of water creates a pressure head, and the
flow of water from one body of water into the other results. The third mechanism, a resonant basin,
occurs when constructive interference between an incoming tidal wave and a reflected tidal wave
generates a standing wave.
The energy within a tidal stream is proportional to the cube of the velocity. The desire for
developers is therefore to harness energy from sites where the velocity is large enough to make
deployments economical. Although a one-seventh power law is often used to approximate the
velocity profile within a tidal flow, this is not always an accurate representation of the true flow at all
points during the tidal cycle. The velocity flow profile is dependant on local site conditions such as
seabed roughness, bathymetry and surrounding land mass topography.
Tidal energy offers some advantages over other renewable resources such as wind and wave. The
fluid medium, sea water, is over 800 times denser than air, so tidal power offers a greater energy
density than wind for a given turbine rotor swept area. As the movement of tides result from
gravitational forcing, the tides flow with a predictable intermittency. That is the variability is
deterministic (and not stochastic like wave or wind), so this eases the integration of tidal energy into
existing electricity networks. Providing a sufficiently long data set exists (35 days is the
recommended duration), predictability of the tides is possible through a process known as harmonic
analysis, hence tidal velocities can be predicted to a good accuracy indefinitely, both future and
retrospectively.
The operating principle behind tidal energy converters is that the energy contained within the
moving current is harnessed by a device that extracts kinetic energy from the flow and imparts this
into a mechanical motion of a rotor or foil. The device then converts the mechanical motion of the
structure into electrical energy by means of a power take-off system. Before connection to the
electricity grid, the electrical power output from the device will need to be conditioned in order to
make it compliant with grid code regulations. In essence, tidal device operation is synonymous to
that of a wind turbine, albeit operating within a different fluid medium. The following section will
discuss in more detail each of the types of tidal energy converter, and their principles of operation.
Page 34
5.1. Types of TEC
In a similar manner to wave energy devices, several classifications have been created that define the
variety of tidal energy converters by type, covering primarily the technical concepts behind the
device operation. Tidal energy converters can also be designed for operation in specific water depth
conditions: deep water, intermediate water or shallow water.
Various international examples of technology that has been designed to extract energy from the
tides will be discussed in following sections of this report, but first, the classification of devices must
be defined. For the purpose of this report, classification will follow that used by EMEC, in which the
following notation is used:
Table 4: TEC Types
Device Type Classification (Tidal)
Horizontal Axis Turbine A
Vertical Axis Turbine B
Oscillating Hydrofoil C
Enclosed Tips (Ducted) D
Helical Screw E
Tidal Kite F
Other G
Although, strictly speaking, most enclosed tips (ducted) turbines fall under the same horizontal axis
design principle, the addition of a duct can have both positive and negative impacts when compared
to an un-ducted device. A duct can accelerate the flow into the rotor, and could also align flow whilst
reducing the turbulence of the flow within the duct. This is more favourable in terms of reducing
fatigue on the rotor. Where ebb and flood tides are not perfectly bi-directional, a ducted turbine
could be an advantage. By placing a duct around a rotor, a structure is put in place that will make it
more difficult for marine mammals to evade the rotating components of the turbine. Some turbine
designers have tried to address this by creating an opening at the centre of the turbine through
which marine life can pass safely through. One significant disadvantage of a ducted structure is the
additional drag penalty that will be faced. This drag penalty will extract energy from the flow that
will not be recoverable down stream. Device developers need to be aware of minimising the energy
dissipation through interaction with the foundation structure of the device.
5.1.1. Horizontal Axis Turbine (A)

Description: Horizontal axis turbines utilise lift generated by blades
to turn a rotor. Energy is extracted from the tidal flow and causes the
rotation of a turbine mounted on a horizontal axis. The rotation is
converted to electrical energy through use of a generator. Image
Source: http://www.aquaret.com
5.1.2. Vertical Axis Turbine (B)

Description: Vertical axis turbines, similar to the above, utilise lift
generated by blades to turn a rotor. Energy is extracted from the tidal
flow and causes the rotation of a turbine mounted on a vertical axis. The
rotation is converted to electrical energy through use of a generator.
Page 35
5.1.3. Oscillating Hydrofoil (C)
Description: The oscillating hydrofoil device consists of a hydrofoil
located at the end of a swing arm. Control systems alter the pitch of the
foil to create either lift or downforce, moving the foil in an oscillatory
motion. This motion can be used to pump hydraulic fluid through a
motor. The rotational motion that results can be converted to electricity
though a generator. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
5.1.4. Enclosed Tips (Ducted) (D)

Description: Enclosed Tips (Ducted) devices are essentially contained
within a shrouded structure. The duct may be used to accelerate and
concentrate the fluid flow, allowing the use of smaller rotor diameters.
Other ducted structures could help to minimise turbulence and align the
flow of water into the turbine. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
5.1.5. Helical Screw (E)

Helical screw type turbines are a variation on vertical axis turbines that
draw power from the tidal stream as the water flows up through the
helix. Image Source: http://www.aquaret.com
5.1.6. Tidal Kite (F)

Tidal kite designs, in which a tethered kite flies a small turbine through
the flow, effectively increase the relative velocity entering the turbine.
These dynamic devices could generate electricity from significantly
lower-velocity currents, or use much less material than static TECs.
5.1.7. Other (G)

Description: There may be other novel tidal turbine concepts in the development process, which
utilise different means of extracting energy from the flow of fluid, and do not fit into any of the
categories defined above. These can be classified in the other category.
5.2. Further Permutations

In addition to the different turbine designs, there are several mooring options that can be
considered for fixing a tidal turbine to the sea floor.
Monopile: A single tubular steel tower can be drilled and grouted into a deep socket in the sea bed.
Surface piercing foundation types of this design are generally limited to approximately 30m water
depth. Monopile foundations could be used for fully submerged devices as an alternative to gravity
or pinned foundations.
Page 36
Pinned: Foundation structures can be pinned by drilling and grouting small sockets in the sea bed.
These anchor points may utilise pins of several metres in length, but will generally be shorter than
the drill depth required for monopole foundations. These foundations are suitable for turbines
mounted close to the bottom of the water column.
Gravity Base: This foundation type will hold a tidal energy converter to the sea bed by means of a
substantial mass, with the gravitational forces keeping the device fixed in place. These foundations
are suitable for turbines mounted close to the bottom of the water column.
Floating: Buoyant turbine devices can be moored to the sea bed using either flexible or rigid
moorings. There may also be an option of mounting multiple devices on one floating platform.
Designs of this type can access the faster flowing currents located higher within the water column,
but it is possible that there may be some increased cyclic loading and fatigue stress caused by
complex interactions due to the circular wave particle motion discussed in Section 4 and Figure 5.
Figure 6: Tidal energy converter foundation types
Many of the tidal energy converter concepts at the forefront of the industry have adopted a
horizontal axis device. While this concept has received the greatest attention, there is little
convergence in the design of foundation and support structures. While horizontal axis devices are
more common, the vertical axis and oscillating hydrofoil designs intersect a larger area for a given
rotor diameter than horizontal axis designs. The swept area for given device designs are indicated in
Figure 7.
The tidal energy resource is very site specific. Much of the existing identified resource lies in close
proximity to a significant land mass, although there are limited grid connection opportunities at
present, and grid reinforcement will be necessary to take advantage of the available resource. A
significant challenge for the tidal energy industry is demonstrating the survivability of a device. The
marine environment is far harsher than that of other onshore renewables, with extremely high
loading due to the density of water. Although certain aspects of device loading can be predicted, the
effect of turbulence on devices is still an area of research. In order to survive the extreme load
scenarios that could occur during storm conditions, the device must be carefully engineered to
protect it from damage.
Page 37
Figure 7: Tidal energy converter swept area
Yaw: Horizontal axis tidal devices may contain systems that

allow orientation of the device to face the oncoming tidal
flow. This is known as yaw. Devices with yaw capabilities
may have an active yaw system, in which motors turn the
device (about the vertical yaw axis) to face the oncoming
tidal flow. Generally, yaw movements will be carried out at
slack tides, where the forces on the turbine are at the lowest
value. A device with passive yawing makes use of
hydrodynamic forces to align the device with the flow.
Pitch: In order regulate the loading faced by the rotor, and

to optimise the efficiency of the rotor over a wide range of
flow speeds, certain rotor designs incorporate pitching
blades. Pitch systems allow control of the angle of attack of
the blades, giving greater control over the rotor loading.
Certain devices have blades that can pitch 180 to allow for
the changing direction of the tide therefore allowing the
blade to face both ebb and flood tidal flow directions. This
Figure 8: Yaw and Pitch 180 pitch mechanism is generally found on devices without
the ability to yaw.
Yaw and blade pitch mechanisms add mechanical complexity to system design. Additional
components increase the chance of failure, so removal of yaw or blade pitch system could increase
system reliability. Devices without pitching blades will require a means of carrying out an emergency
stop of the device to protect the components from damage, for situations such as loss of grid
connection. The force on a fixed pitch blade in an emergency situation will require substantial
braking power in order to prevent movement of the rotor. There are both positives and negatives
for the implementation of a pitch or yaw system, and these need to be considered carefully in
system design to ensure that the added cost and complexity if offset by increased yield.
While the sector is still demonstrating operational performance and maintainability at an individual
device level, the next stage of the development process will involve deployment of arrays of multiple
devices.
Page 38
5.3. International Examples (Tidal)
The tidal energy sector has several front-running devices. A number of device developers have
deployed single unit demonstration devices, and substantial operational experience has been
gained, the industry is yet to progress beyond deployment of single devices. Array projects are well
into the planning phase and in March 2011 the Scottish Government gave planning consent for a
10MW tidal array in the Sound of Islay, Scotland. If funding negotiations are successful, construction
is planned to take place between 2013 and 2015, and the project will be the first of its kind within
Europe. As with the wave energy sector, the backing of major utility companies is now manifesting
itself through partnerships within the development process, unlocking further investment and in
some cases international co-operation. Significant investment from OEMs has also allowed the tidal
industry to take a step towards commerciality. Several tidal device developers have received the
backing of an industrial partner such as a major OEM. With the OEM experience in other sectors
such as wind power or hydro power, there is the potential for good knowledge transfer and
accelerated development of technology. This section aims to present a review of the status of the
tidal energy sector, identifying and highlighting front-running technology, whilst providing an
overview of relevant technological developments that are adding to the knowledge and experience
of the industry.
A list of tidal energy technologies and device developers, together with information on device type
and technology readiness levels, can be found on the United States Department of Energy Marine
Hydrokinetic Database [11]. This reference database is fully searchable, and there are advanced
search options available for convenient site navigation. Information on devices and developers is
also contained on the EMEC website [10]. In order to avoid repetition of work that has been carried
out elsewhere, this document will identify the most advanced technology developer(s) in each tidal
energy converter type, together with detailing the technology readiness level and the level of testing
that has been carried out by the device developers.
At present, most tidal energy converters are in the R&D phase of technology development, however
a small number of devices have reached an extensive level of at sea testing using a full scale
demonstration device. This document includes a representative list of technologies in each TEC type.
However, the list is not exhaustive, as other potential technologies have not being included due to
the limitation of the report length. A summary of device developers within each of the technology
types is shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5: A Selection of TEC Device Developers

Device Type Device Developers at Various Stages of Development
Horizontal Axis Siemens MCT, Andritz Hydro Hammerfest, TGL, Atlantis, Voith Hydro,
Verdant Power, Scotrenewables, Tocardo, Straum Hydra Tidal, Oceanflow
Energy
Vertical Axis Neptune Renewable Energy, Ponte de Archimede
Oscillating Hydrofoil Pulse Tidal
Enclosed Tips OpenHydro, Clean Current
(Ducted)
Helical Screw Flumill
Tidal Kite Minesto
The tidal energy sector has experienced far greater design convergence than the wave energy
sector. Many of the tidal energy converter concepts at the forefront of the industry have adopted a
horizontal axis turbine. There are a significant number of design permutations within the horizontal
axis design type, but there are a number of designs that deviate from the conventional approach.
These will be discussed further within this section. The tidal energy sector contains a number of
Page 39
devices that are at different levels of technology readiness. Advanced concepts have significant at
sea testing, and this has been made clear throughout the section. In the individual device
information, in the instance that a device is in the pre-deployment stages of development, the rated
power output is indicated in parenthesis.
Page 40
5.3.1. Horizontal Axis
Siemens Marine Current Turbines
SeaGen is a horizontal axis tidal turbine. The rotor of each SeaGen turbine is connected to a
generator through a gearbox, stepping up the speed of rotation, much in the same way as a
conventional wind turbine. The blades on each rotor are pitch controlled and can be pitched through
180 when the direction of the tide reverses. There is no yaw mechanism on the SeaGen device.
SeaGen in raised position (Source:

http://www.siemens.co.uk/en/news_press/index/news_archive/seagen-tidal-currant-turbine-
milestone-hat-trick.htm)
The existing SeaGen device is a twin rotor tidal turbine, located in Strangford Lough, Northern
Ireland. Installed in 2008, the device exceeded 5GWh of electricity production during 2012. Future
SeaGen S devices will have an increased rotor diameter of 20m, and a power output of 1MW per
rotor, increasing the rated power of each SeaGen S device to 2MW. A mechanical lifting mechanism
makes it possible for turbines to be raised above the water allowing on-site maintenance: The main
spar, upon which the twin rotors are connected, can be hoisted up the tubular steel foundation
structure, allowing access to the mechanical components of the turbine. The same on-site access
and maintenance design principle will be applied to future device designs.
Rated Power Output 1.2MW (2MW)
Water Depth
20m / 30m
Min/Max
Cut in Velocity (m/s) 0.8
Rated Velocity (m/s) 2.4
TRL 8
Number of Deployed
2
Devices
Foundation Type Monopile or pinned quadropod
Mechanical, gearbox connected to
PTO
generator
Heavy lift vessel with Dynamic
Deployment Vessel Positioning capability, or heavy lift
barge
Maintenance On site, turbines raised above water
Strategy level
Lynmouth, Devon, UK 1 x 300kW;
Projects to Date Strangford Lough, UK twin 600kW
rotors
Page 41
Andritz Hydro Hammerfest
Andritz Hydro Hammerfest develops the HS1000 device - a three-bladed rotor which is coupled to a
generator through a gearbox. The blades are capable of pitching and at slack tide; the blades can be
pitched through 180. There is no yaw mechanism in place on the HS1000 device.
Andritz Hydro Hammerfest HS1000 (Source: http://www.hammerfeststrom.com)
The company deployed its first prototype tidal stream turbine in Kvalsund, Northern Norway, in
2003. The 300kW HS300 device became the first grid connected turbine to successfully export
electricity in 2004. Although designed for a three year test period, the HS300 device was retrieved
for inspection after four years of testing. After inspection and maintenance, the turbine was re-
deployed in 2009 for a period of further testing. Andritz Hydro Hammerfest report that the HS300
had an availability of 98% during the testing phase, during which over 1.5GWh of electricity was
exported to the grid.
The HS300 device provided a base for the up-scaled HS1000 1MW device, which is now undergoing
extensive testing at EMEC in Orkney, UK. Andritz Hydro successfully completed an installation in
some of the most hostile waters in the UK, during the winter climate.
Country of Origin Norway / UK

Rated Power Output 1MW
Water Depth
40m / 100m
Min/Max
TRL 8
Number of Deployed
2
Devices
Foundation Type Gravity base
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel
Positioning capability
Maintenance
Retrieval of nacelle, return to base
Strategy
Kvalsund, Norway 1 x 300kW;
Projects to Date
EMEC, UK 1 x 1MW
Page 42
Tidal Generation Limited
The TGL Deep Gen device has full yaw capability, in addition to pitching blades. During slack tides,
the nacelle can be orientated to face the oncoming tidal flow. TGL installed a 500kW prototype at
EMEC in the UK during 2010. This device, together with a 1MW unit currently under development,
has been part of an Energy Technologies Institute (ETI) funded project called PerAWaT.
TGL nacelle (Source: http://www.tidalgeneration.co.uk)
The existing 500kW device has an 18m rotor diameter. The nacelle is buoyant, and can be towed to
the installation site using a tug boat. The nacelle is then winched into place on top of a pre-installed
foundation. With the buoyant nacelle design, installation and retrieval can take place in under 20
minutes.
In September 2012, Alstom signed an agreement with Rolls-Royce to acquire Tidal Generation
Limited (TGL)
Water Depth
35m / 80m
Min/Max
Cut in Velocity (m/s) 1
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Pinned tripod
PTO
generator
Positioning capability for foundation.
Deployment Vessel
Nacelle is buoyant and can be towed
to location using a tug boat
Maintenance
Strategy
Projects to Date EMEC, UK 1 x 500kW
Page 43
Atlantis Resources Corporation
Atlantis Resources Corporation have designed and developed three families of tidal turbine, the AN
series, the AS series, and the AR series. The largest of these, the Atlantis AR series, is a fixed pitch
1MW device. The turbine has the ability to yaw and at slack tide the device will be orientated to face
the oncoming tidal flow.
Atlantis has deployed and retrieved the 18m rotor diameter AR1000 device, and it is currently
undertaking further development and testing in a controlled environment at the NaREC test facility
in UK. Atlantis is working in partnership with global aerospace, defence, and emerging technology
company Lockheed Martin to develop future iterations of the device.
Atlantis Resources Corporation AR1000 (Source: http://www.atlantisresourcescorporation.com)
Country of Origin Australia

Rated Power Output 100kW, 500kW, 1MW
Water Depth
Unknown
Min/Max
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel
Maintenance
Strategy
San Remo, Australia 1 x 5kW;
Projects to Date San Remo, Australia 1 x 150kW;
EMEC, UK 1 x 1MW
Page 44
Voith Hydro
Voith Hydro is developing a fixed pitch, horizontal axis turbine, designed to be mounted on the sea
bed. The rotor consists of three symmetrical blades, which can capture energy from the ebb or flood
movements of the tide without the device requiring pitch, or yaw, mechanisms. The rotor is coupled
to a direct drive permanent magnet generator, and the rotor shaft bearings are lubricated by sea
water.
Voith hydro installed a 110kW 1:3 scale prototype device known as HyTide in Jindo, South Korea, in
early 2012. The operation of this device will feed into preparation for a full-scale 1MW prototype.
Voith Hydro commissioned Bauer Renewables to install a grouted pile foundation in preparation for
deployment of the full-scale device. This work was carried out using a novel sea bed drilling
technique developed by Bauer; a sea bed mounted drill carried out operations without the need for
a jack up barge. A template with an automatic levelling system allows the accurate location of the
drill, which can be remote controlled from a launch vessel.
Voith Hydro HyTide (Source: http://voith.com/en/products-services/hydro-power/ocean-

energies-587.html)
Country of Origin Germany

Cut in Velocity (m/s) unknown
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Gravity base or monopile
Foundation Type
foundation
Permanent magnet direct drive
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel
Maintenance Strategy Retrieval of nacelle, return to base
Projects to Date Jindo, South Korea 1 x 110kW
Page 45
Scotrenewables
The Scotrenewables tidal turbine is a second generation floating tidal turbine, consisting of a
cylindrical tube to which two horizontal axis rotors are connected. The rotor blades are fixed pitch,
but the entire rotor mechanism can be raised in a survival mode during storm sea states, or for
transportation.
Scotrenewables have deployed a 250kW scale prototype at EMEC, UK. Upon successful
demonstration of the device, a 2MW full-scale demonstration device with a 16m rotor diameter will
be constructed for testing at EMEC. This device will be four times the mass of the existing 250kW
prototype, but will generate eight times the power. The Scotrenewables turbine is designed for
transportation, installation and maintenance using only a multi-cat work boat. This keeps installation
costs significantly lower than would be incurred if a heavy lift vessel was required.
Scotrenewables SRTT250 (Source: http://www.scotrenewables.com)
Water Depth Min/Max 25m / 120m +
Cut in Velocity (m/s) unknown
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Floating moored structure
Gearbox and variable speed
PTO
induction generator
Multi purpose workboat (multi-
Deployment Vessel
cat)
Projects to Date EMEC, UK 1 x 250kW
Page 46
Tocardo
Tocardo are a tidal stream device developer based in the Netherlands. Their turbine contains a
direct-drive generator that eliminates the need for a mechanical gearbox. The device uses a twin
blade fixed pitch rotor with intelligent speed tuning (stall control).
The first 100kW turbine was installed in the Afsluitdijk, a large dam between Waddensea and the
Ijsselmeer during 2008. The device has operated successfully, exporting electricity to the grid since
installed. The technology has been proven at small scale, and is highly scaleable. 200kW units have
been tested and installed, and this is being followed by the development of large 500kW and 1MW
turbines. It is anticipated that these could be installed in the Pentland Firth. The 50kW and 150kW
variations are already commercially available, and are ready for implementation in run-of-river and
inshore applications.
Tocardo Conceptual 500kW Device (Source: http://www.tocardo.com)
Country of Origin Netherlands

Rated Power Output 100kW, 200kW, (500kW), (1MW)
Water Depth
5.5m / 25m
Min/Max
Cut in Velocity (m/s) 0.4 - 0.9 (variable design conditions)
Rated Velocity (m/s) 2 4 (variable design conditions)
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Multiple foundation options
Direct drive permanent magnet
PTO
generator
Deployment Vessel Dependant on foundation
To Date Retrieval of nacelle, return to base
Projects in
Den Oever, Netherlands 1 x 100kW
Operation
Page 47
Verdant Power
Verdant Powers Kinetic Hydropower System (KHPS) is a water-to-wire system that consists of a
three-bladed fixed pitch horizontal-axis turbine. The support structure of the turbine is
hydrodynamically designed to allow the turbine to self-rotate into the prevailing current
(weathervane) in order to face the oncoming flow of current.
The rotor rotates at approximately 40rpm, and the nacelle is sealed from the marine environment.
The development of the KHPS turbine has led to a proposed range of turbines from 5m rotor
diameter (56kW) to 10m rotor diameter (500kW).
Verdant Power (http://www.verdantpower.com)

Rated Power Output 50kW, (500kW)
Rated Velocity (m/s) Unknown
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
6
Devices
Planetary gearbox and
PTO
induction generator
Deployment Vessel Crane barge
Retrieval of nacelle, return to
base
Projects in Operation East River, New York City, USA
Page 48
Hydra Tidal Morlid II
Hydra Tidals Morild II tidal power plant technology is a floating tidal power plant. The technology
consists of a floating platform and two twin turbine units with blades fabricated from pine wood.
The Morlid II turbine can be anchored in different water depths, and the floating platform opens up
opportunities for deployment in deeper waters. The plant carries sea vessel verification, and it can
be towed between the docks and the deployment location. The floating structure allows
maintenance to be carried out on site. PTO is via hydraulic transmission to two synchronous
generators. The blades can be pitched 180 to operate efficiently in both ebb and flood tides.
Each turbine in the existing prototype has a rotor diameter of 23m, and the blades can pitch,
offering optimised performance in a range of current velocities. The prototype has an installed
capacity of 1.5 MW.
Hydra Tidal Morlid (Source: http://www.straumgroup.com/)

Rated Power Output 1.5MW
Cut in Velocity (m/s) Unknown
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Floating moored
Hydraulic motor and
PTO
synchronous generator
Maintenance carried out on
site when in surfaced position;
for major maintenance: return
to base
Gimsoy Stream, Lofoten,
Projects to Date
Norway
Page 49
5.3.2. Vertical Axis
Neptune Renewable Energy
Neptune Renewable Energy has developed the Proteus tidal stream power generator, a vertical axis
turbine designed to harness the kinetic energy found in estuarine tidal flows. The Proteus
demonstrator structure forms a venturi duct which accelerates the tidal flow onto a vertical axis,
cross-flow rotor. The upper end of the rotor is connected to a gearbox and DC generator. All power
conditioning equipment is located above the water line. Flow onto the rotor can be optimised by
using computer controlled shutters.
Each production Proteus turbine will have an installed capacity of 1.25MW, resulting in an annual
power output of up to 6 GWh/year at sites where the mean spring peak tidal stream currents reach
3 m/s. Neptune Renewable Energy have identified at least ten British estuaries where the spring
peak currents are suitable for Proteus device deployment.
Pilot testing has been carried out in the Humber estuary, UK, where the demonstrator device is
providing electricity for a visitor attraction and research centre in Hull called The Deep.
Neptune Renewable Energy Proteus (Source: http://www.neptunerenewableenergy.com)
Rated Power Output 250kW (1.25MW)
Water Depth Min/Max 6/ 8 (designed for estuarine use)
Rated Velocity (m/s) 3
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Mechanical gearbox and
PTO
Minor maintenance carried out on
To Date site; for major maintenance return
to base
Projects in Operation Humber Estuary, UK
Page 50
Ponte di Archimede International (Kobald Turbine)
A vertical axis Kobald Turbine has been developed by Ponte di Archimede International. The vertical
axis design rotates independently of the current direction, and no yawing mechanism is required.
The Kobold turbine generates a high torque that permits self starting once the cut in tidal velocity is
reached.
The pilot unit was launched in 2001 in the Strait of Messina, by the coast of Sicily, where the peak
velocity of the tidal current can reach 3m/s. The device is located 150m from shore and is held on
station by means of four catenary mooring lines.
Ponte di Archimede is working in partnership with Bluewater Energy Services to deploy a four-
turbine floating platform at the EMEC test facility in the UK.
Ponte di Archimede
(Source:http://www.tidaltoday.com/tidal07/presentations/GuidoCalcagnoMoroso.pdf)
Country of Origin Italy

Rated Power Output 30kW, (250kW)
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
PTO
Minor maintenance carried out
Maintenance Strategy on site; for major maintenance
return to base
Projects in Operation Strait of Messina, Italy
Page 51
5.3.3. Oscillating Hydrofoil
Pulse Tidal
The Pulse Tidal device uses oscillating hydrofoils, which lie horizontally in the water, to sweep
vertically through the water column. This motion is used to drive a crankshaft, and the rotary motion
that results is stepped up through a gearbox before connection to an induction generator.
In 2009, Pulse Tidal deployed a 100kW "Pulse-Stream 100" oscillating hydrofoil device into the
mouth of the River Humber, UK.
Pulse Tidal (Source:http://www.pulsetidal.com)
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Piled or Gravity Base
PTO
Crane barge, tug boat for future
Deployment Vessel
deployments
Minor maintenance carried out
Maintenance Strategy on site; for major maintenance
return to base
Projects in Operation Humber Estuary, UK
Page 52
5.3.4. Enclosed tips
Clean Current
The Clean Current device is a ducted horizontal axis turbine with fixed pitch blades. The flooded
permanent magnet generator is lubricated by the water flow, and allows variable speed operation.
There is only one rotating part to the turbine.
Commercial devices for shallower waters (less than 20m) such as rivers are under development. This
will allow Clean Current to incrementally scale up the technology. Factory testing of the full scale
river demonstration unit is intended to take place before deployment in Manitoba, Canada. The tidal
devices will build upon the river units and incorporate a passive yaw mechanism allowing the device
to rotate into the flow. It is anticipated that deployment in shallow tidal sites will take place shortly
after the full scale river deployment.
Clean Current (Source: http://www.cleancurrent.com)
Country of Origin Canada

12kW, 33kW, 65kW, 85kW,
Rated Power Output
(125kW, 285kW, 500kW)
Water Depth Min/Max 5.5m / 20m
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Pinned or Gravity Base
Permanent magnet generator -
rotor attached to the blades
PTO
and stator located in the
central duct
Deployment Vessel Crane barge
Removal of nacelle, return to
base
Race Rocks, Victoria, Canada
Projects to Date
1 x 65kW
Page 53
OpenHydro
The OpenHydro device is a ducted horizontal axis turbine, with a central opening that allows safe
passage for marine life. The permanent magnet generator is located within the duct of the device.
The rotor is attached to the blades, while the stator is fixed within the duct.
OpenHydro was the first company to use one of the test berths at the EMEC test facility in the UK.A
6m diameter turbine rated at 250kW was installed and grid connected in 2006. Further device
testing took place in Nova Scotia, where testing of a 10m diameter Open Centre Turbine took place.
More recently, Electricite de France and OpenHydro have started ocean testing of the 2MW Open
Centre Turbine at Paimpol-Brehat.
OpenHydro (Source:
http://www.rechargenews.com/energy/wave_tidal_hydro/article307369.ece)
Country of Origin Ireland

Rated Power Output 1MW, 2MW
Water Depth Min/Max 35m / Unknown
Rated Velocity (m/s) 2.65 (for 1MW device)
TRL 7
Number of Deployed
3
Devices
Foundation Type Gravity Base
Permanent magnet generator -
Circumferential generator with
PTO rotor attached to the blades and
the stator located in the
surrounding duct.
Deployment Vessel Specialist installation barge
Removal of nacelle, maintenance
carried out on shore
EMEC, UK 1 x 250kW;
Projects to Date Bay of Fundy, Canada 1 x 1MW;
Paimpol-Brehat, France 2MW
Page 54
5.3.5. Helical Screw
Flumill
The Flumill tidal energy converter is influenced by the design of a helical excess flow control valve
used in the gas industry. Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) is used for the construction of the helix, and
buoyancy allows the system to be towed to location of deployment. The Flumill system is able to
align passively into the flow, and the device is capable of accommodating offset tidal flows where
the ebb and flood flow directions are not perfectly bi-directional. The rotational speed of the outer
edge of the helix never exceeds the speed of the water flow, so there is no cavitation of the water.
This also means that marine life will be able to safely negotiate around the device without risk of
harm from fast moving blades.
Counter rotating helical screws allow torque loading on the foundation to be cancelled out, ensuring
a hydrodynamically stable device design. The device is self-regulating in strong tidal flows. A
prototype of the smallest commercial Flumill device has been deployed at the EMEC nursery test site
in the UK, and plans for a fully grid connected, larger diameter device is planned for Rystraumen
near Troms.
Flumill 2 (Source: www.flumill.com)

Suitable for shallow water
Water Depth Min/Max (mounted horizontally) or deep
water (mounted vertically)
TRL 6
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Gravity Base or pin pile
PTO
Deployment Vessel Multi-cat workboat
Removal of device from
foundation, return to base
Projects to Date EMEC, UK twin 300kW helix
Page 55
5.3.6. Other
There are certain device developers working on technologies that differ from the above mentioned
categories. Some of these technologies operate using similar principles to that of existing device
designs, but there are novel technologies introducing new methods of harnessing the tidal energy
resource.
Ocean Renewable Power Company

Although very similar in design to vertical axis turbines, cross-axis (transverse horizontal axis)
turbines are modular in construction and can be installed in groups to suit the operating
environment to which it will be installed. Ocean Renewable Power Company is developing a cross
axis turbine that can be deployed in river, shallow tidal and deep tidal environments. The ORPC
turbine is constructed primarily from composite materials, which can resist corrosion.
Ocean Renewable Power Company (Source: http://www.orpc.co)

TRL 7
Number of Deployed
1
Devices
Foundation Type Gravity Base
PTO Permanent magnet generator
Removal of turbine generator
unit, return to base
Projects in Operation Cobscook Bay, USA 1 x 180kW
Page 56
5.3.7. Multiple Rotor Platforms
Multi-rotor platforms are designed to house multiple devices on a common mooring or foundation.
The designs are generally technology neutral, and could allow for a variety of different device
designs to be mounted. The buoyancy of such platforms may allow multiple devices to be supported
in the upper section of the water column, where the highest tidal velocities are located. While multi
rotor platform design is yet to be demonstrated at large scale, there are several mooring platforms
under development, with testing at model scale underway. The implementation of multiple rotors
on a common mooring could open the door to significant cost reductions.
BlueWater
Bluewater is an offshore engineering firm with experience within the oil & gas sector. Bluewater has
developed a floating structure for tidal turbines called BlueTEC. The structure is an open-
architecture system and may be equipped with either horizontal or vertical axis tidal turbines of any
type. The BlueTEC design accommodates all electrical equipment above the waterline and allows
ease of access for maintenance. Bluewater has secured a berth at EMEC for a full-scale
demonstration. Several different turbines, both vertical and horizontal axis, will be tested on this
device.
Bluewater Bluetec Floating Platform (Source: Bluewater)
Tidal Stream
Tidal Stream is in the process of developing three and six-rotor foundation structures. The hollow
steel spars are designed to be buoyant, so that the entire structure can be towed to site. Once on
location the spars can be partially flooded, allowing horizontal alignment of the turbines. The
turbines can be orientated to face the oncoming flow through passive yaw, induced by drag on the
structure.
Tidal Stream Triton Floating Platform (Source:http://www.tidalstream.co.uk)
Page 57
Sustainable Marine Technologies
Plat-O is a submerged buoyant platform designed to accommodate up to five rotors. The buoyant
design allows the structure to be towed to the deployment site, and the device can be held in place
using mooring lines. The design makes it possible for individual rotors to be retrieved without the
need to surface the entire structure.
Sustainable Marine Technologies PLAT-O Floating Platform (Source: http://www.susmartech.com)
There exist other novel tidal energy converter technologies, but these will be discussed further in
Section 5.5.
5.4. Evolution of Devices (Tidal)

Tidal energy converters are now experiencing large scale demonstration and testing; some
manufacturers have progressed beyond their original design concept and are looking into
engineering solutions that will help to further reduce their cost of energy. Tidal energy converters
can be classified into different generations of design as device developers and technologies
progress beyond the first prototype concept:
First generation technology has experienced significant levels of testing in ocean conditions, such
as the horizontal axis type tidal turbines. As a general rule, first generation devices are fixed on sea
bed mounted foundation structures with one or, possibly, two devices per foundation.
Second generation technology offers novel ideas and solutions to moorings (for example buoyant
turbines or foundations), allowing access to the faster flowing water higher in the water column and
reducing foundation costs. Second generation technologies may also achieve step change cost
reductions by mounting multiple rotors on one foundation structure, maximising the energy output
per marine operation. Second generation platforms are already under development, although not
necessarily by companies with existing first generation technology.
Third generation tidal devices consist of designs that radically change the way in which energy is
harnessed by a given device, or allows access to many sites that were previously thought to be
uneconomical. This may be a radical overhaul within the structure and PTO components of a device.
Third generation technology may produce energy in tidal currents of much lower velocity than can
be considered at present by moving the PTO through the current, rather than relying on an area
swept by a static prime mover.
It must be noted that while the majority of developers are starting with bottom mounted first
generation devices, certain device developers have moved directly in to second generation
foundations by nature of their design. As development progresses, additional next generation
technology may begin to appear in the sector. In the short to medium term, only areas in which the
spring peak tide velocity exceeds 2.5 m/s will be economically suitable for development, utilising
first generation devices [4].
Page 58
Figure 9: Generations of tidal energy converter (Based on Carbon Trust [4])
a) First Generation (Bottom mounted)

b) Second Generation (floating)
c) Second Generation (mid water column)
d) Third Generation innovation allowing additional resource to become economical
Second and third generation devices are still in the early stages of development, and there is limited
operational experience in tidal flow conditions. There is a real need for next generation devices,
which provide significant opportunities for cost reduction or performance and efficiency
improvements. Using first generation technology, the cost of tidal energy is likely to be significantly
higher than that of offshore wind. In order to become a recognised and established part of the
European energy mix, tidal energy generation will need to become competitive with alternative
forms of renewable power. The evolution of devices will play a fundamental role in achieving this
goal.
Although many first generation devices are focusing on deploying demonstration units, there are
examples of where consideration has been made as to how further device deployments can harness
the resource more efficiently. Marine Current Turbines, have a prototype evolution of their existing
SeaGen S device. The existing device is fixed to the sea bed through use of a pinned quadropod
foundation. The two rotors are attached to a spar that can be raised out of the water for
maintenance. This method of raising the turbines from the current allows certain maintenance work
to be carried out on site. This ease of access and multiple rotor configuration heavily influences the
next generation of SeaGen U device, whereby an additional third rotor increases the swept area (and
hence power output) of the installed system. The device will also have the ability to be raised and
lowered through use of a buoyant structure. By increasing the number of turbines per foundation,
the cost of energy can be reduced. Similarly, by ensuring the ease of accessibility of the devices,
O&M costs can be minimised.
SeaGen device evolution: First Generation (left), Conceptual Second Generation (right) (Source:
http://www.marineturbines.com)
Page 59
Although many device developers appear to be converging on a horizontal axis turbine, there are
several variations within this design type that can be considered. The wind industry has converged
on a three-bladed rotor design, and for many tidal energy converters, this design has been adopted
as a standard for tidal energy. There are, however, several examples where the number of blades on
a rotor deviates from the wind turbine design principles. Twin bladed rotors have been used by
Marine Current Turbines on their existing SeaGen device. Tocardo are using a twin bladed, fixed
pitch rotor design. Examples of devices with greater than three blades include Oceanflow Energy,
where a four-bladed rotor is used in their current scale Evopod device, with four blades also present
on the design of their 35kW community scale device under development.
Variation in number of blades (Source: http://www.tocardo.com,

http://www.oceanflowenergy.com)
In most tidal devices, steel is the predominant material for foundation and structural components.
Blades are often made from Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP). Steel properties are well known in
terms of yield and tensile strength, and certain grades of steel have a proven track record in the
marine environment. Steels can be protected from corrosion through use of paints, or by using
cathodic protection. The use of alternate materials such as composites and plastics may become
more widespread in systems which utilise buoyant structures.
With a few exceptions, the majority of tidal device developers are currently developing and
demonstrating single rotor devices. Whilst this is appropriate for testing and developing a concept,
there are some interesting advantages that can be gained through use of contra-rotating rotors (two
rotors moving in opposite directions on the same axis of rotation) or counter rotating rotors (two
rotors moving in opposite directions on two different axis of rotation).
Figure 10: Contra-rotation (left) and Counter-rotation (right)
By having an equal number of rotors spinning in opposite directions, the torque loading on a
foundation structure can be cancelled out. This has been used in industries such as aviation to great
effect. Balance of torques could allow for reduced structural requirements for foundations, and may
provide opportunities for cost reduction.
Page 60
5.5. Radical New Concepts (Tidal)
Innovation within the tidal energy sector is pushing the boundaries of engineering. New concepts
are opening up the possibility of commercially viable energy production from tidal flows previously
thought to be uneconomical. The idea of a radical concept may challenge the fundamental principles
of operation of a tidal energy converter, or it may look at revolutionary materials that have not yet
been used within the sector. A radical concept must open up potential routes to significant step
change cost reduction. Current first generation concepts use sea bed mounted devices, but radical
new concepts are looking to remove the need for large foundation structures, making greater use of
buoyancy and tensioned cables. There are also some designs that are challenging the conventional
horizontal axis turbine approach. These radical concepts may open up routes to significant step
change cost reduction. By their very nature, radical concepts are not necessarily proven
technologies, and may require significant development before a definitive judgement can be made
on whether they do, in fact, reduce the cost of energy.
Nautricity have utilised buoyancy and contra-rotation in their Contra Rotating Marine Turbine
(CoRMaT) to reduce the foundation loading, allowing a single point mooring system to be used. The
rotor torque from contra-rotating rotors cancels out in order to leave a negligible net total torque on
the mooring and foundation. The use of buoyancy is a significant feature of second generation tidal
turbines, allowing the rotor to be located higher in the water column in order to access the higher
flow speeds. Nautricity are also developing HydraGlide, a surface float for the CoRMaT device that
will allow the turbine to maintain an optimal position within the water column.
Nautricity CoRMaT (Source: http://www.nautricity.com)
The Minesto Deep Green tidal kite design has the potential to unlock deep water sites with a lower
velocity than is currently considered economically feasible. By fixing a turbine and generator into a
nacelle underneath a wing structure, the wing can use lift to accelerate the device through the water
at speeds of up to ten times the flow speed of the surrounding water, therefore increasing the
relative velocity of water entering the turbine. The device can be tethered to the seabed, and rudder
control surfaces at the rear of the device will allow it to be steered in a figure-of-eight path. In 2012,
a one-tenth scale prototype was deployed in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland, UK. Plans to up-
scale the technology could lead to a range of devices between 120kW and 850kW depending on the
flow speed into which the turbine will be placed. Anticipated water depth range for the 150kW
device is 50-65m. This could increase to between 90m and 120m for the 850kW variant.
Minesto Deep Green (Source: http://www.minesto.com)
Page 61
6. Arrays
Ocean energy devices are generally modular in design, each device utilising only a small portion of
the total resource potential at a given site. If the ocean energy sector is to reach the deployment
targets set in the National Renewable Energy Action Plan of each Member State [14], and make a
meaningful contribution to the European and global energy mix, the obvious route forward is
technology deployment in multiple device arrays. At an array scale, projects are likely to consist of
multiple marine energy converters, connected by sub sea cables providing a means of transporting
electricity to a common transformer or grid connection, much in the same way as wind farms are
currently developed.
While an understanding of device design is important, it is fundamental to the ocean energy sector
that the focus does not remain on individual devices. Configurations involving multiple devices, or
arrays, will provide the route to commercialisation, and growth of the industry. Array projects can
benefit from the economies of scale. A move towards larger scale manufacturing, as opposed to
single unit production, will unlock cost savings in the form of a reduced unit cost and increased
repeatability within component manufacture. Cost reduction through sharing of significant
infrastructure systems expenses between multiple devices, as opposed to those costs being borne
by a single device deployment, can also help to make array projects more economical.
The move from single device to arrays represents a considerable shift from current practice as
developing, demonstrating, testing, and refining first-of-a-kind autonomous devices has been the
predominant focus of the industry, with very little collaboration between the individual device
developers. Little is known about the impacts of array deployments, such as how each device will
interact with the wake from adjacent devices, or the combined ecological impact of a farm of
devices. The structural optimisation of arrays, the placement of individual devices, the operation and
maintenance of multiple devices, device performance and array interactions, and the combined
array environmental impact represent areas of significant research need. A number of policies and
funding programmes have been set in place to reflect this, as the sector seeks to progress closer to
commercialisation.
In order to successfully make the transition from single device to array deployment, several
technology challenges need to be met. In addition, there is a need for continued cost and risk
reduction to facilitate increased investor confidence. Reports such as the Low Carbon Innovation Co-
ordination Group Technology Innovation Needs Assessment (TINA) [15] on marine energy, produced
by a collaboration of the UKs major public sector backed funding and delivery bodies in the area of
low carbon innovation, have identified targeted R&D requirements in order to address the
challenges associated with the transition to initial array deployments, together with identifying how
the industry can bring into place the cost and risk reductions necessary in order to make further
array deployments possible.
With the ocean energy sector in the nascent stages, very few dedicated suppliers to ocean
renewable energy exist. There is the potential for significant overspill from related technology
sectors such as oil and gas or offshore wind. While the present technology within demonstration
devices can utilise one-off custom made components, this lends itself to high production costs due
to the design, development and fabrication on first-of-a-kind components. As single deployments
turn into demonstration array deployments and full-scale arrays, mass production of components
could lead to significant cost, and component lead time, reductions.
With regards to grid connection configurations, knowledge transfer from the offshore wind sector
may play a prominent role. Several electrical connection issues have been identified in the Equimar
Page 62
Protocol Chapter II.C [16], which will require guidance and consideration at an early stage of any
array project. There is also the issue of Grid and Distribution Codes, which must be adhered to for
the relevant country in which the array connection is made.
Within an array, the maximum number of devices that can be connected in one circuit is limited, due
to voltage drop across a length of cable and the maximum capacity of a given cable. There are
several options available for arrangement of device layout, each of which will result in different
levels of power loss, reliability and overall cost. It should be noted that the actual layout of the
ocean energy array will be determined by the geotechnical conditions at the proposed site, and the
resource itself. This will have an impact on the electrical infrastructure and grid architecture.
The layout options for arrays are known as clusters, and are highlighted in the diagram below:
Figure 11: Possible Ocean Energy Converter Array Layouts (Source [16])
a) String Series Cluster - Medium and large farms AC and DC

b) Star (Radial) Cluster Large unit farms AC and DC
c) Full String Cluster Small farms AC and DC
d) Redundant String Cluster High risk farms AC and DC
e) Series DC Cluster Small and medium farms DC
The spacing of devices will become increasingly important as arrays grow in size. Although the ocean
energy sector is at a demonstration stage, very little research has taken place in the field to
demonstrate the physical interaction between devices in close proximity. On one level, the lack of
array projects means that no one developer has achieved a level of installation by which they can
collect significant data to fully understand the interaction. Much effort is taking place at a
computational level to understand the array effects of devices, waves and energy extraction. Once
array deployment takes place, this area should receive attention in order to better understand the
complex relationships between adjacent devices.
Whilst it is desirable to minimise the overall electrical infrastructure required for a given array
project, it must be noted that hydrodynamic interaction could lead to reductions in the overall
Page 63
power output. It is therefore necessary to consider a wide range of parameters when configuring an
array and the end result will be a compromise to achieve the lowest levelised cost of energy.
The electrical configuration of offshore wind farm arrays may influence the design of ocean energy
arrays. The wave or tidal arrays will require grid connection that will likely require transformers,
electrical switchgear, and back up generators and batteries. Purpose built sub stations located
offshore may be a requirement for future ocean energy arrays, and will bring added complexity and
cost to the design of a project.
Although no array deployment has yet taken place, the effect of shadowing from devices at the front
of the farm is likely to impact the overall output from a farm of devices. There will be complicated
hydrodynamic interactions that are, at present, little understood; so significant effort must be made
in data collection to help identify and clarify the likely effects on downstream tidal devices, or
secondary rows of wave devices that are located behind another row of wave devices, relative to the
oncoming wave front.
The challenges outlined above must be met if the ocean energy sector is to grow and, with
increasing support from European Member States [17], utilities and OEM investors, array
deployments are likely to become a reality within the next few years.
Figure 12: Ocean Energy Arrays (Source: http://www.hammerfeststrom.com,

http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com)
Page 64
7. Strategic Technology Challenges
7.1. Introduction
The strategic technology challenges section of this report sets out to provide a summary of the
challenges faced by the ocean energy sector, providing a foundation which will be built upon in
future SI Ocean reports. A high level overview of the sector challenges will set the scene for the
status of ocean energy development. While technical recommendations that can identify solutions
to the technical challenges will be covered in future SI Ocean reports, the purpose of this section is
to identify the over-arching themes that are shaping the challenges faced by the ocean energy sector
today.
Identification of these challenges is of significant importance, as it highlights the sector needs at a

European level, indicating the specific action areas that require a unified and coordinated approach
from the industry in order to secure reliable and cost effective ocean energy devices. While certain
elements of the identified technology challenges may be targeted by individual technology
developers, for credibility in the wider energy sector, it is essential that the ocean energy sector as a
whole demonstrates that it is capable of adopting a unified approach to the technical challenges and
their solutions.
This section also highlights the specific action areas in which the ocean energy sector will seek to see
continuous and sustained progress beyond current state of the art, ensuring that technology
development does not remain constrained behind the same barriers that are presently identified,
and that ocean energy technology can move beyond single device demonstration and into a
commercial manufacturing phase. This will be of benefit to individual technology developers, and
also wider manufacturing, supply chain, and research facilities within the EU.
It must be reinforced that the fundamental challenge for WEC and TEC developers is reduction in the
levelised cost of energy. The technical challenges that exist all relate, in some way, to this: Improving
yield, increasing reliability, and reducing CAPEX and OPEX costs. However it is achieved, cost
reduction is an essential requirement for accelerated and sustained deployment of ocean energy.
7.2. Building upon Existing Knowledge

This section draws on a number of reports that have identified technology challenges for the marine
energy industry at a European level. The ORECCA project [18] has identified specific challenges for
the ocean energy sector and has highlighted generic areas where collaboration with offshore wind
may help to address some of the challenges faced by the ocean energy sector at an EU level. The EU-
OEA Ocean Energy roadmap 2010-2050 [19] and the IEA Ocean Energy Systems Vision document
[20] discuss challenges in the European and international context. A specific target for SI Ocean is to
project the technology challenges faced by the ocean renewable energy industry on to a European
level.
The Carbon Trust report Accelerating Marine Energy [4] investigates the current and future cost of
marine energy, based on detailed interviews with device developers based within the UK. Ambitious
but achievable target for cost reduction have been set, and a plausible cost trajectory has been
presented within the UK Low Carbon Innovation Coordination Group Marine Energy Technology
Innovation Needs Assessment [15]. In Figure 13 the cost of ocean energy technology is anticipated to
reduce to a stage at which commercialisation could occur (Point 1). Following on from
commercialisation, three scenarios are shown:
Page 65
A) No further cost reductions are seen once the technology has entered a commercial phase
B) Costs are estimated to reduce with learning rates similar to that anticipated by the offshore
wind sector through learning-by-doing mechanisms
C) Costs are estimated to reduce through both learning-by-doing and technological innovation,
whereby an improved cost reduction pathway can be achieved.
Figure 13: Potential Impact of Innovation on Levelised Costs - Medium global deployment (Source:
Carbon Trust [15])
The Accelerating Marine Energy report and the Marine Energy TINA highlight the role that
innovation could play in order to reduce the technology and development costs. Innovation could be
in the form of incremental enabling technology development, improving certain aspects of economic
performance or efficiency, or innovation could be through radical new concepts opening up larger
areas of resource, or creating a step change in device deployment costs. Key areas for public sector
support for innovation have been identified in the Marine Energy TINA [15], such as supply chain
optimisation and identifying appropriate funding mechanisms.
While a more detailed investigation of the means through which the sector challenges can be
addressed will be discussed in future SI Ocean reports, the most prominent challenges facing the
industry are summarised in Figure 14.
Figure 14: High Level Sector Challenges (Adapted from ORECCA Roadmap [18])
Page 66
Meeting the underpinning technical challenges faced by the ocean energy sector will require an
advance from current state of the art at both technology level, and a resource analysis level.
Advances in the predictability of array power output will help with the integration of ocean energy
arrays into new and existing grid infrastructure. The understanding of individual device performance
will require augmentation with an investigation into device performance at an array level,
understanding the nature of the complex interaction between the resource and multiple devices at
different geographical locations within the array, and the overall impact of multiple energy
extraction devices within the wave regime or tidal flow. The project life, spanning the duration of a
project from engineering design through to decommissioning of a technology, encompasses a range
of challenges. While some of these challenges are being proven at a device level, the sector will face
a new set of challenges as the move from single devices to arrays takes place. Manufacture,
installation and operation of several devices will require streamlined manufacturing and installation
processes, together with optimised maintenance routines. In order to achieve a 25 year project
operational life, ocean energy technology must prove reliability and capability within the harsh
marine environment. All of the above challenges must be met at a cost which is affordable, as
although all technical barriers and challenges may be achievable with significant investment, the
desired outcome of ocean energy arrays is economically viable projects, technology producing
energy - and therefore revenue - to the owners and operators who have committed to the initial
investment.
The ETI/UKERC Roadmap [21] takes these high level challenges and identifies, more specifically, the
technology challenges and arranges them by theme. The ETI Roadmap has identified 47 challenges,
and placed them under the themed headings:
Device and System Demonstrators

Sub-Components
Guidelines and Standards
Tool Development
Infrastructure and Enablers
This roadmap will be discussed in more detail in Section 7.4.
7.3. Key Challenge Areas

The high level sector challenges have been identified in Figure 14, and these identify the
underpinning needs from the sector, particularly those that must be demonstrated to utilities and
project developers that are looking to own and operate ocean energy devices for durations of up to
25 years, in order for confidence in the technology to be gained. These can be applied more
specifically to wave and tidal energy technologies as follows:
7.3.1. Predictability
Waves are stochastic in nature, and prediction or estimation of wave height and period requires first
to know the wind magnitude and direction. Wave period and significant wave height is dependent
on a number of factors beyond wind direction, such as fetch and bathymetry, making the
predictability of wave energy output a challenging task. Wave predictability is generally possible a
number of days in advance, as waves result from wind action across the surface of the ocean, and so
wave energy does not fluctuate instantaneously with wind. Each wave energy converter type will
respond differently in varying wave climates. Improvement of the predictability of energy output
from a given wave climate is an area that can be developed for specific devices and, as developers
gain increased levels of at-sea testing, power matrixes will be developed that show power output
and device response to given sea conditions.
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The predictability of tidal flows is well recognised and understood, and the timing and duration of
spring tides and neap tides will vary in accordance with the movement of the sun and moon, with
respect to the rotation of the earth. Tools to help enhance the understanding of turbulence,
however, and the effects of turbulence on component fatigue life require further work to develop
current understanding. The predictability of device behaviour in energetic flows is not widely
understood, and predictability of component life will require substantial device deployment in order
to quantify.
7.3.2. Manufacturability
Manufacturability of ocean energy converters will improve as devices move from the first full scale
prototypes, into commercial production. Current devices are bespoke designs but, in the future,
devices will be a commodity. Key links within the supply chain, such as component suppliers and
service providers, are now beginning to undertake development work for ocean energy device
manufacturers, as ocean energy is perceived to be a future growth area.
At present there is limited design consensus amongst wave energy converters, and this has a direct
impact on supply chain choices. A streamlined manufacturing process will allow for benefits in both
learning-by-doing and economies of scale. The design of device components and sub-systems could
allow for optimised manufacturing techniques. There is scope for alternative materials to be
considered as a substitute for steel which is widely used in present technology. New materials will
bring different challenges in terms of manufacturing tolerances, and the scale of component that
can be created.
Within the tidal energy sector there is more convergence, particularly focusing on horizontal axis
turbines. There is scope for a greater level of cost reduction through economies of scale if consensus
is achieved. The design of devices will be fundamental in creating opportunities for ease of access for
installation and O&M once deployment takes place.
7.3.3. Installability
The installability of a wave energy converter depends on its location. While shore based and near
shore wave energy converters require substantial foundations and infrastructure, the technology
that will operate in medium to deep water can often be towed to location. Installation will also
depend on the sea-bed characteristics and in a scoured sea-bed environment where drag-anchors
cannot be used alternative mooring techniques will need to be adopted. Clump mass moorings, or
pin piled moorings may be an alternative and there will be some cross transfer from the tidal energy
sector that can help progress this.
Within the tidal sector, the challenge of installability requires a process that can be carried out
quickly, within the limited time period offered by the slack tide, and economically. Current
installation techniques are financially intensive due to the bottom mounted design of many first-
generation technologies, and their substantial foundation requirements. These installation costs will
result in a substantial portion of the total project costs for the vast majority of projects within the
pipeline. Future installation techniques will need to address these issues, and provide a reliable and
economical method of access to devices for installation and O&M purposes.
Both the wave and tidal sector have a need for affordable installation vessels, and affordable
installation techniques. Much of the device installation and intervention that has taken place to date
has utilised vessels from the oil & gas sector, the price of which can fluctuate greatly depending on
demand and spot-market price.
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7.3.4. Operability
The operability of ocean energy converters must be proven for all wave and tidal energy technology
developers in the offshore environment. While some device developers have entered extensive test
periods in increasingly energetic sea states, the remote operation of a device, continuously, through
both more benign and highly intensive sea states, has yet to be completed. Demonstration of
reliable device operation and survivability under extreme conditions will improve with continued
testing, but these parameters remain a challenge for both the wave and tidal energy sector.
7.3.5. Survivability
Ocean energy converters must be able to survive both their expected operational loading, and also
the extreme loading presented by storm conditions. The ratio of extreme loads to operational loads
is greater for wave energy than it is for tidal energy, so wave energy converters require increased
over-engineering in order to operate within the more frequent average loading regime, and also
survive the storms. Tidal energy is more predictable, and providing adequate resource
characterisation at a specific site has been carried out, the maximum loadings for a bottom mounted
device can be calculated. Seabed mounted, fully submerged TECs will need to consider wave loading
due to the fatigue stresses and loads that will result. Buoyant or semi-submersible tidal device
designs may have additional loading requirements similar to WECs, due to their structural and
mooring requirements for storm waves.
7.3.6. Reliability
The challenge of long term, reliable operation is still a requirement for many technology developers
in both wave and tidal sectors. Individual component Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and life
expectancy is unproven, and in order to achieve significant periods of operation in between
maintenance a greater understanding of these parameters will be required. Increased reliability will
reduce unplanned maintenance requirements.
7.3.7. Affordability
Continued efforts at improving the affordability of wave and tidal energy will require innovation, and
cost reduction will be targeted for successive models of device. While demonstration projects
require a significant capital investment in order to produce first-of-a-kind engineering structures and
components, in the long-term device affordability will define the project economics. It is understood
and accepted that the current costs of ocean energy technologies are higher than that of the more
mature offshore wind sector; however, it is essential that the tidal energy sector demonstrates a
reduction in costs in order to become competitive with alternative forms of renewable energy
production.
7.4. Development Activities and Themes an Example

There are several UK specific reports, such as the roadmap developed by the UK Energy Research
Centre and the Energy Technologies Institute [21], which identify and prioritise development
activities and themes. Within the ETI identified development activities and themes, there are several
in particular that match technical components of wave and tidal energy converters identified earlier
within this report, and these have been highlighted in Table 6 on the following page.
Page 69
Table 6: Technology Development Activities and Themes (Modified from ETI Roadmap [21])
Device and System Infrastructure and
Sub-Components
Demonstrators Enablers
Offshore grid system

Installation methods Control systems design and
demonstration
Energy extraction technology
Array electrical
Recovery methods (e.g. blades, interaction
systems
surfaces)
Low-cost O&M Energy conversion system Onshore grid system
techniques (e.g. PTO) development
Sub-sea electrical
Device structure
system equipment
Foundations and mooring
systems
Offshore umbilical & wet
mate connectors
By extracting the highlighted technical themes and relating them to the specific project and
component areas discussed earlier in this report, their associated challenges will now be explored in
greater detail.
Structure & Prime Mover

Many technology challenges facing device developers relate to reducing risk by
proving reliable device operation in the challenging marine environment. Trials of
the full scale device in representative operating conditions are essential to prove
that the conceptual design works in practice. Because of the uncertainties of
modelling the actual response of the device to real wave conditions, actual
operational data is required to verify and validate any computational models.
Enhanced performance data collection will be necessary to ensure that device operation is achieving
the levels predicted within computational models. The prime mover components for tidal devices, in
particular for horizontal axis turbines, have the potential to be more interchangeable than those for
wave devices (e.g. turbine blades); advances in component design have potential to benefit a range
of devices, and could offer greater economies of scale if the components could be utilised by a
number of devices. Both wave and tidal devices must demonstrate their reliability in challenging
operating conditions, and the need to deploy and retrieve devices within a short timescale presents
a fundamental design constraint on devices. Proven reliability is perhaps even more important when
the difficulties of accessing structures in fast moving waters or within significant wave climates are
considered. Fully submerged devices in deep water are likely to need particularly high reliability
because of the physical and financial requirements of reaching them to carry out maintenance and
repairs. The stability of a device structure is of fundamental importance, given the nature of the
extreme conditions experienced during in-service operation, and the cyclic nature of much of the
loadings experienced by the device, having an impact on the fatigue life of the structure and
components.
Manufacturing and storage limitations also present a challenge when considering the quantity and
the cost of the appropriate materials required for device manufacture.
Foundations & Moorings

The mooring and foundation challenges for ocean energy devices will be very
dependant on the location and situation of the device, for example, the challenges
associated with near shore wave energy converters are different to those for
floating tidal and offshore wave devices which use moorings. Several foundation
Page 70
options exist for horizontal axis tidal turbines depending on seabed conditions and water depth
gravity based, monopile, and multiple pin pile. Successful (non proprietary) fixing methods for one
device can be established and used in other devices through the industry if component reliability
and data sharing was to become more commonplace. Innovation is required to reduce costs of
piling, but several enabling technologies are emerging, such as sea bed drills, and ROV tractor
mounted drills. Savings may be available by reducing the number of anchor points such as sharing
a single anchor point for more than one floating device. There is a need for development work on
lower cost mooring ropes and reduction of fouling.
The majority of wave devices are secured to the seabed by mooring lines. Support structures for
tidal devices, on the other hand, are large and can lead to a considerable drag on the tidal stream.
Foundations represent a significant loss of energy in the tidal stream, and could cause complex flow
interactions that result in a reduction in the overall energy that can be extracted by devices further
down stream. It will be pertinent for the industry to investigate how the loss of energy through
interaction with the support structure can be minimised. In the long term this is likely to be a
restriction for tidal arrays and will lead to a requirement for low drag foundation design solutions.
Power Take Off

Device developers have taken a number of approaches to PTO components within
the device, and it is likely that both direct drive, hydraulic, and mechanical
gearboxes will be considered in future PTO permutations, just as they are for wind
turbines. This technology area is likely to benefit from evolution in power take off
for wind turbines, and a cross transfer of information through knowledge sharing
is essential to facilitate this learning. Areas such as component reliability data sharing require
significant improvement, and may be fundamental in order to achieve the necessary cost and
performance improvements within a short timescale. Performance guidelines and technical
specifications will help manufacturers by providing guidance within critical areas selected
component.
The development of test facilities for accelerated testing of components, to check when, and how,
they are likely to fail, will provide confidence in the reliability of key PTO components. Working in
partnership with the component supply chain is fundamental in ensuring continued improvement
reliability. The investment of major OEMS in device development companies will bring new
approaches and expertise to the reliability engineering of PTO components.
Control
There are significant uncertainties in how a series of devices in an array formation
will behave - modelling and testing is required to investigate the effects of
variation to array layout and parameters. Performance data collection will also
play an increasingly important role in validation of computational models. At
present, a significant source of uncertainty for device developers is the
characteristics of the tidal resource at a particular site. In theory, tidal flow is predictable; in practice
local tidal flows can be extremely complex, turbulent, and multi-directional. Ebb and flood flows may
not be bi-directional, and there are certain phases of the tidal cycle where complex currents could
cause excessive fatigue to an incorrectly sited device. There is a need to collect and validate data to
characterise sites, and to assess the optimum control methodology for an array of devices in order
to ensure optimal array output. Both modelling and practical testing are required to determine the
effect of each device and its support structure on neighbouring devices within an array.
Page 71
Wave devices typically require sophisticated control algorithms to allow them to maximise
generation in varying wave conditions and this is an area where there is scope for significant
improvements without the need for costly changes to the device itself.
Connection
Connecting marine devices to the grid gives rise to a number of challenges. Devices
which are removed to another location for maintenance require a method to allow
simple connection and disconnection. Wet-mate connectors which allow
connection and disconnection underwater are available but these are expensive
and there is scope for cost reduction. Adequate cable protection will be required,
in order to ensure cable reliability within the challenging conditions.
In the long term wave devices are likely to be sited far offshore (perhaps 100km or more) to take
advantage of energetic wave spectra. There will be a balance between the additional revenue from
energy generated and the extra costs of longer cable connections to shore. Options already under
investigation for offshore wind, such as HVDC cables, may be appropriate for large scale
deployment.
When a number of devices are connected together in an array, sub-sea or platform-mounted

substations will be required to connect to the grid. Developments in offshore substations for wind
farms will be relevant, but specialist substation designs will be needed for marine arrays.
Installation makes up a significant proportion of capital costs, particularly for tidal

devices. Many devices require a series of operations using specialist vessels and
equipment to install the foundations and then attach the device structure.
Developments that reduce the number and length of installation operations and
allow cheaper vessel use will reduce overall costs and improve the economics and
profitability of a project. Tidal stream devices face the challenge of installing in
water that is moving rapidly for a considerable duration of the tidal cycle there is an advantage if
operations can be carried out in the short time window of slack water.
Operation & Maintenance

Reliability modelling tools could enhance the efficiency of ocean energy converter
O&M. Proper commissioning of the device including tuning of the control systems
is an important step in ensuring the device performs as designed. Public funding
support may be required to allow developers to allocate resources to complete this
important stage before moving to commercial generation(for example the Marine
Renewables Proving Fund in the UK provided full support for the commissioning phase for 6 full scale
devices).
Operations and maintenance costs will depend on the reliability and accessibility of the device. The
challenge for designers is to ensure the device has sufficient built in redundancy without excessive
costs. The redundancy strategy may include design to allow continued operation following minor
faults allowing recovery for repair to be scheduled at a convenient time. Devices which can be
recovered and repaired at low cost and in a wide variety of met-ocean conditions will have a
significant advantage in operating costs. Accessing non-surface-piercing tidal devices is a particular
challenge for maintenance, and needs consideration when devising O&M routines.
Page 72
7.5. Synergies with Other Sectors
While much development has taken place within the wave and tidal energy sectors in recent years,
there are other industries that offer some significant opportunity for knowledge, or technology,
transfer. While the identification of industries offering transfer potential could provide a basis for
future development within the ocean energy sector, it is imperative that both the ocean energy
sector and the potential collaborator industry are willing to facilitate the transfer and diversify their
knowledge and expertise into the new market.
Several sectors have been identified as capable of sharing knowledge, either through technology
transfer or as industry with skills in activities that can be transferred to the emerging wave and tidal
sector.
Aviation
Construction (Civil infrastructure such as bridge and dam construction)
Mining
Defence (including military and naval industries)
Offshore Wind
Oil and Gas
Shipping
The aviation, defence and mining industries offer an opportunity for Member States and
international countries that do not have direct offshore expertise to contribute to the development
of the ocean energy sector.
7.5.1. Aviation
The aviation industry has very stringent requirements on safety factors, which come at an added
cost to components, which may be unnecessary within the ocean energy sector. While the risks
associated with failure in the marine environment will be unlikely to cause physical harm, there is a
great financial risk associated with the deployment of technology in the marine environment. The
greatest level of transferability exists within the area of composites manufacture. Composites are
playing an increasingly important role within the manufacture of aircraft, and already some
companies have employed their composites expertise within the wind energy sector, as has been
highlighted in existing reports [4]. Opportunities for knowledge spill-over in automated
manufacturing processes for composites could also aid the emerging ocean energy sector. Design
optimisation and component development are areas in which the aviation industry is well placed to
offer expertise to ocean energy device developers, particularly with regard to automation of
manufacturing processes and computational tools for design optimisation.
7.5.2. Construction
Offshore constructions such as bridges or dams may offer certain cross transferability in the area of
installation, due to the industries knowledge and understanding of sea-bed preparation
requirements, vessel usage, and the limitations of current offshore construction. The experience of
installation will be suitable for transfer into the ocean energy sector, however, large civil
infrastructure is generally designed for permanent operation, so regular retrieval and
decommissioning is not an area that the construction sector can identify with. There may be
opportunity to provide support to the ocean energy sector on areas such as hydrodynamic loading,
or degradation of structural materials within the marine environment. Foundation design
considerations could also be provided from the offshore construction industry.
Page 73
7.5.3. Mining
There is considerable experience within the mining sector regarding cost reduction challenges; the
need for new automation processes, drilling and excavation techniques has allowed development of
new components and sub-components, and the design processes behind such developments will
offer benefits to the ocean energy sector. Although there is significant land based mining where
heavy industry and technology have evolved over many years, an emerging area of interest in mining
lies below the ocean. Sub-sea mining is a relatively new industry, with development of new products
specifically designed for deep sea exploration and investigation. Offshore vessel and geotechnical
work such as rock sampling and drilling will have potential transfer to ocean energy installation
techniques with regards to foundation and mooring fixings, and sea bed preparation work.
Advancements within this industry
7.5.4. Defence
The defence industry in the U.S.A is contributing to joint venture projects with ocean energy
technology developers, such as those within the Puget Sound, Washington, and projects with
specific ocean energy technologies. A number of technology developers have strategic partnerships
with the U.S Navy, and with defence contractors such as Lockheed Martin [8]. The experience
offered by the defence industry includes testing and development of components and sub
components, and providing the expertise and design optimisation for new or advanced materials
and components. In a similar manner to the aviation industry, computational design tools for
component optimisation could be applied to the ocean energy sector.
7.5.5. Offshore Wind

The offshore wind industry is facing the same requirements for cost reduction as the emerging
ocean energy industry. While the working fluid in the wind industry is different to that used by wave
and tidal devices, there is significant experience within the offshore wind sector of installation and
recovery techniques using heavy lift and transport vessels. The need to develop robust techniques to
solve the problem associated with weather windows is present across both wind and ocean
technologies. Much work has been done in the wind industry with regards to computational models,
resource assessment, and array layout optimisation. These represent significant areas of expertise
that will be transferable to the emerging ocean sector. Component development within the offshore
wind sector may also spill-over into the ocean energy sector, particularly in the areas of PTO and
connection.
7.5.6. Oil and Gas

The oil and gas industry has the most significant offshore experience within the identified sectors.
Equipment placed in challenging sub-sea environments, with critical reliability constraints, may offer
significant knowledge transfer opportunities. There are several limitations to the application of O&G
technology within the ocean energy sector, the most important being the potential for cost
reduction. A second limitation relates to the magnitude of installations within the O&G sector, which
are generally significantly larger physically than ocean energy devices and structures. While the O&G
sector may have the ability to cover significant expenses due to the substantial revenue provided by
the end product, the ocean energy sector does not have the same profitability, or the capacity for
investment. Offshore umbilical, wet mate connectors and components such as sealed slip rings
suitable for sub-sea operation are technologies already present within the O&G sector, but the cost
of such components can often be prohibitive for the current ocean energy technologies. While the
expertise and experience of the O&G sector cannot be denied, there may be challenges associated
with leveraging the know-how and expertise unless a greater willingness towards diversification is
shown, and further examples of collaboration produced, given the very different nature of ocean
energy.
Page 74
7.5.7. Shipping
The shipping industry has extensive knowledge surrounding the survivability of devices and
components within the marine environment. Composite materials and anti-fouling coatings have
been in use within the shipping industry, and knowledge of these areas, together with corrosion
prevention techniques, can be applied to the ocean energy sector. Several innovations within the
shipping industry are being explored within the ocean energy sector, such as sea-water lubricated
bearings. Mooring and foundations with both permanent and dynamic loading requirements
represent further areas of know-how that the shipping industry can contribute to the ocean energy
sector.
Page 75
8. Conclusion
This document has presented an overview of the current status of the ocean energy sector and the
steps that developers must take in order to reach technology commercialisation have been
identified. An introduction to array projects and their technical components has been made, before
presenting a focus on current wave and tidal technology across various stages of development.
Information has been presented through discussion of the following topics:
Wave energy converter types, with international examples

Tidal energy converter types, with international examples
Examples of technology evolution
Radical new concepts within the ocean energy sector
The document has outlined the potential for ocean energy deployment, and identified some of the
strategic challenges facing the ocean energy sector. The high level actions that will require support
and cooperation across the wider ocean energy sector are recognised, and a coordinated approach
to the identified sector challenges will stimulate sustained action beyond the life of the SI Ocean
project.
Page 76
9. Bibliography
[1] M. Mueller, H. F. Jeffrey, R. Wallace, and A. V. Jouanne, Centers for Marine Renewable
Energy in Europe and North America, Oceanography, vol. 23, no. 2, 2010.
[2] EMEC, EMEC to support development of South Korean Marine Energy Centre, Press
Release, 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.emec.org.uk/emec-to-support-development-
of-south-korean-marine-energy-centre/. [Accessed: 04-Dec-2012].
[3] The Oregon Wave Energy Trust, Utility Market Initiative, 2009.
[4] Carbon Trust, Accelerating marine energy: The potential for cost reduction - insights from the
Carbon Trust Marine Energy Accelerator. Carbon Trust, 2011.
[5] B. Drew, A. R. Plummer, and M. N. Sahinkaya, A review of wave energy converter

technology, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power
and Energy, vol. 223, no. 8, pp. 887-902, Dec. 2009.
[6] Carbon Trust, Marine Energy Briefing, 2012. [Online]. Available:

http://www.carbontrust.com/media/150271/carbon-trust-marine-energy-briefing-july-
2012.pdf. [Accessed: 18-Dec-2012].
[7] NASA, Definition Of Technology Readiness Levels. [Online]. Available:

http://esto.nasa.gov/files/trl_definitions.pdf. [Accessed: 18-Dec-2012].
[8] US DoE, Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Development Technical Support and General
Environmental Studies Report on Outreach to Stakeholders for Fiscal Year 2009, 2010.
[9] AMEC Environment & Infrastructure UK Limited, Carbon Trust UK wave energy resource,
2012.
[10] EMEC, European Marine Energy Centre. [Online]. Available:

http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/. [Accessed: 06-Dec-2012].
[11] US DoE, Marine and Hydrokinetic Technology Database. [Online]. Available:

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/water/hydrokinetic/default.aspx. [Accessed: 06-Dec-2012].
[12] P. Holmberg, M. Andersson, B. Bolund, and K. Strandanger, Wave Power: Surveillance study
of the development, 2011.
[13] N. Davidson, Wave energy the challenge, the opportunity, 2012. [Online]. Available:
http://www.etp-scotland.ac.uk/Portals/57/document library/Aquamarine Power - Neil
Davidson.pdf. [Accessed: 07-Dec-2012].
[14] L. W. . Beurskens, M. Hekkenberg, and P. Vethman, Renewable Energy Projections as

Published in the National Renewable Energy Action Plans of the European Member States
Covering all 27 EU Member States with updates for 20 Member States, 2011.
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[15] Low Carbon Innovation Coordination Group, Technology Innovation Needs Assessment (
TINA ) Marine Energy Summary Report, 2012.
[16] D. Ingram, G. Smith, C. Bittencourt-ferreira, and H. Smith, Protocols for the Equitable
Assessment of Marine Energy, 1st ed., no. 213380. The Institute for Energy Systems, School of
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, 2011.
[17] European Commission, NER 300. [Online]. Available:

http://ec.europa.eu/clima/funding/ner300/index_en.htm. [Accessed: 04-Dec-2012].
[18] ORECCA Project, ORECCA European Offshore Renewable Energy Roadmap. ORECCA
Coordinated Action Project, 2011.
[19] EU-OEA, Oceans of energy: European Ocean Energy Roadmap 2010 - 2050, 2010.
[20] J. A. Huckerby, H. Jeffrey, B. Moran, and J. Sedgwick, An International Vision for Ocean
Energy, Version II. Ocean Energy Systems Implementing Agreement, 2012.
[21] UKERC, Marine Energy Technology Roadmap, 2010.
SI OCEAN is supported by:
The sole responsibility for the content of this

report lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Union. Neither the EACI
nor the European Commission are responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained
therein.
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Ocean Energy: State of

Array A set of multiple devices connected to a common electrical grid connection.

Bathymetry Measurement and mapping of water depths, characterisation of depth

Surge Linear, horizontal (front/back) motion.

Heave Linear, vertical (up and down) motion

Sway Linear, horizontal (side to side) motion

Roll Rotation about the horizontal surge axis

Pitch Rotation about the horizontal sway axis

Yaw Rotation about the vertical heave axis

Wave energy forms as kinetic energy from the wind is

3.1. Project and Component Overview

Operations & Maintenance: Periodic repair and reconditioning work will be

3.2. PTO Permutations

Figure 1: WEC PTO Permutations (Source [5])

3.3. Grid Connection

3.4. Development Steps and Technology Readiness

Figure 3: The Technology Journey (Source: Carbon Trust [6])

Figure 4: Mooring and Foundation Configurations for WECs

Table 2: WEC Types

4.1.1. Attenuator (A)

4.1.2. Point Absorber (B)

4.1.3. Oscillating Wave Surge Converter (OWSC) (C)

4.1.4. Oscillating Water Column (OWC) (D)

4.1.5. Overtopping (E)

4.1.6. Pressure Differential (F)

4.1.7. Bulge Wave (G)

4.1.8. Rotating Mass (H)

4.1.9. Other (I)

4.2. International Examples (Wave)

Table 3: A Selection of WEC Device Developers

Pelamis Wave Power (Source: http://www.pelamiswave.com)

Dexawave (Source: http://www.dexawave.com)

Country of Origin Denmark

Ocean Power Technologies (Source: http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com)

Country of Origin USA

Seabased (Image Source: Elforsk Rapport 11:02 [12])

Country of Origin Sweden

Aquamarine Power Oyster (Source: http://www.aquamarinepower.com)

Waveroller (Source: http://aw-energy.com)

Country of Origin Finland

Langlee Wave Power (Source: http://www.langleewavepower.com/)

Country of Origin Norway

Voith Wavegen (Source: www.wavegen.co.uk)

Country of Origin UK, Germany

Projects to Date Islay, UK; Mutriku, Basque Country, Spain

WavEC Pico Plant (Source: http://www.wavec.org/en)

Country of Origin Spain

Ocean Energy Limited (Source: http://www.oceanenergy.ie)

Country of Origin Ireland

Wave Dragon (Source: http://www.wavedragon.net)

Country of Origin Denmark

AWS Ocean Energy (Source: http://www.awsocean.com)

Wello Oy Penguin (Source: http://www.wello.eu)

Country of Origin Finland

4.3.1. Use of Advanced Materials

4.3.2. Design Modifications

Pelamis Wave Power P1 (left) and P2 (right) Devices (Source: www.pelamiswave.com)

4.3.3. Cost-Reduction in installation

However it is achieved, device evolution is fundamental to the commercialisation of wave energy