Scientific Anarchism

Scientific Anarchism
Author(s): Herbert L. Osgood

Source: Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1889), pp. 1-36
Published by: The Academy of Political Science
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Volume IV.] March, 1889. [Number i.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
QUARTERLY.
SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM.
JN ANARCHISM we have the extreme antithesis of social-

ism and communism. The socialist desires so to extend the
sphere of the state that it shall embrace all the more important
concerns of life. The communist, at least of the older school,
would make the sway of authority and the routine which follows
therefrom universal. The anarchist, on the other hand, would
banish all forms of authority and have only a system of the
most perfect liberty. The anarchist is an extreme individualist.
Using the words of the famous revolutionary formula, he would
secure equality through liberty, while the socialist would secure
it through fraternity. The anarchist holds that the revolt
against authority, which began in the field of religion with the
Protestant reformation, and which was extended into the realm
of politics by the revolutionary movement of the last century,
will end, when carried to its logical and necessary issue, in the
abolition of all government, divine and human. He subscribes
to the doctrine contained in the opening sentences of the Dec-
laration of Independence. He also claims that men who, like
Jefferson 1 and Herbert Spencer, express great jealousy of state
control, would, if they were logical and true to their principles,
become anarchists and advocate the complete emancipation of
society.
1 "The Declaration of Independence contains numerous internal evidences to

show that, were Thomas Jefferson living to-day, he would be a pronounced anarch-
ist." liberty (the organ of the Boston anarchists), vol. ii, no. 5. "The anarchists
are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats." Article by Benj. R. Tucker, in
Liberty, vol. v, no. I6.
2 POLITiCAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. IV.
I. Proudhon.
Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elaborately formulated

by Proudhon. In the first part of his work, What is Property.?I
he briefly stated the doctrine and gave it the name anarchy,
absence of a master or sovereign. In that connection he said:
In a given society the authority of man over man is inversely propdr-

tional to the stage of intellectual development which that society has
reached. . . . Property and royalty have been crumbling to pieces
ever since the world began. As man seeks justice in equality, so society
seeks order in anarchy.
About twelve years before Proudhon published his views,

Josiah Warren2 reached similar conclusions in America. But
as the Frenchman possessed the originality necessary to the
construction of a social philosophy, we must regard him as
altogether the chief authority upon scientific anarchism.3
Proudhon, in his destructive criticism of existing institutions,
made constant use of the logical formula of Hegel: thesis, antith-
esis, and synthesis. Negation he called his first principle, as
that of God is in religion and thought in the system of Des-
cartes.4 He denied the truth of every dogma and showed the
contradiction or "Xantinomy " 5 existing in every human institution.
' See Tucker's translation, pp. 271-288.

2 For an account of this man, see Ely's Labor Movement in America, p. 238.
Also Warren's books: True Civilization an Immediate Necessity, and Practical Details
of Equitable Commerce. His views are best stated in Stephen Pearl Andrews' True
Constitution-of Government, New York, I852.
3 So far as I know, all scientific writers who have discussed Proudhon have placed
him among the socialists. But at the same time they have either expressly or tacitly
protested against the classification. It has always been admitted that he stands apart
from the other revolutionary leaders. In the light of the development of anarchism
during the last ten years, his position seems to be clearly defined. Amid all the
inconsistencies and contradictions which may be found in his works, his central
thought is clear. His contemporaries did not understand him because they had not
conceived of anarchism.
4 CEuvres complees, tome 6, p. 144.
5 In his Systeme des Contradictions economiques, tome I, p. 67, Proudhon explains
antinomy to mean a law with a double face or with two tendencies, like the cen-
tripetal and centrifugal forces into which attraction may be analyzed. These oppo-
site tendencies do not destroy one another, but if kept in equilibrium "are the pro-
creative cause of motion, life, and progress."
No. i.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM. 3
Like all a priori reasoners, however, he was forced to start with

a dogma, and this was that justice and certain rights -emphat-
ically those of liberty and equality -are natural, exist prior to
law, and furnish the criteria for judging all legal and social sys-
tems. He defined justice to be "the recognition of the equality
between another's personality and our own." 1 This, it will be
seen, is the golden rule put into philosophical language. Prou-
dhon, in fact, declares at the outset 2 that he accepts that decla-
ration of Christ as the correct rule of conduct; but he aims to
make it more precise and positive by expounding the idea of
justice which it contains. Every one should claim from others
the full recognition of the manhood in him, stripped of all its
accessories, and should yield the same recognition in return. If
with this were combined the humanitarian spirit, which Prou-
dhon called /quit/, or social proportionality, a perfect form of
society would be the result.3 Equality and liberty would be
harmonized, and both would be developed to the highest possi-
ble degree. Society, justice, and equality would then be three
equivalent terms. All unequal, and therefore unnatural, con-
ditions would disappear. Force would no longer be resorted
to. Everything would be regulated by reason and persuasion.
Thought, knowledge, virtue would hold undisputed sway.
Furnished with this ideal conception of society, which he had
deductively attained, Proudhon attacked and in his own opinion
demolished every institution which he found in society about
him. In his Systime des contradictions /conomiques he went
through the entire series of economic phenomena, -value,
division of labor, the use of machines, competition, credit, prop-
erty, international trade, taxation, population, -showing first
their beneficent effects and how they meet the needs of a pro-
gressive society, and then by way of antithesis their evil effects,
their fatal, tendency toward the development of inequality.
Like the socialists, he borrows from Adam Smith the doctrine
that labor is the true measure of value. The utilities which it
1 What is Property? trans. p. 231. Proudhon repeated this definition and ex-
pounded it at length in a six-volume work entitled La Justice dans la Revolution.
2 What is Property? trans. p. 26. 3 What is Property? trans. p. 242.
4 POLZITCAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
produces should always exchange in proportion to their cost.

In other words, cost should be the limit of price. But value in
exchange, arising from demand, is "antinomical" to value in
use, which arises from labor and utility. The two tend in dif-
ferent directions and become divorced. We have therefore
this result: that the more utilities are multiplied, the less
becomes their value. In the natural or perfect society, where
exchange-value and utility are held in proper equilibrium, this
would not be true, but the value of any product would be the
formula, or monetary statement, which would express the pro-
portion which the product bore to the sum of social wealth.'
Then the producer of a utility would receive its full value in
exchange. The laborer would reap the full benefit of improve-
ments in the methods of production, or, as Proudhon expressed
it, " all labor would leave a surplus."
The way in which Proudhon deals with other and less obscure
economic phenomena will be readily seen. For example: he
declares that the division of labor is a prime condition of social
progress. Without it, labor would be sterile, and neither wealth
nor equality could exist. But the principle, when followed out
to its natural consequences, becomes a most prolific source of
misery. The realization of justice in the economic sphere,
which is "to give equal wealth to each on condition of equal
labor," 2 is prevented. Hours of labor are increased; the con-
ditions under which the work is done grow worse; and the
laborer suffers mentally, morally and physically. He tends
downward to the condition of a serf, while his master, the
owner of the factory, becomes a moneyed aristocrat. The gulf
between the two grows ever wider, and association, education
or other schemes of improvement popular with economists can-
not bridge it. It would seem that the introduction of machines
might check the growing inequality, because through them the
forces of nature are made servants of man. They both increase
and cheapen production. They diminish the amount of human
labor necessary to accomplish a given result. The world can-
1 Systeme des Contradictions economiques, tome i, p. 82.

2 What is Property? trans. p. 234.
No. I.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISA. 5
not do without them. But they are gradually eliminating the

laborer, reducing his wages, making useless the trade which he
had learned and upon which he depended, causing over-produc-
tion, deterioration of products, disease and death.
Proudhon summed up his views on competition in these
words: "Competition destroys competition."'I By this he
meant that, though indestructible in its principle, competition
in its present form should be abolished. In fact, he believed
that it was slowly preparing the conditions necessary to its own
destruction. Monopoly and credit he treated in essentially the
same way, and so the remaining economic categories, till in the
problem of population as stated by Malthus he found the cul-
mination of human misery. The conclusion which he reached
was that we are living in a condition of anarchy; meaning by
that not absence of government, but the other signification of
the word, viz.: disorder, confusion.
We need not follow Proudhon further in the application of
his logical method to social facts. He claimed that by his bril-
liant dialectics he had reduced them all to absurdities, fraught
however with infinite harm. For the present purpose it is
more important to note what he considered to be the source of
the atitinomy, the cause of inequality and hence of misery and
decay. Like the socialists, he found this root of bitterness not
in man himself, not in the individual, but in society. Some-
thing was wrong in the form of social organization; some evil
institution had been allowed to develop which by its influence
had thrown the whole system into disorder. If this could be
swept away, order would be restored, the diseased organism
would become healthy and perfect. The Satan in the social
philosophy of Proudhon was property: not property right limited
by social expediency and high moral considerations, but the jzs
utendi et abutendi of the Roman law, the absolutely unlimited
right of private property. But he did not stop there. Property,
said he, is not a natural right, but is guarantded and upheld by
the state. Property and the state are correlative terms. The
two institutions are reciprocally dependent and must co-exist.
1 Systdme des Contradictions 6conoxniques, tome I, pp. 179 et seq.
6 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. IV.
The chief function of the state is that of police, the object of

which is to secure to individuals the enjoyment of their posses-
sions and of the privileges connected therewith. In the thought
of Proudhon, the essence of property was not the thing possessed
nor the act of possession, but the privileges, the power, the
possibility of gain, of obtaining rent, profit or interest which
accompanied it. To him private property in the exclusive
Roman sense was the very embodiment of inequality, and so
the efficient cause of all social evils. He sought to sum up in
the paradox, "property is robbery," the problem of human woe.
The laborer, the result of whose work is embodied in material
form, is the only producer. The proprietor, whether he be land-
lord or capitalist, is an unproductive laborer. He is a parasite
because he does nothing but consume. He receives without
rendering an equivalent. But since he owns the means of pro-
duction, he can appropriate a share of the laborer's products.
Because of the inequality thus developed, the tribute exacted
constantly increases. The laborer falls in debt and becomes
more and more dependent on his employer.' The tenant pays
for his land or house many times over, but neyer becomes its
owner. The commodities produced by the workman make his
employer rich. The interest paid by the borrower exceeds the
capital, but the debt is never paid. The proprietor virtually
exercises the rights which of old belonged to a seignior over
his vassal or to a master over his slave. The state, which is
organized force, legalizes rent, profit, interest, and protects
property owners while they plunder the rest of society. Hence
arises the poverty to which the masses of men are condemned,
and poverty is the mother of every form of crime. Society
thus appears amid terrible agony to be ever consuming itself.
These thoughts and more of a similar nature Proudhon
poured forth in volume after volume during the years immedi-
ately before and after the revolution of I848. He lived amid
the ideas, the enthusiasm for liberty and equality, from which
that movement sprang. So vividly did he see and feel the
I See the monograph entitled Banque d'Echange, in CEuvres completes, tome 6,

pp. I 50 el seq.
No. I.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM. 7
tragedy of human existence that he regarded revolution as

the only conserving force. He considered it inevitable, immi-
nent: no force could check its progress. It rested with society
only to determine whether it should be gradual and peaceful,
or violent.' He taught the theory of revolution as a permanent
factor in social life. Reaction, he said, could only quicken the
onward movement. The revolution must continue till right was
done, till justice was established.
According to Proudhon the great uprising of I789 was not
a revolution, but only an important step of progress.2 It was
an attempt to establish justice; but it failed, because it only
substituted one form of government for another. Had it abol-
ished government and instituted the rule of reason, it would
have been a genuine revolution. As it was, however, the work
of revolution was only half done. Parliamentary government,
democracy, the rule of the bourgeoisie took the place of the old
absolutism. The reign of force was not brought to an end,
but rather entered upon a new phase. Militarism continued,
though under a slightly different form. Now the contest is
waged for the control of the markets of the world rather than
for political supremacy. England has led the way in this strug-
gle by the development of manufacturing- and the overthrow of
her protective system.3 But monopoly supported by force is
as triumphant as ever. The corrupting influence of wealth is
seen in all departments of political life. Hence the work of
August 4 must be taken up where the Constituent Assembly
left it and carried on to completion.
To Proudhon, the revolution of i848 was the proclamation
of a new era. It meant the substitution of an economic and
social regime for one of a governmental, feudal and military
character.4 By this he meant not a system in which any
1 Systeme generale de la Revolution, p. 9. 2 What is Property ? trans. p. 32.

8 See chapter on Balance of Trade, in Systeme des Contradictions economiques,
tome 2.
4 Id&e generale de la Revolution, pp. 177 et seq. This idea was also enforced by
Proudhon in his speech delivered before the National Assembly, July 31, I848, in
reply to criticisms of the committee of finanice on his report in favor of gratuity of
credit. C3Euvres completes, tome 7, pp, 263-313.
8 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. 1V.
economic class should become dominant, its rule being based

upon political power, but, as he expressed it, an organization of
economic forces based upon contract and operating according
to the principle of reciprocity. This means the entire abolition
of the state and the transfer of the control of social interests
to individuals, acting either singly or in voluntary association.
Such is the programme of the anarchists. It will be interesting
to examine a little more closely the course of thought which
led Proudhon to adopt it.
Like all social reformers, he was led to the study and criticism
of society by the sight of human misery. In the early pages
of Whlat is Property ?I he says that perhaps he would have
accepted property as a fact without inquiring into its origin,
had all his fellow citizens been in comfortable circumstances.
As they were not, he wotild challenge this chief of social insti-
tutions and put it upon its defence. The result of his examina-
tion has already been stated. But property and the state he
found to be inextricably bound up together. The state, prop-
erty, inequality, misery, became to him synonymous terms. It
made no difference what the form of the government might be;
its essential nature remained always the same. History shows
that nations are revolving in a fatal circle of imperial despotism,
constitutionalism, democracy, and from this by political means
they can never escape.2
Experience finally proves [he says] that everywhere and always

government, however popular it may be in its origin, has taken sides
with the richer and more intelligent class against the poorer and more
numerous; that, after having for a time shown itself liberal, it has little
by little become exclusive and partial; finally, that, instead of main-
taining liberty and equality among all, it has, because of its natural
inclination toward privilege, labored obstinately to destroy them.
1 Translation, p. 53. In La Justice dans la Revolution, tome, 4, p. 291, Proudhon

spoke in most pathetic terms of the feeling of inferiority which oppressed him be-
cause of his inherited poverty. He felt powerless to raise himself to a position
among the learned and happy. He therefore resolved to search for the origin of
inequality. He found that the economists affirmed the natural origin and necessity
of inequality, while the revolution said that equality was the law of all nature.
2 For Proudhon's political philosophy see Idee generale de la Revolution, pp. i i i
et seq. Also Du Principe Federatif, CEuvres completes, tome 8.
No. I.] SCIEN7TIFIC AXARCHISM. 9
According to Proudhon, contract is the only bond which

can unite individuals into a society. But Rousseau's theory of
contract he rejects, and in the most admirable manner reduces
to an absurdity. He says that the idea of contract excludes
that of government. It imposes upon the contracting parties
no obligation but that which results from their personal promise;
it is not subject to any external authority; it alone constitutes
the common law of the parties; it awaits execution only from
their initiative.1 It should embrace all citizens, with their
interests and relations. If one man or one interest is left out,
it is no longer social. The welfare and liberty of each citizen
should be increased by the contracts; otherwise it is a fraud,
and should be overthrown. It should be freely debated, in-
dividually assented to, and signed, nomine propio, by all those
who participate in it. Otherwise it is systematic spoliation.
" All laws which I have not accepted I reject as an imposition
on my free will." 2 The true social contract has nothing in
common with the surrender of liberty or submission to a burden-
some solidarity. The premise from which Rousseau starts, viz.
that the people is a collective entity having a moral personality
distinct from that of the individual, is false. The conclusions
drawn from it, viz. the alienation of liberty for the sake of all,
a government external to society, division of powers, etc., are
equally false. Rousseau has in his theory misrepresented
social facts and neglected the true and essential elements of
contract itself. His theory is like a commercial agreement with
the names of the parties suppressed, the values of the products
and services, the conditions of quality, delivery, price, etc., in
short all essential things omitted, and with only the penalties
and jurisdictions given. In other words, the theory is absurd.3
1 Idee generale de la Revolution, p. II 7.

2 Idee generale de la Revolution, p. I38. In Du Principe F6deratif, p. 53 n.,
Proudhon defines a law to be " a statute arrived at as the result of arbitration between
human wills."
3 In connection with the history of political theories it is interesting to note what
the anarchists have to say about the doctrine upon which the American Revolution
was fought, and its conformity with actual political facts. Lysander Spooner, in his
Letter to Grover Cleveland, says: " It was once said in this country that taxation
without consent is robbery. But if that principle were a true one in behalf of three
10 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
Equally without reason in their practical operations are the

constitutional systems of government, whether monarchical or
republican, which are based upon this theory. The election
is the pivot about which they revolve. Its fundamental idea is
decision by number or lot. In what respect is this principle
better or more just than generation, the basis of the family;
than force, the basis of the patriarchate; than faith, the central
dogma of the church; than primogeniture, upon which aristoc-
racy rests ? Elections, votes never decided anything. Inferior
matters of little importance may be decided by arbitration; but
important things, the organization of society, my subsistence,
I will never submit to an indirect solution. I emphatically
deny that the people in elections are able to recognize and
distinguish between the merits of rival candidates. But when
presidents and representatives are once chosen, they are my
masters. What do numbers prove? What are they worth?
You refer my interests, subsistence, etc., to a Congress. What
connection is there between the Congress and me? What
guarantee have I that the law which the Congress makes and
hands to me on the point of the bayonet will promote my
interest ?1 Furthermore, how can I, in such a situation, main-
tain my dig-nity as a sovereigrn and party to the social contract ?
The democratic theory is thus an attempt to harmonize two
millions of men, it is an equally true one in behalf of three men, or of one man.
Who are ever taxed without their consent? Individuals only. Who then are robbed,
if taxed without their consent? Individuals only. If taxation without consent is rob-
bery, the United States government has never had, has not now, and is never likely to
have an honest dollar in its treasury." As soon as taxes are paid, he says further,
all natural rights are lost. The individual cannot maintain them against the police
and armies which the government will procure with the money.
1 For another brilliant specimen of the destructive criticism which the anarchist
applies to representative government see Prince Krapotkine's chapter on that subject
in his Paroles d'un Revolte, Paris, 1885. One could not wish to see the demos
krateo principle more completely demolished than it is here. The superficiality
and crudity of the notion that great public questions can be properly decided by
elections; the petty self-seeking of politicians and party managers, to say nothing of
their positive corruption; the disturbing influence of parliamentary tactics; the
enormous disparity between the knowledge and strength of the legislator and the
number and magnitude of the public questions with which he has to deal, are
admirably stated and illustrated. The files of any daily newspaper will substantiate
it all.
No. I.] SCIEXTIFIC AKARCIISM. I I
wholly inconsistent principles, those of authority and of con-

tract. The origin of authority is in the family. The necessity
for the maintenance of order, for the establishment of an arti-
ficial, and therefore of an impossible, harmony between indi-
vidual and common interests, is the only argument in its favor.
This means that government is based upon force, is in its
nature and operation wholly arbitrary. The belief that the
people, either collectively or individually, consent to its acts,
or that the will of the people can be ascertained, directly by
the pb!biscite or indirectly through so-called public opinion, is a
superstition. It is one of the fictions with which the law and
politics abound. But, Proudhon would say, if it were really
possible that the majority should rule and carry its desires into
effect, its government would be as tyrannical as that of a single
despot, for it would impose upon the citizen the will of another,
it would violate the true principle of contract.
Returning then to the point whence we started, it appears
that Proudhon's social ideal was that of perfect individual liberty.
Those who have thought him a communist or socialist have
wholly mistaken his meaning. To be sure there is an expres-
sion here and there in his works which savors of communism,'
but when more closely examined it will be found to be in
harmony with the general trend of his thought. No better
argument against communism can be found than is contained
in the chapter on that subject in the Sys?me des Contradictions
iconomiques. In What is Property? he speaks of communism
as follows:
The disadvantages of communism are so obvious that the critics

never have needed to employ much eloquence to thoroughly disgust
1 See, for example, What is Property? trans. p. 244, where he says that "ine-
quality of wages cannot be admitted by law on the ground of inequality of talents."
But on p. 132 of the same treatise he explains hiis meaning as follows: "Give me a
society in which every kind of talent bears a proper numerical relation to the needs
of the society, and which demands from each producer only that which his special
function requires him to produce, and, without impairing in the least the hierarchy
of functions, I will deduce the equality of fortunes." This means that utilities must
be brought into such perfect proportionality that there will be just as many Platos
and Newtons as are needed and no more. The same shall be true of all other pro.
ducers down to the lowest grade.
men with it. The irreparability of the injustice which it causes, the
violence which it does to attractions and repulsions, the yoke of iron
which it fastens upon the will, the moral torture to which it subjects the
conscience, the debilitating effect which it has upon society, and, to
sum it all up, the pious and stupid unifomity which it enforces upon
the free, active, reasoning, unsubmissive personality of man, have
shocked common sense, and condemned communism by an irrevocable
decree.'
This passage, together with his famous sayings: " Commun-

ism is inequality "; " Communism is oppression and slavery ";
" Property is the exploitation of the weak by the strong, com-
munism is the exploitation of the strong by the weak," furnish
sufficient documentary evidence upon the question. Proudhon
regarded the rise of socialistic and communistic opinions as an
added sign that the times were out of joint. Writers of that
school make a diagnosis of the social disease very similar to
his own, but when it comes to the application of the remedy
Proudhon differs from them in most essential particulars.
Proudhon believed that if the state in all its departments
were abolished, if authority were eradicated from society, and
if the principle of laissez faire were made universal in its
operation, every form of social ill would disappear. According
to his view men are wicked and ignorant because, either
directly or indirectly, they have been forced to be so: it is
because they have been subjected to the will of another, or are
able to transfer the evil results of their acts to another. If
the individual, after reaching the age of discretion, could be
freed from repression and compulsion in every form, and know
that he alone is responsible for his acts and must bear their
consequences, he would become thrifty, prudent, energetic; in
short he would always see and follow his highest interests.
He would always respect the rights of others; that is, act
justly. Such individuals could carry on all the great industrial
enterprises of to-day either separately or by voluntary associa-
tion. No compulsion, however, could be used to force one to
fulfil a contract or remain in an association longer than his
1 What is Property? trans. p. 259.
No. I.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM. I3
interest dictated. Thus we should have a perfectly free play

of enlightened self-interests: equitable competition, the only
natural form of social organization. The dream which had
floated before the mind of the economist of the Manchester
school would be realized.
Among the different forms of monopoly wrhich afflict society
at present, Proudhon considered the money monopoly to be
fraught with the greatest evil.' By this he meant, in the first
place, the selection of two commodities, gold and silver, from
among all the rest, to be the standard of value and the inter-
mediaries in all exchanges. This gave them sovereign power,
established as it were the monarchical r6gime among com-
modities; for he who possesses money, the universal repre-
sentative of value, can command wealth in all its forms. To
metallic money, in course of time, the idea and forms of credit
were added. This greatly facilitated exchange and made more
convenient the form of the circulating medium. But the issue
of paper, as well as of metal money, was made a monopoly,
in the hands either of the government, or of bankers designated
by the government. In all the more important business opera-
tions paper has taken the place of metal, and property may
now almost be said to exist in the form of credit documents.
Those who issue and deal in these virtually control the rate
of interest and, through that, rent and prices. Proudhon con-
demned usury as strongly as did Aristotle or the medieval
theologians. To him it was the direct result of monopoly, and
the taking of it, theft. Its percentage indicated the rapidity
with which the borrower was being expropriated. According
to his view, if usury or interest could be abolished, monopoly
in every other form would fall with it. Rent and profits, con-
sidered as the return which the proprietor can exact by virtue
of his position as monopolist of land and of the instruments of
production, would disappear, and wages or reward for actual
service would alone remain. In one of his brochiures,2 written
I Proudhon's theory of money and credit may be found in the sixth volume of his
Complete Works, and in the second volume of his Economic Contradictions.
2 Organization du Credit et de la Circulation, lEuvres completes, tome 6, pp.
89-131.
14 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. IV.
during the excitement of the revolution of I 848, Proudhon

recommended that the state should take the initiative and, first,
reduce incomes by a progressive scale, increasing the percent-
age of reduction with the size of the income. Then prices
should be lowered to an equivalent degree. This should be
followed by a corresponding reduction of taxation. By these
measures the industrial equilibrium would be maintained,
hoarded capital would be brought out, and general prosperity
would ensue. He thought, however, that in order to help the
peasantry and prevent their migrating to the cities this policy
should not be applied to agriculture. Proudhon did not attempt
to justify such wholesale confiscation of incomes by the state,
but said that it was necessary to resort to it preparatory to the
organization of credit.
This suggests the most important feature of Proudhon's
scheme of social reform. His idea was that in the perfect
social state services should exchange for services, products for
products. To this end money must be abolished; for so long
as products and services are exchanged for it, discount, interest,
and other forms of tribute to monopoly must be paid. As a sub-
stitute for money he would "generalize the bill of exchange."
Now the whole problem of circulation consists in generalizing the
bill of exchange; that is to say, in making of it an anonymous title, ex-
changeable forever, and redeemable at sight, but only in merchandise
and services.'
In other words, using the language now current in the money

market, he would base bank paper upon products. By means
of the bill of exchange he would mobilize all products, make all
as readily exchangeable as money is now. It was this which
Proudhon in company with Coignet tried to do in Paris by
means of their banque d'Achange or banque du peu.ple, established
there in I848.2 Its operations however were soon brought to
' CEivres completes, tome 6, pp. 114 el seq.

2 The theory was first stated by one Fulerand-Mozel in x8x8. He founded such an
institution at Paris in I829, and another at Marseilles in 1832. In I848, John Gray,
a Scotchman, tried to carry the same theory into practice in Edinburgh, and published
a book upon it, entitled Lectures on the Nature and Use of Money, Edinburgh, 1848.
See Courcelle-Seneuil, Traite des Operations de Banque, pp. 411 et seq. Also, by
the same author, Liberte et Socialisme, pp. 0oo et seq.
No. I.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM. I5
an end by the exile of its founder. Let us see what results

Proudhon hoped would follow from his plan, if it could have
been carried into successful execution.
"In obedience to the summons of the government, and by
simple authentic declaration," as many producers from every
department of industry as could be induced to do so, should
unite, draw up articles of agreement and promise to abide by
them. They would in this way organize the bank. Every sub-
scriber should keep an open account at the institution and bind
himself to receive its notes at par in all payments whatsoever.
The bank would thus do the ordinary business of deposit and
issue. " Provisionally and by way of transition, gold and silver
coin will be received in exchange for the paper of the bank, and
at their nominal value." But as the new institution should
grow in popular favor and become universal, gold and silver
would go out of use as the exclusive bases of currency. They
would be estimated solely as commodities.
What reason had Proudhon for believing that his bank, if
put into open competition with moneyed institutions as they
now exist, unsupported by the state, would out-compete them
all, force them to close or to change their method of doing busi-
ness and, finally, entirely reorganize society ? It was this: the
bank would charge no interest or discount on loans and would
pay none on deposits. Nothing whatever would be taken or
received for the use of capital. The only charge made by the
bank would be enough to pay its running or office expenses.
These would never amount to more than one per cent and
probably could be reduced as low as one-half of one per cent.
" Services should exchange for services, products for products."
Reciprocity is the principle at the basis of the plan. The fact
that no interest was charged would attract borrowers from the
other banks and thereby force capitalists to place their funds
with the new bank.
But this plan may be viewed from another standpoint, which
will give it a familiar look to those who are acquainted with the
most advanced socialistic schemes. If producers living at differ-
ent places could know at the same time their mutual needs,
I 6 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
they could exchange their products without the use of money.

The bank could furnish that knowledge and so bring producers
and consumers together. What it could do for one community,
a network of banks could do for a nation or for the civilized
world. This could be effected without the interposition of a
government. The bank need not even own warehouses or
magazines for the storing of commodities. The producer could,
while keeping possession of his product, consign it to the bank
by means of a bill of lading, bill of exchange, etc. He would
receive in return notes of the bank equal to the value of his
consignment, minus a proportional share of the cost of running
the establishment. With these he could purchase of other pro-
ducers, made known to him if necessary by the bank, such com-
modities as he desired. Meantime the bank would find for him
and all others who had dealings with it purchasers of their
goods. Thus supply would be adapted to demand; over-pro-
duction and crises would be prevented. Every one would be
assured of a market for whatever product or obligation he might
possess, through the general intermediary, the bank. The bank
would deal in credit documents, notes, mortgages, etc., if prop-
erly indorsed and secured.
It will be seen at once that, if this form of exchange should
become universal, rent, profits, interest, every form of proprie-
tary and capitalistic expropriation would disappear. The bank,
if it ever became strong enough, would fix the reward for the
use of property of all kinds and for effecting exchanges. The
former would be nil, and the latter, as we have seen, would be
less than one per cent. For example, Proudhon argued,' while
the process of transition was going on, capital would flow toward
city lots and buildings and reduce their rents till the conditions
prevailing in "laborers' cities" should become approximately
universal. Rents would only yield enough to make good the
capital spent in building, repairs and taxes. Finally, the com-
mune could decree the abolition of rent by providing that after
a certain time all payments should be carried to the account of
the property, which itself should be valued at twenty-five times
1 CEuvres completes, tome IO, p. 203.
No. i.] SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM. 1 7
the yearly rent. When the payments had been made in full,
the commune could give to the occupiers a title to perpetual
domicile, provided they kept the property in as good condition
as it was when the grant was made. Proprietors need not be
disturbed in the occupancy of their own estates till they pleased.
All changes, after the first mentioned above, must be made by
contract between citizens, and the execution of the contracts
should be intrusted to the commune. In this way Proudhon
would ultimately extend the capitalization of rent through the
agricultural districts of the nation and everywhere transform
proprietorship into possession. He claimed that the saving of
wealth made possible by the abolition of interest would be so
great, and the stimulus thereby given to production so strong,
that all public and private debts could be quickly paid off, taxa-
tion reduced and finally abolished. The expense of administer-
ing government would be correspondingly lessened. But with
the permanent and abounding prosperity which would be felt
by all classes in the nation, poverty, the cause of crime, would
gradually disappear. Courts and police administration would
then be no longer necessary. Finally, as the new system ex-
tended among the nations, their internal well-being would so
increase that wars would be no longer necessary. Hence the
army and the navy could be dispensed with and diplomacy would
become a lost art. By this process of development the depart-
ments of finance, of justice, of police, and of foreign affairs would
disappear. There would be no more use for them. The state
itself then would be thrown aside like an old and worn-out gar-
ment, and society would enter upon a new period of existence,
the period of liberty and of perfect justice. This is what Prou-
dhon thought could be accomplished through the organization of
credit. Then the perfect individual described above would need
only freedom and the equality of conditions insured by freedom
to reach the highest development of all his powers. Such is
the anarchistic ideal. Proudhon has repeatedly set it forth. I
quote one of the passages:
Capitalistic and proprietary exploitation everywhere stopped, the giving

and receiving of wages in its present form abolished, exchange equal and
I8 POLITICAL SCEF-NCE QUARTERLY [VOL. IV.
really guaranteed, value constituted, a market assured, the principle of

protection changed, the markets of the globe opened to the producers
of all countries; consequently the barriers broken down, old international
law replaced by commercial conventions, police, justice, administration
put everywhere into the hands of those engaged in industry; economic
organization taking the place of the governmental and military regime in
the colonies as well as the mother countries; finally the free and uni-
versal commingling of races under the sole law of contract; that is the
revolution.'
II. Thze Individualistic Anarchists.
Proudhon's theory is the sum and substance of scientific

anarchism. How closely have the American anarchists adhered
to the teachings of their master?
One group, with its centre at Boston and with branch asso-
ciations in a few other cities, is composed of faithful disciples of
Proudhon. They believe that he is the leading thinker among
those who have found the source of evil in society and the
remedy therefor. They accept his analysis of social phenomena
and follow his lead generally, though not implicitly. They call
themselves Individualistic Anarchists, and claim to be the only
class who are entitled to that name. They do not attempt to
organize very much, but rely upon "active individuals, working
here and there all over the country." 2 It is supposed that they
may number in all some five thousand adherents in the United
States. But they measure their strength by the tendency
towards greater liberty which exists in society. The progress
of liberty everywhere and in all departments of social life they
welcome as an added pledge of the future realization of their
ideal. So they would reckon the nominal adherents of anarch-
ism, the potential anarchists, by the hundreds of thousands.
Their views and plans are deductions from the theory of Prou-
dhon. They are a commentary on bis works, an extension and
occasionally a clarifying of his thought. It will be necessary,
1 Idee generale de la Revolution, p. 297. In Justice dans la Revolution, tome 2,

pp. 99- 134, may be found one of the best statements of Proudhon's views of the future
system of industrial and political federation, and of the method of transition to it.
2 Letter from Benj. R. Tucker, at present the leader of the Boston anarchists.
however, to explain more precisely the attitude of the anarchists

toward the political and social institutions of this country.1
They, like Proudhon, consider the government of the United
States to be as oppressive and worthless as any of the European
monarchies. Liberty prevails here no more than there. In
some respects the system of majority rule is more obnoxious
than that of monarchy. It is quite as tyrannical, and in a
republic it is more difficult to reach the source of the despotism
and remove it. They regard the entire machinery of elections
as worthless and a hindrance to prosperity. They are opposed
to political machines of all kinds. They never vote or perform
the duties of citizens in any way, if it can be avoided. They
would not pay taxes, if there were any means of escaping it.
Judges are regarded by them as the hirelings of power, and
courts as centres of despotism. They regard the proceedings
of legislative assemblies as vain and worthy only of contempt.
They would destroy all statute books and judicial decisions.
Josiah Warren stated the principle2 that, in the case of the
infliction of injury by one individual upon another, the govern-
ment might, with the consent of the injured person, interfere
and cause reparation to be made. But the penalty imposed
upon the offender should never exceed in amount the damage
which he had done. In accordance with this, the anarchists
contemplate for a time at least the maintenance of a mild
system of penal law, and with it trial by jury, though they do
not believe in compulsory jury service. As long as there are
individuals so imperfect that they insist upon infringing their
neighbor's rights, they must be restrained.
The anarchists have no words strong enough to express their
(lisgust at the scheming of the politician, the bidding for votes,
the studied misrepresentation of facts, the avoidance of serious
issues, and all the forms of corruption which stain our political
life. Our municipal governments furnish them unlimited mate-
' The following statements are taken directly from the columns of Liberty, the
paper published by the Boston anarchists; from Lysander Spooner's Letter to Grover
Cleveland; William B. Greene's pamphlet on Mutual Banking; Bakunine's God and
the State, and other books and documents recognized by the anarchists as authorita-
tive. 2 True Civilization, p. 12.
20 POLJITCAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV
rial for comment. They call attention to the immense labor

which it takes to keep the political machinery in motion, and
compare with it the little which is accomplished towards the
solution of the really important social problems. No good, only
evil, can be done by such methods. The influence of money
in politics, the wanton disregard of law by corporations and
the inability of our legislators and executives to restrain them,
the self-seeking which enters into all political contests and the
general lack of earnestness which characterizes them are to the
anarchist proofs that the state is decaying and will soon fall
to pieces at a touch. It is of no use, they say, to labor for any
of the plans of reform which are now agitating parties. The
state is too corrupt to be reformed: abolish it altogether.'
Concerning the family relation, the anarchists believe that
civil marriage should be abolished and "autonomistic" marriage
substituted. This means that the contracting parties should
agree to live together as long as it seems best to do so, and
that the partnership should be dissolved whenever either one
desires it. Still, they would give the freest possible play to
love and honor as restraining motives. They claim that ulti-
mately, by this policy, the marriage relation would be purified
and made much more permanent than it is to-day. They are
"free lovers," but not in the sense of favoring promiscuity of
the sexes. They hope to idealize the marriage relation by
bringing it under the r6gime of perfect liberty. They would
not restrain those who wish to practise polygamy or any social
vice.2 They view with abhorrence all efforts to prevent by
1 The anarchists believe that universal suffrage is a snare prepared to entrap the
unwary. As to the extension of suffrage to women, Lysander Spooner wrote: " They
have just as much right to make laws as men have, and no better; and that is just no
right at all." " Women want to put us all into the legislative mill and grind us over
again into some shape which will suit their taste. Better burn all existing statutes."
Liberty, vol. ii, no. 22.
2 Liberty, vol. i, no. 12: "' Liberty therefore must defend the right of individuals
to make contracts involving usury, rum, marriage, prostitution, and many other things
which it believes to be wrong in principle and opposed to human well being." --
Some of the anarchists hold to the monogamic ideal; others reject it, believing in what
they term " variety," which they distinguish from promiscuity in the sense that human
refinement is distinct from bestial recklessness. One of the most eloquent pleas for
the monogamic family ever made is Proudhon's Amour et Mariage. He was utterly
opposed to divorce. See CEuvres completes, tome 24.
No. r.] SCZEATrTZFC AArARCHZSM. 21
legislation and through the interference of the police the traffic

in obscene literature. This is not because they wish to uphold
vice: on the contrary, they desire the purification of society,
but believe that it can be brought about only by the abandon-
ment of every form of compulsion. Organize credit, let people
know that the individual must endure all the results of his con-
duct, and that he will be held responsible for the deeds of no
one else, and in process of time vice will disappear. The opera-
tion of self-interest will secure its abolition. In no sense do
the anarchists advocate community of wives.' They desire to
preserve the home and to keep the children in it, subject to
parental government, till they reach such a degree of maturity
that they can assume the responsibilities of life for themselves.
Family government should secure its ends by reason and love,
rather than by force. Should the parents separate, the young
children will go with the mother. While the children remain
in the family, there would of course be an opportunity for their
education; but, after they leave parental control, that, like every-
thing else, would depend solely upon their own choice. Com-
pulsory education is inconsistent with the anarchistic system.
Proudhon, who wrote the eloquent prayer to the God of
liberty and equality which concludes the first part of WhZzat is
Property? spurned the God of the bible as the chief antagonist
of man and foe of civilization.2 The problem of human evil
drove him to this conclusion. He found a fatal antinomy be-
tween God and man. Man's nature involves constant progress
and development, while that of God is fixed and unchangeable.
Therefore as man advances, God retrogrades. Man was created
deformed rather than depraved, and a Providence, called all-wise
and beneficent, has therefore condemned him to eternal misery.
To Proudhon such a being possessed the worst qualities of man
intensified and expanded till they reached the scope of deity.
What the state is in politics and property in economics, God is
in religion, a source of inequality, oppression and woe. The
1 See Proudhon's bitter condemnation of this in his chapter on Communism and

Population, Contradictions 6conomiques, tome 22, pp. 258 et seq.
2 See chapter on Providence in Contradictions economiques, tome x, pp. 351 et seq.
idea of authority originates in the conception of God; there-

fore, as Bakunine said: " If God existed, it would be necessary
to abolish him." I "Who denies his king, denies his God,"
said Proudhon. Yet, though the anarchists believe that the
church is one of the bulwarks of the state and that its spirit is
essentially hierarchical, they uphold the doctrine of absolute
religious freedom. Those who choose to believe in religion and
to worship the Christian God, or any other divinity, should be
permitted to do so without molestation. But every form of
worship should be self-supporting. "Let the hearer pay the
priest." If religion is of any value, let it be shown in open
and free competition with all other forms of belief.2 The
anarchists of to-day are wholly atheistic, and will probably
remain so, however much their number may be increased.
It thus appears that the anarchists have a programme which
is as simple as it is sweeping. To every social question they
answer laissez faire, laissez passer. Throw off all artificial
restraint. Leave men to themselves. Liberty is the great,
the only educator. Every question will solve itself by the
operation of natural laws. All that is needed is equality of
conditions. They are anti-monopolists pure and simple. Re-
ferring to the contest for the abolition of slavery, they compare
themselves to the abolitionists proper 3 and constitutional repub-
licans to the colonizationists. The latter are constantly apply-
ing palliatives; there is but one remedy, and that is the destruc-
tion of inequality at the source. Therefore the anarchists who
are strictly logical, while they sympathize with all criticism
unfavorable to existing institutions as tending to weaken confi-
dence in the state, refuse to co-operate with any party of social
or political reformers.4 They believe that there is no positive
power for good in association; therefore co-operative schemes
1 God and the State, trans. p. 17.

2 Idee gen6rale de la Revolution, p. 26I.
3 Any standard history of the anti-slavery conflict, or the files of the Liberator,
will show the close connection between the doctrines of the Garrisonian wing of the
abolitionists after about I840 and those of the anarchists. The appeals of the aboli-
tionists to " the higher law" were decidedly anarchistic.
4 See discussion carried on in Liberty, vol. iv, I886 and I887, between Tucker
and Henry Appleton.
have no attraction for them. Attempts to deal with men in

the mass, to educate them by united effort, do not awaken their
confidence.
I do not admit [says Tucker] anything except the existence of the

individual as the condition of his sovereignty. . . . Anarchy has no
side that is affirmative in the sense of constructive. Neither as anar-
chists nor as individual sovereigns have we any constructive work to do,
though as progressive beings we have plenty of it.
Again:
History shows that liberty results in more perfect men, and that
greater humani perfection in turn makes increased liberty possible. It
is a process of growth through action and reaction, and it is impossible
to state which is antecedent and which consequent. But the action of
propagandism is more effective when brought to bear upon institutions
and conditions, than when aimed immediately at human nature. So we
do not preach the gospel of goodness, but teach the laws of social life.
It naturally follows, from what has been said, that the anar-
chists who fully accept the doctrines of Proudhon believe that
a long process of evolution is necessary before their programme
can be put into successful operation. They are opposed to the
use of violence:
But one thing can justify its exercise on any large scale, viz. the
denial of free thought, free speech and a free press. Even then its
exercise would be unwise, unless repression were enforced so stringently
that all other means of throwing it off had become hopeless. Blood-
shed in itself is pure loss. When we must have freedom of agitation,
and when nothing but bloodshed will secure it, then bloodshed is wise.
But it must be remembered that it can never accomplish the social
revolution; that that can never be accomplished except by means of
agitation, investigation, experiment and passive resistance; and that,
after all the bloodshed, we shall be exactly where we were before, except
in our possession of the power to use these means. . . . The day of
armed revolution is gone by. It is too easily put down.'
Again:
What we mean by the abolition of the state is the abolition of a false
philosophy, or rather the overthrow of a gigantic fraud, under which
1 Liberty, vol. iv, no. 3, May 22, i886, editorial suggested by the bomb-throwing
at Chicago.
people consent to be coerced and restrained from minding their own

business. The philosophy of liberty can be applied everywhere; and he
who successfully applies it in his family, in the place of avenging gods,
arbitrary codes, threats, commands and whips, may easily have the sat-
isfaction of abolishing at least one state. When we have substituted our
philosophy in place of the old, then the palaces, cathedrals and arsenals
will naturally fall to pieces through neglect and the rust that is seen to
corrupt tenantless anid obsolete structures.'
Or, stating the anarchistic programme a little more definitely,

it is expected that political corruption and capitalistic tyranny,
coupled with revolutionary agitation, will after a time so under-
mine respect for law and confidence in government that it will
be possible for a small but determined body of anarchists to
nullify law by passive resistance. When the experiment has
once been successfully tried, the masses of men, tired of the
old system, will accept the new as a welcome deliverance.
Then it will no longer be possible to enforce obedience to law.
People will meet in conventions, organize upon the principle of
voluntary associations, and choose their natural leaders.2 These
leaders however can exercise no authority, but only use persua-
sion and advice coming from a wider practical experience.
Those who do not wish to follow, may go their own way. Each
individual can take possession of and use what property in land
and raw materials he needs, but he must not thereby infringe
the equivalent right of every other person. Property, thus,
must be so used as to contribute to the highest social weal.
Human nature will be so purified from gross selfishness that
it is believed that the system of private property can be pre-
served formally intact. All the functions of social life, now
classed as public and private, will be performed by individuals,
either singly or in voluntary association. The system of mutual
banking will be established, or, as the American anarchists
express it, each man will be allowed to issue his own notes,
based upon such property or security as he may command, and
make them circulate as far as he is able.3 In banking, in carry-
1 Liberty, vol. i, no. I9.

2 See a description of this process in Liberty, vol. i, no. 5.
n See Spooner's Letter to Grover Cleveland.
ing of the mail, in railway and telegraph business, as in every-

thing else, the fittest institutions and companies will survive.
These results-the banishment of crime, the elimination of
poverty, prosperity so great and generally diffused that the
spectre which Malthus raised will never return to affright
society, perfect solidarity combined with perfect individuality,
the true harmony of interests, the reign of righteousness, the
golden age, the millennium -will be realized and made perma-
nent, not by multiplying the bonds which unite society, not by
increasing administrative machinery and strengthening the ten-
dencies toward centralization, as the socialists propose, but by
perfect decentralization, by destroying all political bonds and
leaving only the individual, animated and guided by intelligent
egoism. In a society thus regenerated the anarchists expect
that their system of agitation will culminate.
III. The Communistic Anarchists.
The Individualistic Anarchists accordingly profess to have

very little in common with the Internationalists. The latter are
Communistic Anarchists. They borrow their analysis of ex-
isting social conditions from Marx, or more accurately from the
"communistic manifesto" issued by Marx and Engels in I847.1
In the old International Workingman's association they con-
stituted the left wing, which, with its leader, Bakunine, was
expelled in I872. Later the followers of Marx, the socialists
proper, disbanded, and since I883 the International in this
country has been controlled wholly by the anarchists.2 Their
views and methods are similar to those which Bakunine wished
to carry out by means of his Universal Alliance, and which
exist more or less definitely in the minds of Russian Nihilists.
Like Bakunine, they desire to organize an international revolu-
tionary movement of the laboring classes, to maintain it by
means of conspiracy and, as soon as possible, to bring about a
1 In Freiheit the manifesto is constantly referred to as of the first importance.

2 See proceedings of Pittsburg Congress, I883, and the manifesto there issued
in Freiheit, Oct. 22 and 27, I883. Also Ely's Labor Movement in America, p. 228,
and appendix.
general insurrection. In this way, with the help of explosives,

poisons and murderous weapons of all kinds, they hope to de-
stroy all existing institutions, ecclesiastical, civil and economic.
Upon the smoking ruins they will erect the new and perfect
society.' Only a few weeks or months will be necessary to
make the transition. During that time the laborers will take
possession of all lands, buildings, instruments of production
and distribution. With these in their possession, and without
the interposition of government, they will organize into associa-
tions or groups for the purpose of carrying on the work of
society. To Krapotkine and the continental anarchists the
commune appears best suited to become the centre of organiza-
tion. The idea of the Russian mir, or of the primitive village
community, is also very attractive to them. They would carry
the principle of local self-government to an extreme. They
would have no centralized control beyond that pertaining to the
village or city, and, within that, the actual exercise of authority
should be restricted as far as possible. A member, if dis-
satisfied, would be allowed to retire at any time and join another
commune. The members of the commune would jointly con-
trol all its property and business. Perfect community of rela-
tions would exist within each group. The spirit of enterprise
would be kept up by competition between the communes or asso-
ciations. The larger ones would contain within themselves
productive groups enough for the satisfaction of nearly all the
needs of their inhabitants. Where such should not be the case,
commodities could be obtained by inter-communal traffic. The
industrial bonds thus established would prevent strife and war.
Thus universal peace would prevail after the final catastrophe
of revolution was passed, and by no possibility could the state,
1 For full details as to the "propaganda of deed," see the files of Most's Freiheit;
the Chicago Alarm and Arbeiter-Zeitung; and Most's Science of Revolutionary War-
fare, an outline of which was printed as a part of the testimony in the Anarchists'
case at Chicago. The testimony in that case is given in outline in Northeastern
Reporter, vol. 12. The speeches of the anarchists and a history of the trial (favor-
able to the condemned) has been issued by the Socialistic Publishing Society of
Chicago. - In book form, the most important statement of the programme of the
Communistic Anarchists is Krapotkine's Paroles d'un Revolte, Paris, s885. See also
Ely's Labor Movement in America, and Laveleye's Socialisme contemporaine.
NO. 1.1 SCIENTIFIC ANARCHISM-. 27
the system of force, revive. This is the ideal of the Com-

munistic Anarchists.' It is the system of economic federalism:
the substitution of the free competition of local groups, holding,
property in common, for the complex social order which now
exists. Within this social order, nations and national hate will
no longer exist; a purely economic reginme will take their place
and make political struggle impossible. It is claimed that this
is essentially different from all the older communistic schemes,
because with the destruction of the state and of religion the
basis upon which authority could rest would be entirely re-
moved. The earlier writers and experimenters, like Babceuf,
Cabet, Owen, are called state communists, because they pro-
posed to establish their system with the aid of government or
under its grants and protection. This later plan is purely anar-
chistic. The earlier apostles would destroy liberty; the later
would preserve it in a perfect form, make it consistent with a
stable society, and harmonize it with the greatest possible
equality.
1 "We desire no property. All that exists upon the earth must serve for the satis-
faction of the needs of all. The appropriation of these things, -of land, mines,
machines, and in general of all instruments which contribute toward producing the
necessities of mankind, which should serve the community, and which can be produced
only by the co-operative efforts of all humanity, - the appropriation of these things
as the property of individuals or of certain groups is the retaining of them to the
exclusion of their rightful possessor, the community, it is robbery committed against
the latter. We would see it abolished. If all the instruments of production were
once restored to the possession of the community, then would the latter by a rational
system of organization care for the satisfaction of human needs, so that all men who
are able to work could be supplied with useful occupation, and every one could
secure the means necessary to an existence worthy of a human being. . . . But
with private property will disappear at once the chief supports of all civil authority.
For only upon the gradation of classes which private property produces could that
instrument of popular oppression, the state, be erected." Freiheit, Oct. 31, I883.
"What we are striving after is simply and clearly: I. The destruction of the
existing class rule, and that by the use of all possible means, by energetic, pitiless,
international revolution. 2. The establishment of a free society based upon com-
munity of goods. 3. Associative organization of production. 4. Free exchange of
products of equal value by the productive associations themselves, without middlemen
or profits. 5. The organization of education upon an altruistic, scientific, and equal
basis for both sexes. 6. Regulation of all public affairs by the free social contracts
of autonomous communes and associations resting upon a federalistic basis."
Freiheit, Oct. 13, I883.
" NVhile communism will form the basis of the future society, anarchy, absence of
government, is the future form of public organization." Freihteit, Dec. 15, 1883.
28 POLJTICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
The difference between the ideals of these two bodies of

anarchists, when traced back to its source, seems to spring
from this. Proudhon, in his search for the root of social evil,
hit upon the principle of authority, of monopoly and privilege
supported by it and indissolubly connected with it. If that
could be eradicated, private property would no longer be fraught
with harm and might continue. That was the order of his
thought. All socialists, however, from Rodbertus and Marx
down, have considered private property and competition to be
the cause of poverty and the evil entailed thereby. They have
not gone back of property and competition to find the source of
their perversion in the legal system which sanctions and up-
holds them. Therefore the followers of Proudhon primarily
attack the state and proceed from that to their criticism of
property right. On the other hand the Communistic Anar-
chists direct their chief assaults against private property, and
through those are led to seek the entire overthrow of the state.
Proudhon really leaves the individual member of his regenerated
society with only the right of possession, of usufruct conditioned
upon his subordinating his interest to the common weal. What
restrictions this would practically lead to, neither he nor any of
his followers, so far as I know, have ever shown.1 On the other
hand the Internationalists, though believing that hitherto force
has been the instrument of all human progress, yet protest
that it will be banished from society when organized according
to their ideal. Absence of government, Herrschaftsloszgkeit, is
their ideal, as well as that of the disciples of Proudhon. The
declaration of principles issued by the International in I883
stated that the economic functions of society should be per-
formed by free associations, and that they should also "sby
free social contracts " regulate all public affairs. The tend-
ency of their writings seems to be in substantial harmony with
1 In an editorial in Liberty, vol. i, no. 3, are the following statements: " We do

not believe that any one can stand alone. We do wish social ties and guarantees.
We wish all there are. We believe in human solidarity. We believe that members
of society are interdependent. We would preserve these interdependencies untram-
melled and inviolate, but we have faith in natural forces. The socialists wish a
manufactured solidarity, we are satisfied with a solidarity inherent in the universe."
this.1 The truth seems to be that the one party has been led by
its abhorrence of authority to dilute its communism, while the
other, to ward off the charge that its theory leads to a bellum
omnium contra omnes, has left the way open for a plentiful
infusion of public spirit and humanitarian motives. The result
is that, with the perfected individual whom they both contem-
plate, the ideal social states of the two anarchistic schools, if
ever realized, would be very similar. Both must from the
necessities of the case take largely the form of voluntary asso-
ciation.2 If on the other hand the individual remained imper-
fect, a'nimated very often by passion, ambition, and the lower
forms of self-interest, the system of federalism would neces-
sarily degenerate into the strictest communism, while the sys-
tem of individual sovereignty would plunge society into the
worst evils of unrestricted competition. In either case the
restoration of the state in some form would be a necessity.
Yet, whatever may be true of their ideals, the methods of
reaching them which are advocated and practised by the two
anarchistic schools are wholly different. The one expects to
attain success through a long process of peaceful evolution
culminating in perfect individualism. Although extremely hos-
tile to the church, their programme, so far as it concerns human
relations, is essentially Christian.3 Christianity first posited
the individual as distinct from society, and began the process
of freeing him from the restraints of the ancient political sys-
tem. The strongest historical impulse toward the perfection of
the individual has come from Christianity. The Individualistic
Anarchists show its influence most clearly, for there is a decided
tinge of Quakerism in their attitude toward the state.4 But
1 See various articles in Freiheit, I885 and I886, containing a discussion with the
Individualistic Anarchists. Also Krapotkine's writings, especially two articles by
him in The Nineteenth Century for I887.
2 Proudhon in Du Principe Federatif, 1863, stated at length his belief that the
ultimate social system would be one of voluntary associations for specific purposes,
each member retaining his independence to the fullest possible extent. He also
claimed that local powers would increase as society advanced, so that in the end
liberty would win a complete victory over authority.
3 They must agree with many of the ideas expressed by Tolstoi in My Religion.
4 See Bancroft's account of the principles of the Quakers, History of the United
30 POLITICAL SCJEAcE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
the Communistic Anarchists are revolutioinists of the most

violent sort. They form the extreme left wing of the modern
revolutionary movement. They teach materialism and atheism
in their most revolting forms. The method which they propose
to use for the destruction of society and the institution of the
new order is beneath scientific consideration. It is fit only to
be dealt with by the police and the courts. It furnishes the
strongest possible proof of the necessity of authority and of
a government to enforce it. Thus the plots of one body of the
anarchists are among the most serious obstacles in the way of
society ever being able to assume that form which the other
group desires.
IV. Concb,sious.
Having stated as objectively as possible the thcory of an-

archism, what is to be said concerning it?
In the first place it is useless to claim that it is wholly a for-
eign product, and for that reason to clamor for restrictioins upon
immigration. Newspaper utterances on this phase of the sub-
ject have consisted too largely of appeals to ignorance and
prejudice. There probably are good reasons why immigration
should be restricted, but this should weigh very lightly among
them. It provokes a smile when we think that the agitation
carried on by a few thousand anarchists - probably not more
than ten thousand in all - should force this people to change
its policy in so important a matter as that of immigration. Such
a suggestion goes to confirm what the socialists say about the
cowardice of the bouirgcoisie. And then, unless the restrictions
were made so severe as to check the peopling of this country,
the spread of anarchism would not be prevented. Such crude
means do not reach the seat of opinion. Anarchism, so far
as it has a scientific basis, is, like socialism, a natural product
of our economic and political conditions. It is to be treated as
such, both theoretically and practically. Anarchism is a product
States, vol. ii, pp. 336-355: " Intellectual freedom, the supremacy of mind, universal
enfranchisement, - these three points include the whole of Quakerism, as far as it
belongs to civil history.
of democracy. It is as much at home on American soil as on

European. The general belief to the contrary is one of the
survivals of the notion that Providence has vouchsafed us a
peculiar care and an especial enlightenment. If we wished to
argue that anarchism is a peculiar and characteristic American
product, reasons would not be lacking. Our political system is
based on the ideas of liberty and equality. The minds and the
writings of our revolutionary heroes were full of the theory of
natural rights and social contract. The founder of one of our
political parties was a living embodiment of that theory. The
anarchists ask for no better statement of their premises than
the opening sentences of the Declaration of Independence.
From the standpoint of the doctrine of natural rights, it is
impossible to overthrow their argument. Theoretically no fault
can be found with the way in which Proudhon dealt with
Rousseau, nor with his statement of what he considered to be
the true doctrine. But Proudhon by his analysis showed the
total lack of historical basis for the theory in any form, and at
the same time its practical absurdity. It appears, then, that
we might expect theoretical anarchism to originate either in
France or in America, because in those countries the notion of
social contract has played the greatest r6le. As a matter of
fact, it originated independently and at about the same time
in both, in the minds of Proudhon and of Josiah Warren, and,
leaving Russia for good reasons out of the account, in these
countries it has obtained most of its adherents. Then our
economic conditions, in the mining and manufacturing districts
and large cities, are so far similar to those of the old world, that
they may well occasion, when combined with the more inde-
pendent spirit prevailing here, the rise of theories very extreme
in their nature. Finally, the faults in our political system,
especially in municipal government and in the relations between
representatives of the people and corporations, are such as to
give a certain amount of justification to the criticisms of the
anarchists. These things furnish the food upon which such
criticism thrives. If we wish to find the source of anarchism,
we should contemplate the extremes of poverty and wealth
32 POLITICAL SCJEIrCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. IV.
which face each other in all our centres of population; weigh

the arrogance, brutality and vice, which prevail too much in the
employing class, over against the disappointment, hopelessness,
and positive suffering so common among the employed; study,
until it is definite and clear, the picture of manipulated caucuses,
purchased ballots and falsified returns, of bribery, direct or
indirect, in the halls of legislation, of political deals wherein
the interests of the locality or the country are sacrificed for
party success, of efforts on the part of the great majority of
public men to secure party triumph rather than the country's
weal; and consider, finally, the superficial nature of the ques-
tions at issue in nearly all political contests. In certain quar-
ters of this country, such is the rapidity with which one political
scandal follows another, so great the number of crimes of a
semi-public nature, so intense and essentially brutal the struggle
for wealth and power, that one is at times almost tempted to
say with Proudhon that we are living in a state of anarchy.
Our civilization at its great centres has a dark side, and an
exclusive contemplation of this side will make a pessimist of any
man. A profound dissatisfaction with very much that exists
in our political and social system is widespread among our most
intelligent population. Those who would look to the state for
a certain amount of efficient aid in solving the deeper problems
that confront us are always met by the thought: if this plan
should be carried out, it will enlarge the sphere of political cor-
ruption and open another field for partisanship. We had better
not increase the domain of state action till we have a better
organized state. The prevalent distrust of our legislative bodies
finds utterance in all newspapers and periodicals and even in
the state constitutions themselves. These are phenomena to
which it is useless, nay dangerous, to shut our eyes. The cry
of sentimentalism will not brush them aside. They are tangible
facts, as real as those celebrated in the song of triumphant
democracy.
But, admitting that our civilization is thus imperfect, does
that prove that it is wholly bad or that anarchism has anything
better to offer ? It is noticeable that the anarchist, in carrying
No. i.] SCIEATTILFC AATARCHISM. 33
on his crusade against the state, avails himself of the freedom

of the press and assembly, and of the protection which the state
gives to his person and property so long as he does not attempt
to destroy the life or property of anybody else. He also uses
the post office, the telegraph, the railway and all other means
at hand for spreading intelligence. He uses the printing press,
a good quality of paper, and movable metal type. In all his
daily life he employs commodities and lives in buildings which
have been produced or constructed under the capitalistic sys-
tem of production, guaranteed by the state. He makes use of
knowledge and practical experience, formulates scientific truths,
employs arguments and illustrations, appeals to moral ideas and
motives, which have been developed in society and have become
its common possession since the state came into existence.
Really the whole substratum of his work, material, mental, and
moral, is furnished by a politically organized society. The
vantage ground on which he stands, and from which he works,
is not of his own construction, but has been built for him by
the labor of all the preceding generations. These different
classes of facts, which we have space only to hint at, represent
the progress of civilization hitherto; they constitute its favor-
able side, and should be marshalled over against the wrongs
and evils mentioned above. How did the anarchist get the con-
ception of the indefinite perfectibility of man, except through a
knowledge of what has already been accomplished? The civil-
ized man is so far in advance of the savage that we can scarcely
measure the difference. But all this progress has been made
since government originated; most of it before the dogma of
popular sovereignty was ever heard of. It was achieved in
ages when the control of the state reached the innermost con-
cerns of the individual, when in fact the conception of an indi-
vidual apart from the state and the organic whole of society was
not known. Shall I not then infer that the state, the principle
of authority, is the cause of all good? Would it not be quite as
logical and justifiable as to argue that it is the cause of all evil ?
Would not the former conclusion stand the test of historical ex-
amination quite as well as the latter ? In the one case the in-
duction would be quite as satisfactory as in the other.
But this whole method of reasoning, whatever the purpose for

which it is used, is fallacious. No social or political institution,
no form of organization, is in itself responsible for all the evils
of society. The alleged cause is not adequate to produce the
result. Here is one of the fatal errors in the entire socialistic
and anarchistic argument. Our friends of that way of thinking
indulge in a great deal of denunciation; but did they ever show
that the existence of the state and of private property makes A
cruel, B licentious, C avaricious, when they would not be so to
a greater or less degree under any conceivable organization
of society? The source of what we call social evil is in the
individual and in the limitations of external nature. Forms of
social organization have their influence, but it is wholly sub-
ordinate to these cardinal facts. Improvement can be made by
civilizing the individual and adapting his. social surroundings to
his enlarged needs, but progress is inevitably conditioned by the
forces of the world within us and the world around us.
The perfection of the individual is therefore an idle dream.
Man has lived for at least six thousand years upon the earth,
and, after making allowance for all the changes caused by in-
creasing civilization, the fundamental characteristics of human
nature remain the same. Man has the animal qualities com-
bined with the spiritual. He needs food, shelter and rest. In
the struggle to obtain the commodities which will supply these
wants, he is often dominated by the worst forms of selfishness
and passion. Because the supply of the necessities and comforts
of life is at least relatively limited, men monopolize them. Then
the development of social inequality begins. The degree of
knowledge, foresight, self-control which men possess is limited
and exceedingly variable. The results which they achieve differ
in proportion. View them as we may, these, and others like
them, are primlary facts; they lie beyond the reach of forms of
organization. They are always to be taken for granted in dis-
cussing any social system, whether real or ideal. Every scheme
of reform must adapt itself to them. Therefore no direct prac-
tical benefit can be derived from imagining a form of society
where perfect justice, liberty, and equality may co-exist, and
No i.] SCIENTIFIC AXARCHISA. 35
then applying it as a criterion to the existing order. There is

so little similarity between the criterion and the system judged,
that no satisfactory conclusions can be drawn. We must deal
with realities and pursue methods of reform which conserve and
promote all the best interests of society. This may be modest
and unattractive, but it is the only true or fruitful method. We
admit that society is imperfect, but the cause of imperfection
lies back of society. If the institution of private property re-
sults in unnecessary inequality, it is because it is controlled by
imperfect men. So it would be if we lived in voluntary asso-
ciations, or under any other imaginable system. Individuals
would remain essentially the same, and the old phenomena
of inequality would continue. The introduction of Proudhon's
system of credit would be accompanied by a great financial
crisis, the result of inflation. It would tend to make inflation
chronic. The scheme, as conceived by Spooner, would work
much as "wild-cat" banking did before the crises of I8I9 and
I837. After such convulsions in the business world, interest
would be certain to reappear, and it would be the salvation of
society if it did. As men are, and are ever likely to be, to
throw off restraint would be equivalent to the realization in
society of the Darwinian struggle for existence and survival of
the fittest. This does not open an attractive prospect in any
event. The trouble witb us now, especially in the workings of
our political system, is that the purely individualistic motives
are given too full swing. The cause of political corruption is
the predominance of self-seeking over public spirit.
For a justification of the state we need not construct any
artificial theory, like that of natural rights and social contract.
It came into existence with the dawn of society; it is as old as
the individual. The existence of society without it, that is
without organization and power in the organism to enforce con-
formity to the necessities of life and growth, would not only be
contrary to all experience, but is absolutely unthinkable. To
conceive society without government, the anarchists have to
construct an imaginary individual; and even in this imaginary
individual there is the possibility of lynch law and of the evolu-
36 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY.
tion of jury trial and state prisons. We see no prospect at

present of the lapse of society into the Kleinstaaterei of the old
German Empire, or into a state where all public questions will
have to be decided by Polish parliaments with the liberum veto
in full operation.
Still, practically the only answer to that which is reasonable
and just in the anarchistic argument is the pursuance of vigorous
measures of political and social reform, which shall sweep away
the evils among us that are degrading to any civilized people.
HERBERT L. OSGOOD.

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Scientific Anarchism

Author(s): Herbert L. Osgood

JN ANARCHISM we have the extreme antithesis of social-

1 "The Declaration of Independence contains numerous internal evidences to

Anarchism, as a social theory, was first elaborately formulated

In a given society the authority of man over man is inversely propdr-

About twelve years before Proudhon published his views,

' See Tucker's translation, pp. 271-288.

Like all a priori reasoners, however, he was forced to start with

produces should always exchange in proportion to their cost.

1 Systeme des Contradictions economiques, tome i, p. 82.

not do without them. But they are gradually eliminating the

1 Systdme des Contradictions 6conoxniques, tome I, pp. 179 et seq.

The chief function of the state is that of police, the object of

I See the monograph entitled Banque d'Echange, in CEuvres completes, tome 6,

tragedy of human existence that he regarded revolution as

1 Systeme generale de la Revolution, p. 9. 2 What is Property ? trans. p. 32.

economic class should become dominant, its rule being based

Experience finally proves [he says] that everywhere and always

1 Translation, p. 53. In La Justice dans la Revolution, tome, 4, p. 291, Proudhon

According to Proudhon, contract is the only bond which

1 Idee generale de la Revolution, p. II 7.

Equally without reason in their practical operations are the

wholly inconsistent principles, those of authority and of con-

The disadvantages of communism are so obvious that the critics

This passage, together with his famous sayings: " Commun-

1 What is Property? trans. p. 259.

interest dictated. Thus we should have a perfectly free play

during the excitement of the revolution of I 848, Proudhon

In other words, using the language now current in the money

' CEivres completes, tome 6, pp. 114 el seq.

an end by the exile of its founder. Let us see what results

they could exchange their products without the use of money.

1 CEuvres completes, tome IO, p. 203.

Capitalistic and proprietary exploitation everywhere stopped, the giving

really guaranteed, value constituted, a market assured, the principle of

II. Thze Individualistic Anarchists.

Proudhon's theory is the sum and substance of scientific

1 Idee generale de la Revolution, p. 297. In Justice dans la Revolution, tome 2,

however, to explain more precisely the attitude of the anarchists

rial for comment. They call attention to the immense labor

legislation and through the interference of the police the traffic

1 See Proudhon's bitter condemnation of this in his chapter on Communism and

idea of authority originates in the conception of God; there-

1 God and the State, trans. p. 17.

have no attraction for them. Attempts to deal with men in

I do not admit [says Tucker] anything except the existence of the

people consent to be coerced and restrained from minding their own

Or, stating the anarchistic programme a little more definitely,

1 Liberty, vol. i, no. I9.

ing of the mail, in railway and telegraph business, as in every-

III. The Communistic Anarchists.

The Individualistic Anarchists accordingly profess to have

1 In Freiheit the manifesto is constantly referred to as of the first importance.

general insurrection. In this way, with the help of explosives,

the system of force, revive. This is the ideal of the Com-

The difference between the ideals of these two bodies of

1 In an editorial in Liberty, vol. i, no. 3, are the following statements: " We do

the Communistic Anarchists are revolutioinists of the most