Physics option topic- medical physics

1.1 Identify the differences between ultrasound and sound in normal hearing range:

Sound in normal hearing Ultrasound

Characteristic
range
Frequency 20 Hz to 20 kHz Over 20 kHz - For medical imaging,
1.2 Describe the piezoelectric effect and the effect of 1 using
MHz 5an alternating potential difference
MHz
with a piezoelectric
Audibility crystal:
Audible to humans Inaudible to humans
The Piezoelectric Effect
Wavelength Longeriswavelength
the ability of certain materials (piezoelectric
Shorter crystal) to generate an electric
wavelength
charge in response to applied mechanical stress, and vice versa.
A potential difference (electric field) applied across the piezoelectric crystal causes the shape of the
crystal to change.
By rapidly and repeatedly reversing the polarity of the electric field, the crystal can be made to vibrate
(at the same frequency of the potential difference) and produce ultrasound.
Detection of ultrasound is done in the opposite way of production.

1.3 Define acoustic impedance and identify that different materials have different acoustic
impedances:
Acoustic impedance (Z) of a material measures how easily sound will pass through a material, and it is
defined by the formula: where Z = acoustic impedance
(kgm-2s-1)
p = density of the medium (kgm-
3
)

Different materials have different acoustic impedances; based on their density and the velocity of
sound in the material

1.4 Describe how the principles of acoustic impedance and reflection and refraction are applied
to ultrasound:
A change in acoustic impedance is required for reflection to take place at a tissue boundary in the body.
The produced ultrasound pulse travels through the skin of the patient until it reaches the boundary of
another medium.
Some of the ultrasound will reflect back to the transducer.
The refracted pulse of ultrasound further continues through the patients body until it reaches the
boundary of another medium. Again, the
same principles apply and some of the
ultrasound is reflected back to the transducer
and some is refracted.

The time between each pulse and its echo is

recorded and the distance/depth of each
boundary from the transducer can be
determined. A computer interprets this
information, and a scan of an ultrasound image is created.

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1.5 Define the ratio of reflected to initial intensity as:

where Ir = Intensity reflected back (Wm-2)

I0 = Intensity incident on surface (Wm-2)
z1 & z2 = acoustic impedances of media 1 & 2
-2 -1
(kgm s )

1.6 Identify that the greater the difference in acoustic impedance between two materials, the
greater is the reflected proportion of the incident pulse:
The difference between the acoustic impedances of the two mediums determines how much of the
ultrasound will be reflected and how much refracted.

If the difference is high, most of the ultrasound will be reflected back to the transducer and less will
penetrate through the next medium

1.7 Describe the situations in which A scans, B scans and sector scans would be used and the
reasons for the use of each:
Scan Type Description Example of use Reason for use
A scan A series of amplitude peaks The eye - to determine its The size of the
on a cathode ray oscilloscope size and the characteristics peaks provides
of the masses in the eye information about
Diagnose common sight the nature of the
disorders, determine a target organ
tumour forming inside the Simplistic nature
eye of the A-scan
Measure the diameter of a display one
babys skull during dimensional
pregnancy image
Requires less
complex
equipment
B scan Brightness scans show the Accurately image structures Simplistic nature
strength of the echo as a of the eye and give valuable of the B-scan
brightness signal on the information on the nature of display
cathode ray oscilloscope. its components
Looking at soft tissues
This type of scan is quite
useless by itself, but forms
the basis of a sector scan
Phase Many B scans occurring at Obstetrics Shows a large
scan different times due to pulses Abdominal investigations area
being sent randomly cardiography Produces good
quality images
Sector Series of B-scans added to Viewing the growth of a Produces clear,
scan form a fan-shaped, cross- developing foetus - detect real-time images
sectional image abnormalities or Produces a two
complications during dimensional
Many transducers are pregnancy, image
attacted to the probe. Detecting cysts, tumours, Only needs a
gallstones and kidney stones small entry

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

in the body window

1.8 Describe the Doppler Effect in sound waves and how it is used in ultrasonics to obtain flow
characteristics of blood moving through the heart:
Doppler effect = the apparent change in the frequency of sound when the source of the sound is
moving relative to its receiver

The ultrasound wave is produced by

the transducer and is reflected off the
moving blood flow. If the blood cells
are moving away from the
transducer, then the reflected wave
has a lower frequency than the
source wave.

Although, if the blood cells are

moving towards the transducer, the
reflected wave has a higher
frequency than the source wave.

1.9 Outline some cardiac problems that can be detected through the use of the Doppler Effect:

The frequency difference between the source wave and the reflected wave is called the Doppler shift
and can provide useful information on the blood flow characteristics:
o The speed of blood flow - velocity will increase where the blood vessel is narrowed
o The direction of blood flow
o Abnormalities in blood flow
o Partial blood flow blockages
o Leaking heart valve

1.10 Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information to describe how ultrasound
is used to measure bone density:

Can be used to detect the risk of osteoporosis - reduced bone density, leading to brittle bone
The patient inserts a foot into a warm water bath and ultrasound waves are directed through the heel.
The speed of the ultrasound through the bone and the degree of absorption (attenuation) are measured
Bone density is approximated using these measurements.
If a bone has a higher attenuation than normal, then it is a sign that too less calcium is present.

2.1 Gather information to observe at least one image of a fracture on an X-ray film and X-ray
images of other body parts:

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

2.2 Describe how X-rays are currently produced:

1. Evacuated glass envelope containing a cathode and an anode

2. Electrons are released from the cathode by thermionic emission and are focussed into a beam and
accelerated towards the anode by a very high voltage
electric field

3. An incident electron will be slowed

down by interacting with the
nucleus of a target atom tungsten

4. (1) The electrons kinetic energy is

converted to a photon of X-
radiation

5. (2) Some incident electrons

knock inner atomic shell
electrons from their orbitals. Other target atom electrons change orbitals to fill the gap and in doing
so release an X-ray photon
6. Produced X-rays are directed towards a small window in the chamber.

7. The X rays are detected on the photographic film, (below the patient)

2.3 Compare the differences between soft and hard X-rays:

Characteristic Soft X-rays Hard X-rays

Wavelength Longer Shorter
Frequency
3.1 Lower
Gather secondary Higher
information to observe a CAT scan image:
Penetration Less penetrating More penetrating
Image produced Low quality not used for imaging High quality used for imaging
Voltage applied Lower Higher

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

3.2 Explain how a computed axial tomography (CAT)

scan is produced:
1. CAT scanner produces a narrow X-ray beam

2. Data is collected through detectors after the beam

passes the patient

3. Computer measures the attenuation/signal strength at

different angles and uses a mathematical algorithm to
calculate the distribution of tissue density.

4. This is moved for 1 degree until 180 degrees has

passed.

5. Images are produced for many degrees

6. These slices are passed by a computer to produce a 2D image of a 3D image.

3.3 Describe circumstances where a CAT scan would be a superior diagnostic tool compared to
either X-rays or ultrasound:
Brain scans are particularly important for many patients and can only be conducted using CAT scan
technology which allows images of the brain to be taken, penetrating through the extremely dense
skull. These scans are also useful for scanning for abnormalities in the kidneys, lungs and liver able
to detect abnormalities of 1mm.

CAT scans can produce images of the brain with better contrast than ultrasound or X-rays
CAT scans over X-ray: CAT scans over ultrasound:
CAT can produce useful images of soft tissue, CAT scans can be used to image tissue
where X-rays do not produce useful images underlying bone (due to the high acoustic
impedance)
CAT scans produce two-dimensional images
of a cross section of the body shows depth, CAT scan has better resolution than
unlike with X-rays ultrasound, thus finer details are visible
better for viewing abnormalities.

4.1 Gather secondary information to observe internal organs from images produced by an
endoscope:

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

4.2 Explain how an endoscope works in relation to total internal reflection:

Endoscopes are optical instruments using light for looking inside the body to examine body organs,
cavities and joints. There are optical fibre bundles (incoherent) that directs light into the patient and
coherent bundles for collecting the visible image, and a guidance system.

In the optical fibres of the endoscope, light

undergoes total internal reflection by
reflecting off an inner glass tube which is
surrounded by a much denser outer cladding.
The light travels up this tube which is used to
transfer the light.

The glass cladding has a lower reflective index

(is less dense) than the core
When light hits the core-cladding interface at
an angle exceeding the critical angle, the light
is totally internally reflected, travelling along the length of the core.

4.3 Discuss differences between the role of coherent and incoherent bundles of fibres in an
endoscope:

Part description function Example

Incoherent fibres are Guides the light
bundles randomly to the area to
placed be examined.
alongside each BLURRY IMAGE.
other so that
the fibres are
not in the same
relative position
at the ends

Coherent fibres are kept Transmits the

bundles parallel to each image of the
other body part back
throughout to the eyepiece.
their length, so CLEAR IMAGE
that they are in
the same
relative position
at the ends

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

4.4 Explain how an endoscope is used in; observing internal organs & obtaining tissue samples
of internal organs for further testing:

Observing internal organs:

The endoscope has an optical fibre bundle (incoherent) that directs light into the patient, another
bundle (coherent) for collecting the visible image, and a guidance system.
The endoscope is inserted into the patient (commonly through the nose or anus) and is guided through
the body
A camera on the end enables the operator to observe the internal organs on the monitor, or through an
eye-piece (without a camera on the end)

Obtaining tissue samples of internal organs for further testing:

A tissue sample (biopsy) can be readily taken by a modified endoscope
The operator can introduce biopsy forceps through the endoscope to take a tissue sample.

5.1 Outline properties of radioactive isotopes and their half lives that are used to obtain scans
of organs:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons in the nuclei. In order to be safe for patients, they must:
o Have a short half life
o Rapid uptake in the desired tissue
o Rapid excretion from the body

Radioisotopes emit alpha (), beta () or gamma () radiation spontaneously - the radiation emitted
depends on the isotope. Penetration from least to most: , , .

Half-life - the time for half the radioactive material to decay. This is a characteristic property for a
specific isotope.

A number of radioisotopes can be used for diagnosis. They should only emit gamma () radiation, have
a short half life, be easily incorporated into convenient compounds and be made readily available at
high concentrations.
Isotope Half life Emission Uses
Cobalt -60 5.3 years Beta, gamma External beam therapy
Iodine -131 8 days Gamma, beta, Functional imaging and therapeutic applications for the
thyroid problems
Phosphorous- 14.3 days beta Treatment of excess red blood cells
32
Technetium- 6 hours Gamma Imaging of the skeleton, heart muscle, brain, thyroid,
99m lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver, spleen, kidney,
bone marrow

5.2 Describe how radioactive isotopes may be metabolised by the body to bind or accumulate
in the target organ:
A radioisotope is attached to a compound that would normally be metabolised by the organ of interest
called a radiopharmaceutical

E.g.1 the accumulation of fluorine in the body:

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 Physics option topic- medical physics
o A patient is given a quantity of dilute tagged fluorine to drink
o This passes throughout the body and accumulates wherever cancers are available.

E.g.2 the accumulation of iodine 131 in the thyroid gland:

o A patient is given a quantity of dilute tagged sodium iodide to drink
o This passes from the patients gastrointestinal tract into their bloodstream and accumulates in
the thyroid

5.3 Identify that during decay of specific radioactive nuclei positrons are given off:
A positron is the antiparticle of an electron a positive electron
Positrons are produced by Beta decay - in order to gain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons in the
nucleus.
Positrons are found when a proton disintegrates to form a neutron and a positron.
E.g. Decay of Carbon-11 to Boron-11:
11 11 0
6 C 5 B + +1 e -positron

5.4 Discuss the interaction of electrons and

positrons resulting in the production of
gamma rays:
When pharmaceuticals are injected (or inhaled) into the body, positrons (the antimatter of electrons)
are released as it decays, released from a nucleus when a proton changes into a neutron.

The emitted positron collides with an electron they annihilate each other.

In the process, their entire mass is converted to energy, which is emitted as two gamma rays travelling
in opposite directions. (180 degrees apart).

6.1 Gather and process secondary information to compare a scanned image of at least one
healthy body part or organ with a scanned image of its diseased counterpart:

Normal thyroid scan Hyperthyroidism over active thyroid

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 Physics option topic- medical physics
6.2 Describe how the positron emission tomography (PET) technique is used for diagnosis:
1. Production of positron emitting radioisotope in
a cyclotron substance of interest is labelled
with this radioisotope becomes a
radiopharmaceutical

2. Radiopharmaceutical is ingested by the patient

by injection or taken orally

3. Patient waits for a period of time allows time

to metabolise the radiopharmaceutical

4. As the radiopharmaceutical is decaying, it

emits positrons, which when collided with an
electron, produce gamma rays outwards.

5. Patient is placed onto the support these gamma rays are detected with the gamma
detector/camera.

6. Signals are sent to the computer for analysis.

7. This data is used to construct an image of the area of interest

8. From the image, a diagnosis can be taken according to intensity of shades/colours and the area in
which it occurs

6.3 Perform an investigation to compare an image of bone scan with an X-ray image:

In the X- Ray where the X-rays have been absorbed, it is lighter, where the X-rays just passed, it is
black.
In a bone scan, where it is inflamed or cancerous, it is black.
In a bone scan, it only indicates the structure, not the inner workings (Under or over active).

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.1 Identify that the nuclei of certain atoms and molecules behave as small magnets:
A nucleus contains protons and neutrons

The proton has a net positive charge, whilst the neutron has no charge

Each proton has an axis upon which

it spins. (moving charged
particles will create a magnetic
field.)

The spinning proton acts as a small

electric current loop

The current loop will develop a

magnetic field

Using the right-hand-grip-rule, the direction of the magnetic field can be determined.

7.2 Identify that protons and neutrons in the nucleus have properties of spin and describe how
net spin is obtained:

Protons and neutrons in the nucleus have a property called spin

Spins can be one way or the reverse

The spins add together to cancel each other out their spins align in opposite directions with each pair
o Even number of protons or neutrons net spin is zero
o Odd number of protons or neutrons possess a net spin

If there are any unpaired spins, the nucleus as a whole will have a spin termed net spin

7.3 Explain that the behaviour of nuclei with a net spin, particularly hydrogen, is related to the
magnetic field they produce:
A net spin can form a current loop creating
a magnetic field aligned along the axis of
spin

Nuclei with a odd net spin due to an unpaired

proton (i.e. with an odd atomic number) will
have a net magnetic field

Hydrogen has a single unpaired proton, thus

it will create a magnetic field aligned along
its axis of spin.

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.4 Describe the changes that occur in the orientation of the magnetic axis of nuclei before and
after the application of a strong magnetic field:
Before a strong magnetic field is applied; the atoms are all randomly orientated

After a strong magnetic field is applied; the atoms align themselves with the applied field because of
interaction between the nuclear magnetic dipole and the external field
o Nuclei can align parallel to the external magnetic field (lower energy state) or align anti-parallel
(higher energy state).
Before After

7.5 Define precessing and relate the frequency of the precessing to the composition of the
nuclei and the strength of the applied external magnetic field:
Precession is the movement where the rotational axis of a
spinning object revolves around another central axis [Note:
imagine a spinning top]

The frequency of precession is called the Larmor frequency which is

dependent on:
o the composition of the nuclei
o the strength of the applied external magnetic field

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.6 Discuss the effect of subjecting precessing nuclei to pulses of radio waves:

The nucleus of the element will only absorb the pulses of radio waves (resonance) and change their
alignment from parallel to anti-parallel if the radio wave frequency equals the Larmor frequency of the
element

The nuclei prefer to return to their original state in the magnetic field and as they do so, they re-emit
the energy absorbed from the radio wave (this process is called relaxation) these signals are used to
create the MRI image.

Original After subjected relaxation

Explain that the amplitude of the signal given out when precessing nuclei relax is related to the
number of nuclei present:
Only hydrogen nuclei are targeted to construct an MRI scan. The more hydrogen that are present, the
more nuclei are present. Thus:
o The brightness of the image is related to the intensity of radio waves received and is influenced
by the number of hydrogen atoms in a particular organ

Tissues that emit more radio waves in relaxation will appear bright on the screen whereas tissues that
emit less will appear dark

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.8 Explain that large differences would occur in the relaxation time between tissue containing
hydrogen bound water molecules and tissues containing other molecules:
Relaxation is the name of the processes whereby the nuclei return to random, out of phase,
precession. There are two relaxation processes, termed T1 and T2.

T1 (relaxation with other atoms) T2 (relation within itself)

Spin-lattice relaxation (T1), happens as Spin-spin relaxation (T2), happens as precessing
the precessing nuclei transfer their nuclei transfer their energy to other precessing
energy to other surrounding atoms in the nuclei
lattice o Large molecules found in tendons and
o Large molecules and bound muscles have a short T2, while free water
water molecules such as in has a long T2
fat, liver and spleen have a
short T1, while free water has a
long T1

T1 weighted = Fat and larger T2 weighted =Watery tissue and

molecules are bright, water is dark. diseased/cancers are more bright.
(used for tissue detail and body (investigates diseased areas)
structure.)

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.9 Perform an investigation to observe images from magnetic resonance image (MRI) scans,
including a comparison of healthy and damaged tissue:

In the damaged tissue brain, there is a higher presence of hydrogen nuclei, thus having higher
brightness. It is clear that much of the brain is swollen.

7.10 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information using available evidence to
explain why MRI scans can be used to; detect cancerous tissues, identify areas of high blood flow
& distinguish between grey and white matter in the brain:

MRI scans can be used to detect cancerous tissues because:

Cancerous tissues are areas of rapidly growing and dividing cells
Increased cellular activity is accompanied by an increased level of water (which contains hydrogen
proton) around the cells and increased blood flow to the tissue thus this makes cancerous tissues
show up well on MRI images
Cancer cells may contain hydrogen atoms that have different T1 and T2 relaxation times, and hence
may form a contrast with the surrounding tissues

MRI scans can identify areas of high blood flow because:

Blood is a watery fluid high blood flow means more water can be detected as a brighter image
Tissue and blood are pre-saturated with radio waves the saturated blood flows elsewhere, allowing
fresh blood to absorb the radio waves and later re-emit them for the reconstruction of the blood vessel
anatomy

MRI scans can be used to distinguish between grey and white matter in the brain because:
Grey and white matter have different biochemistry hydrogen atom density and bonding differ
between grey and white matter
Thus, they have different T1 and T2 relaxation times showing distinctive contrast on MRI images,
allowing grey and white matter to be easily distinguished

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.11 Gather and process secondary information to identify the function of the electromagnet,
radio frequency oscillator, radio receiver and computer in the MRI equipment:
Equipment Function
Electromagnet Supplies very strong, uniform magnetic field
Causes atoms to align and precess
FLOW CHART for MRI
Radio Frequency Produces radio wave pulses equal to the Larmor frequency of the target nuclei,
Oscillator so they will be absorbed by the hydrogen atoms
Operator
Causes atoms positions
to flip intopatient in state
anti-parallel MRI
Radio Receiver A set of coils that detect the returning radio waves (upon relaxation) and
digitise them for later processing
Computer Analyses the returning radio waves by intensity in the x, y and z coordinates,
to form an image
ELectromagnet supplies the magnetic field. The electric field affects
the protons.

The larmor frequency is applied from the RF oscillator. The hydrogen

atom flips and then the oscillator is turned off.

The hydrogen atom releases radiowaves which are picked up by the

recievers.

The gradient field is sent to the computer (for location). THe data is
then processed and the image, constructed.

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 Physics option topic- medical physics

7.12 Identify data sources, gather and process information to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans and MRI scans:
Imaging Advantages Disadvantages Best use
Ultrasound Safe Limited resolution Imaging pregnant
Non invasive Works bad with bone woman
Fast Endocrinology to
Widely available scan the thyroid gland for
cysts
Imaging the heart +
blood flow.
X-ray Cheap Uses ionising radiation Routine lung
Simple to use Radiation dose is scan/screening
Readily available cumulative Bone imaging (good
Quick imaging Does not show soft resolution)
Good bone resolution tissue well
Does not show
functioning
CAT scan Resolution better Uses ionising radiation Abdomen scan
than X-ray Radiation dose is Soft tissues of joints
Can show three cumulative Bone scan
dimensions Does not show
Can remove functioning
unwanted layers More expensive than
X-ray

PET scan Shows organ Uses ionising radiation Imaging the chest
functionality Expensive and Brain scan (functional
Gives nervous system uncommon + for tumours)
detail Poor resolution Bone scan (cancer +
Requires care with fractures)
radioisotopes

MRI scan Can show three Very expensive Imaging the brain and
dimensions Scanning takes a long spinal cord.
Can remove time Heart image and
unwanted layers Hazards with implants circulation
Gives high resolution Claustrophobia when Areas of soft tissue.
Excellent soft tissue imaging
contrast High skill in using it is
Can show needed
functionality
Gives nervous system
detail
Safe to use for most
patients

7.13 Gather, analyse information and use available evidence to assess the impact of medical
applications of physics on society:
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 Physics option topic- medical physics

A. Health
Medical applications of physics provide better and earlier diagnosis and better monitoring of a range of diseases and
conditions. This contributes to a healthier society. For example, tuberculosis was a widespread disease in Australia.
Chest X-ray screening was instrumental in virtually eradicating this disease. This has led to a healthier society.
B. Economics
Medical applications of physics are expensive to install and to operate. This is an economic burden. Society as a
whole has to weigh up the benefits of the technology against these costs. Society has to decide upon how these
costs can be met. Issues of equity and provision of service to remote areas are economic issues. For example, MRI
machines are over $1 million each to buy and require highly skilled operators. Provision of increased medical
physics technology for an aging population is in part an economic issue.
C. Ethics
Using medical applications of physics introduces ethical issues. The moral and ethical values we have as a society
underpin our legal system. Medical applications of physics give us knowledge and can present us with issues that
our value systems have to adjust to.
For example, ultrasound is commonly used to image foetal development. Knowledge of foetal problems presents a
dilemma to the prospective parents.
Society as a whole has to confront the ethical issues that are raised. This process can be emotive and challenging
and lead to societal unrest.
D. Knowledge
Medical applications of physics have contributed an enormous amount to our knowledge of the structure, function
and development of the human body. Society uses this knowledge to provide for better and more efficient health
provision. For example, keyhole surgery is a much cheaper and less invasive procedure that has been made possible
by endoscopy.

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