Handbook for Gel-VRLA-Batteries

Part 1: Basic Principles, Design, Features

Sonnenschein A 400
Sonnenschein A 500
Sonnenschein A 600
Sonnenschein A 700
./.
Sonnenschein SOLAR
Sonnenschein SOLAR BLOCK
Sonnenschein A 600 SOLAR

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 1- Rev. 1, December 2003

 CONTENTS

Handbook for Gel-VRLA-Batteries

Part 1: Basic Principles, Design, Features

Page
1. History of SONNENSCHEIN and Gel-Batteries 3

2. Function of VRLA-Batteries 4

2.1 Chemical Reactions 4

2.2 Gassing, Recombination 4

3. Design and Materials 8

3.1 Plate Construction and Alloys 9

3.2 Cell/Monobloc Containers 10
3.3 Terminal Posts 12
3.4 Valves 14

4. Special Features of Gel-Batteries 15

4.1 Capacity Range, Properties, Applications 15

4.2 Deep-Discharge 18
4.3 Heat Evolution and Dissipation 19
4.4 Acid Stratification 20

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 2- Rev. 1, December 2003

1. HISTORY OF SONNENSCHEIN AND GEL-BATTERIES

1910: Foundation of factory Akkumulatorenfabrik Sonnenschein in

Berlin by Dr. Theodor Sonnenschein (former student of
Max Planck); vented batteries (traction, automotive)
1926: Sonnenschein becomes OEM supplier to car industry
1938: New factory in Berlin
1946: New factory in Bdingen

Fig. 1: Factory Bdingen/Germany

1957: Mr. Schwarz-Schilling became managing director and share

holder
1957: Invention (by Otto Jache), patent and start of production dryfit
Gel Technology; first VRLA battery
1965: First dryfit licence contract with Globe Union (JCI)
1978: First dryfit Gel 2V cells
1987/88: New factory (Weiden/Germany) for Gel 2V cells
1991: Sonnenschein joined the CEAC group
1992: Shut down of Berlin plant ( termination of starter battery
manufacturing)
1995: CEAC group bought by EXIDE (USA)
2000: EXIDE buys GNB Technologies (USA); new name:
EXIDE Technologies

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 3- Rev. 1, December 2003

2. FUNCTION OF VRLA-GEL-BATTERIES

2.1 Chemical Reactions

The following formula shows the chemical reactions as a so-called overall

reaction for discharge and charge:
Discharge
Pb + PbO 2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO 4 + 2H2O
Charge

During discharge (reaction from left to right side), the lead of the negative
electrode (active material) and the lead dioxide of the positive electrode
are transformed into lead sulphate. The sulphuric acid is transformed into
sulphate (lead sulphate) and water. The formation of water shows that the
acid concentration is decreased. On the other hand, the acid is diluted by
the formed water.

During charge (reactions from right to left), these processes take place in
the reverse direction.

2.2 Gassing, Recombination

A special feature of VRLA-batteries consists in the recombination of oxygen

during charge. The cycle starts at the positive electrode:

H2O O 2 + 2H+ + 2 e -

Water is decomposed and gaseous oxygen is formed. The hydrogen ions

remain dissolved in the electrolyte and are not released as gas. The
electrons move away via the positive electrode
What is happening now with the oxygen?
How does it make its way to the negative electrode?

In lead-acid batteries of the vented design with free electrolyte, it is

practically impossible for the oxygen to move to the negative electrode.
Immediately after having left the positive electrode, it bubbles up and
escapes through the vent plug.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 4- Rev. 1, December 2003

In VRLA batteries, a densely porous medium is offered to the oxygen to
facilitate its movement (AGM-batteries: pores in the glass mat; Gel-
batteries: cracks in the gel).
Fig. 2 shows a comparison between vented and VRLA-batteries.

Fig. 2: Gassing and recombination in vented lead-acid and VRLA batteries

At the negative electrode, the following reactions take place:

(1) Pb + O 2 PbO
(2) PbO + 2H+ + SO4 2- PbSO4 + H2O

(3) PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO 4 2-

The oxygen oxidizes lead to lead oxide (formula (1)). This lead oxide is
further transformed into lead sulphate with participation of hydrogen
dissolved in the electrolyte and sulphate ions (formula (2)). This represents
practically a discharge process. Further products of this reaction are water
and heat, in addition to the ohmic losses during charging. Thus, the oxygen
is recombined and water is re-converted. The circle is closed.
The recombination efficiency in Gel-batteries is

95 %, typically 98%.
Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 5- Rev. 1, December 2003
The continuous flowing current during charge reconverts the lead sulphate
into lead (formula (3)). One could say that in this way the negative
electrode is constantly acting with a charging process and therefore cannot
produce hydrogen. Otherwise, hydrogen would be produced which could
not be reconverted because recombination of hydrogen does not happen.
The hydrogen would be lost by diffusion through the cell container (gas
permeability of the plastic material!) and through the valve respectively.
The consequences would be increased loss of water.

So the negative electrode is never fully charged. This is supported by over-

dimensioning intentionally the negative active material. Naturally the
hydrogen production cannot be fully suppressed due to electrochemical
reasons. Especially unfavorable operating conditions (high charging
voltages and temperatures for instance) can provoke hydrogen production.
Anyway, hydrogen is also generated in small amounts during corrosion of
the positive plates.
The oxygen produces a defined over-pressure within the cell. This is quite
normal. The valve should not open at too low pressure because in that
case too much oxygen would escape and get irretrievably lost.
If the defined opening pressure is achieved (see chapter 3.4), the valve
opens for a short time and releases the accumulated gas. Under normal
operating conditions this gas consists mainly of hydrogen. Under
unfavorable conditions (high charge voltages at high temperatures, for
instance) oxygen would also escape.

The quantity of electrolyte is dimensioned in such a way that the battery

attains the expected design life under normal operating conditions, taking
into account
- the rate of recombination,

- the corrosion of the positive electrode (oxygen consumption!) and

- the losses b y diffusion through the cell container.

Gel-batteries have an electrolyte surplus anyway (see chapter 4.2).

Following amounts of gas were determined at Gel-batteries (table 1).

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 6- Rev. 1, December 2003

Charge conditions Measured [ml] Allowed [ml]

A 400

Float 2.3 Vpc 21.5 30

Over-charge 2.48 Vpc 94 300

A 500

Float 2.3 Vpc 5 30

Over-charge 2.48 Vpc 90 300

A 600

Float 2.23 Vpc 19 30

Float 2.25 Vpc 18.5 30

Over-charge 2.41 Vpc 300 300

A 700

Float 2.25 Vpc < 20 30

Over-charge 2.46 Vpc < 30 300

Table 1: Gassing acc. to IEC 896-2. Gassing rates measured per cell and
per Ah within 30 days. Gas consists of (approx.) 2/3 hydrogen
and 1/3 oxygen.
Over-charge voltage applied for tests only.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 7- Rev. 1, December 2003

3. DESIGN AND MATERIALS

Fig. 3: Design of a Gel-Valve-Regulated-Lead-Acid cell (Type OPzV )

(Gel = with gelled electrolyte, is not visible in the picture.
Other details are symbolical.)

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 8- Rev. 1, December 2003

3.1 Plate Construction and Alloys

All negative plates are pasted and have common grid design.
Alloy: Lead-Calcium (PbCa).

The positive plates of all monobloc b atteries have also pasted grids:
Alloy: Lead-Tin-Calcium (PbSnCa).

Gel-cells A 600 and A 600 SOLAR have positive tubular plates.

Alloy: Lead-Tin-Calcium (PbSnCa).

Calcium gives the grids mechanical stability and guarantees low gassing
rates. Tin is good for both, high corrosion resistance and high number of
cycles.

Highest numbers of cycles can be achieved with tubular plates as shown in

fig. 4. Die-casting realizes a very fine grain structure of the spines. The
gauntlet keeps the active positive material under high pressure avoiding
loss of active material.

b) Gauntlet and core, -

front view

a) Gauntlet and core (spine) c) Finished tubular plate

Fig. 4: Design of a tubular plate used in A 600 and A 600 SOLAR

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 9- Rev. 1, December 2003

3.2 Cell/Monobloc Containers

Three different kinds of material are used for containers and lids:

PP (Polypropylene)
ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Styrene Copolymer)
SAN (Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymer)

The materials are listed in tables 2 to 6 for the different battery types
together with the UL-classification regarding flammability.

Capacity Material UL - classification Remarks

Standard
12 Ah ABS UL 94-HB HB 1.6 mm
> 12 Ah PP UL 94-HB
Optional
12 Ah ABS UL 94-V0 1.6 and 3 mm
> 12 Ah PP UL 94-V2

Table 2: Lid and container material for A 400

Capacity Material UL-classification Remarks

Standard
16 Ah ABS UL 94-HB HB 1.6 mm
> 16 Ah PP UL 94-HB
Optional
16 Ah ABS UL 94-V0 1.6 and 3 mm
> 16 Ah PP UL 94-V2

Table 3: Lid and container material for A 500

Material UL-classification Remarks

Standard SAN UL 94-HB Halogen-free
Optional ABS UL 94-V0

Table 4: Lid and container material for A 600 and A 6 00 SOLAR

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 10- Rev. 1, December 2003

 Material UL-classification Remarks
PP 94 HB Halogen-free

Table 5: Lid and container material for A 700 (4V-, 6V-blocs)

Capacity Material UL - classification Remarks

Standard
17 Ah (SOLAR only) ABS UL 94-HB HB 1.6 mm
> 17 Ah PP UL 94-HB
Optional
17 Ah (SOLAR only) ABS UL 94-V0 1.6 and 3 mm
> 17 Ah PP UL 94-V2

Table 6: Lid and container material for SOLAR and SOLAR BLOCK

Distortion of container walls and lids

Gel-batteries work at a maximum internal cell pressure of approximately

0.1 to 0.15 bar ( = opening pressure of valves) because internal gas
recombination.

This pressure can cause slight bulging of the battery container walls and
lids.

When the battery is not in use, slight self-discharge, cooling-down during a

stand time and other chemical reaction inside the cells can result in an
under-pressure since the valves will not allow pressure to become
equalized from outside. This results in a "sucking in" (contraction) of
container walls and lids.

Distortion is visible especially at monoblocs with relatively high capacities

having large sizes of both, container walls and lids.

Bulging indicates a normal function. Contraction may indicate a deep-

discharged state.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 11- Rev. 1, December 2003

3.3 Terminal Posts

The pole construction and the design of the lead-through depend on the
battery type and capacity range.

Fig. 5 to 7 show the most common post designs of Gel-monoblocs and

Gel-cells. The post sealing in monoblocs is carried out by plastic coated
lead pole bushing or by design like back cuts.

5a) 5b)

Fig. 5: Terminals A 400, A 500

5a): coated pole bushing

5b): Bushing with back cut
5c): Pole bushing before post
welding

5c)

Gel-cells A 600 and A 600 SOLAR have a patented, so-called

Sonnenschein-Post allowing the positive terminals to lift. This lifting is due
to the growth of positive plates which is a normal effect during ageing. The
plate growth and terminal lifting, respectively, has to be absorbed by the
construction of the cells.
In fact, the double O-ring construction allows the positive terminals to
become lifted keeping the cell sealed regarding electrolyte and gas.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 12- Rev. 1, December 2003

Growing of about 7 to 8 mm is a normal effect for cells coming to the end of
life. The battery should be replaced latest if the second O-ring becomes
visible which is equivalent to a growth of approx. 10 mm.

Fig. 6: Design of a Sonnenschein-Terminal used for A 600 and A 600

SOLAR.

Fig.7: Cross section of a

Sonnenschein-Terminal

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 13- Rev. 1, December 2003

3.4 Valves

All Gel-batteries and cells are equipped by self-resealing valves. The

valves are always closed in normal operation. But, the valves open if a
specific amount of gas is accumulated inside a cell. This accumulation runs
faster under abnormal operational conditions (high charge voltage,
increased temperatures, for instance).
The principle of valves used for Gel-batteries is shown in fig. 8. Always the
same valve is used, but the used adapter depends on the battery type (see
fig. 9, for instance).

The valves operate with the following pressures (p):

Opening: 0.180 p 0.06 bar

Closing: 0.155 p 0.03 bar

The valves are approved regarding spark arresting. That means, the
construction of the valve (incl. a kind of labyrinth system) avoids that, for
instance, an outside spark could penetrate the valve destroying the cell
itself.

The valves used in Sonnenschein-Gel-batteries are UL-listed (Yellow card

MH 12546).

Gas outlet Valve cover Gas outlet

Valve body

Rubber cap

Sealing area

Gas inlet Gas inlet

Fig. 8: Valve system of Sonnenschein-Gel-batteries

(Valve without adapter and without protective cap)
Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 14- Rev. 1, December 2003
 O-Ring

Cage prevents that liquid comes into the valve

Fig. 9: Valve and adapter

4. SPECIAL FEATURES OF GEL-BATTERIES

4.1 Capacity Range, Properties, Applications

Sonnenschein-Gel batteries are available in a very wide capacity range

from 1.2 Ah to 3500 Ah depending on the requested application:
Sonnenschein A 500

1.2 to 200 Ah (C 20)

Service life: 6 years @ 20 C

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 600

Dedicated for universal stand-by

applications

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 15- Rev. 1, December 2003

 Sonnenschein A 400

5.5 to 180 Ah (C 10)

Service life: 10 years @ 20 C

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 600

Developed as medium life product

(e.g. for Telecom, UPS)

Sonnenschein A 700

21 to 280 Ah (C10)

Service life: 12 years @ 20 C

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 700

Developed as medium life product

(e.g. for Telecom, UPS)

Sonnenschein A 600

200 to 3000 Ah (C 10)

Service life:
15 to 18 years @ 20 C

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 1200

Long life product for sensitive and

high reliability application (e.g.
Telecom)

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 16- Rev. 1, December 2003

 Sonnenschein SOLAR

6.6 to 230 Ah (C 100)

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 800

(S12/85: 400)

For smaller solar applications

(e.g. for weekend houses, parking
meters, street solar stations)

Sonnenschein SOLAR BLOCK

60 to 330 Ah (C100)

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 1200

For medium power performance

(e.g. small solar stations, offshore
buoys, measuring stations)

Sonnenschein A 600 SOLAR

240 to 3500 Ah (C 100)

Cycle life acc. to IEC 896-2: 1600

For high capacity requirements

(e.g. solar and wind power
stations, power distribution
stations, telecommunication)

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 17- Rev. 1, December 2003

4.2 Deep-Discharge

Gel-batteries are proof against deep-discharge (acc. to DIN 43 539, part 5).

That means the battery is connected to a load resistor equivalent to a

discharge current of at least 2 * I 20 and kept in this state for 30 days. After
having disconnected the load and re-charged over 48 hours the battery a
capacity of at least 75% has to be achieved.

Gel-batteries withstand deep discharges much better than AGM-batteries

due to

- surplus of electrolyte and

- micro-porous separator used.

The following cell and monobloc types with equivalent nominal capacities
were compared regarding amount of electrolyte:

Cell type Amount of Amount of

electrolyte [%] electrolyte [%]
Vented (OPzS) 100
Gel-VRLA (OPzV- A600) 100 85 to 99
AGM-VRLA (Absolyte IIP) 61 to 68 55 to 64 7a

Monobloc type Amount of

electrolyte [%]
Gel-VRLA (A400) 100
AGM-VRLA (Marathon M, FT) 56 to 73 7b

Table 7: Comparison,- relative amounts of electrolyte

in cells (7a) and monoblocs (7b)

Of course, vented cells or monoblocs have always the highest amount of

electrolyte.

The comparison Gel vs. AGM states

1.5 to 1.7-times more electrolyte in Gel-cells and

1.4 to 1.8-times more electrolyte in Gel-blocs.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 18- Rev. 1, December 2003

What happens during a discharge, especially during a deep-
discharge?

- Sulphuric acid: Concentration decreases by conversion into

lead sulphate
- Water is generated
- The acid density comes closer to the density of water with
ongoing discharge
- Solubility of lead sulphate (also pure lead) increases at lower
acid density
Soluble in water
Solved ions in the electrolyte
- Lead ions re-convert to pure lead during a following re-charge
Re-converted lead growths as dendrites
Short circuits can be caused, - so-called soft shorts !

In Gel-batteries, the acid density does not decrease during a discharge,

e.g. a deep discharge, as much as in AGM-batteries due to the surplus of
electrolyte. Therefore, the tendency of generating short circuits is in Gel-
batteries not as strong as in AGM-batteries (the generation of dendrites is
supported in AGM-batteries due to the structure of the glass fiber mat).

In addition, the used micro-porous separator in Gel-batteries prevents short

circuits.

4.3 Heat Evolution and Dissipation

Due to less void volume in the separator/electrolyte less heat evolution

occurs in Gel-batteries compared to AGM-batteries by oxygen
recombination.
The heat dissipation in Gel-batteries is quite on the same level as in vented
batteries and much better than in AGM, - once again due to the surplus of
electrolyte.

The electrolyte of Gel-batteries is not only inside and between the plates
(AGM!). The Gel is filled completely to a level above the straps realizing a
direct contact to the container walls. By this, excellent heat dissipation is
guaranteed.

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 19- Rev. 1, December 2003

Efficient heat dissipation is necessary in order to avoid Thermal Runaway
in a VRLA-battery being operated under harsh conditions (e.g. high
ambient temperature, missing or insufficient air-conditioning, missing or
wrong temperature compensation of charge voltage). In fact, Thermal
Runaway has not occurred in Gel-batteries till now.

4.4 Acid Stratification

This term describes a non-homogeneous vertical acid distribution within a

cell. Origins are insufficient charging and the gravity effect.

Acid stratification occurs especially during cyclical applications. It causes

shorter battery life by effects like stronger corrosion and sulphation.
Therefore, acid stratification should be compensated during each re-charge
process.

Generation and compensation of acid stratification

Concentrated sulphuric acid is generated during all re-charge processes. It

has a higher specific weight compared to diluted acid.

Therefore, it trends to deposit in the lower parts of the cell container

directly after leaving the pores of the active material. One can measure, for
instance, 1.10 kg/l in the upper part of a cell whilst the acid concentration
may achieve 1.40 kg/l in the lower parts.

3 to 4% more Ampere hours than discharged have to be re-charged in

order to re-convert all active material. This is due to different charging
behavior of the positive and negative electrodes.

Acid stratification can be prevented by:

- High absorption of the generated sulphuric acid (escaping from

the pores of the active material) directly after leaving the pores
Therefore, Gel-batteries show no stratification
Absorption by AGM is lower compared to Gel

- In case of vented batteries (free flooded electrolyte) the

stratification cannot be prevented and has to be compensated

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 20- Rev. 1, December 2003

 at the end of charge by gas evolution. The gas bubbles mix the
electrolyte. The same effect can be achieved by inserting air
from outside.

Overall, a re-charging process is expressed by a charge coefficients (also

called charge factor). The following values represent charge coefficients
after a 10h-discharge:

- 1.04 to 1.06, typically 1.05, for Gel-batteries,

- 1.05 to 1.12, typically 1.08, for AGM-batteries and
- 1.15 to 1.30, typically 1.20, for vented batteries.

Due to reasons as mentioned above, clear differences between vented,

AGM- and Gel-batteries are visible regarding the charging coefficient.
In Gel-batteries, the acid stratification is quite zero.

Fig. 10 shows the relative differences between the lead-acid battery

systems regarding acid stratification.

kg/l

vented

AGM
below

top
AGM

vented

Number of Cycles

Fig. 10: Acid stratification in lead-acid battery systems

Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 21- Rev. 1, December 2003

Important Notice: The manufacturer of batteries EXIDE Technologies do
not take over responsibility for any loyalties resulting from this paper or
resulting from changes in the mentioned standards, neither for any different
national standards which may exist and has to be followed by the installer,
planner or architect.

EXIDE Technologies
Network Power
Im Thiergarten
63654 Bdingen (Hessen)
Phone: + 49 60 42 81 70
Fax: + 49 60 42 81 233
www.exide.com State: Dec. 2003
Industrial Energy, Technical Support - 22- Rev. 1, December 2003