Agro-knowledge Management Crop Series No.

Plantations Under Drip Fertigation

Dr. V. Praveen Rao

Agro-Knowledge Management

Agro-Knowledge Management
Agriculture Division
Netafim Ltd.,
161 Arlozorov St., Tel Aviv, Israel 64922
 2006, NETAFIM Ltd., ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the Publisher, Netafim Ltd., Israel

Disclaimer: The package of practices given in this crop-growing manual is based on limited experimental data
and need not be applicable to all banana-growing regions. Further bunch yield is a function of several
interactive factors viz., soil, crop, climate, biotic and abiotic stresses besides the management level of the
farmer. Therefore the company does not guarantee the production levels mentioned in the booklet, in every
location where the package is adopted.

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Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Distribution 4
3. Nutritional importance 6
4. Growth physiology 7
5. Climatic requirement 10
6. Soil requirement 12
7. Varieties 14
8. Site selection 15
9. Land preparation 15
10. Cropping systems 16
11. Planting material 17
12. Time of planting 21
13. Planting density 22
14. Planting configuration under drip 23
15. Drip fertigation system 25
16. Crop rotation 28
17. Weed control 28
18. Water management 29
19. Fertigation 39
20. Bunch propping 57
21. Denavelling 58
22. Bunch covers 58
23. Desuckering 61
24. Ratoon sucker selection 62
25. Leaf removal 63
26. Mulching 63
27. Wind breaks 65
28. Plant protection 65
29. Harvesting, Transporting, Handling, Ripening & Storage 67
30. Fruit yield 70
31. Economics 70
32. References 73

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1. Introduction
Bananas are grown in all tropical regions and play a key role in the economies of many
developing countries. In terms of gross value of production, bananas are the worlds fourth most
important food crop after rice, wheat and maize. They are not only a staple food crop for millions of
people, but they also provide an essential source of income through local and international trade.
Bananas are the worlds most exported fresh fruit in terms of volume and value. It is generally
agreed that bananas have the potential to contribute to strengthening national food security and
decreasing rural poverty. Increasing populations, especially in developing countries, will require
increased food production, and therefore efforts to increase banana production should be
intensified. World consumption in 1998 2000 stood at an average 15.3 kg per caput; developed
countries at some 13 kg per caput and developing countries at 21 kg (almost entirely domestically
produced). In addition, the diversification of products produced from the plant can help to add value
to the product, thus generating more income and employment for rural populations. Commercial
production of bananas (Musa paradisiacal L.) for export or local market requires field management
practices which are intensive, scientifically applied, costly, and demanding on equipment,
chemicals, infrastructure, facilities and transport. The demand and price of bananas is increasing
continuously and many traditional farmers attempt to grow more in order to progress from
subsistence to a cash economy basis. In this case, improved methods of cultivation, within the
resources of the farmer, are required to boost the level of productivity and sustain it.

2. Distribution
Bananas and plantains are perennial crops that grow quickly and can be harvested all year
round. They were cultivated on an area of some 4.44 million hectares in year 2005; world
production averaged 72.47 million tonnes per annum in 2005 with 16.32 tons/ha productivity (FAO,
2006). These figures are an approximation because the bulk of world banana production (almost
85 percent) comes from relatively small plots and kitchen or backyard gardens, where statistics are
lacking. In many developing countries, the bulk of banana production is self-consumed or locally
traded, thereby playing a crucial role in food security. It is estimated that world banana production
increased by 30 percent over the 1990s, mainly as a result of rising Cavendish output. The total
value of international banana trade ranges between US$ 4.5 and 5 billion per year.

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 Plantains are mainly produced in Africa and Latin America, while other types of cooking
bananas are grown in Africa and Asia (see Figure 2) (FAO, 2003). Latin America is the leading
region for Cavendish production, followed by Asia. The bulk of other dessert bananas are cultivated
in Latin America and Asia. The worlds leading producer of Cavendish bananas is India, followed by
Ecuador, China, Colombia and Costa Rica. These 5 countries together account for over half of
global Cavendish output (see Figure 3) (FAO, 2003).

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1.3 Exports
The world banana market consists mainly of trade in Cavendish type bananas. The
Cavendish replaced the Gros Michel as the banana entering international trade due to its
resistance to Panama disease and its higher productivity (up to 60 tonnes per hectare in modern
plantations). Cavendish bananas for export markets are currently produced all over the world, from
small farms to large plantations of thousands of hectares.
Approximately 26 percent of the total Cavendish crop is exported, and 8 out of 10 bananas
exported originate from Latin America (Figure 6) (FAO, 2003). The three leading countries are
Ecuador, Costa Rica and Colombia. In Asia the main exporter is the Philippines, in Africa
Cameroon and Cte dIvoire and in the Caribbean the Dominican Republic and the Windward
Islands.

Latin America dominates the world banana economy not only because of its share of world
trade, but also because of its higher capacity to respond to changing market conditions compared
to other regions.

3. Nutritional importance
Bananas are readily acceptable and digested food by children. In fact bananas are often
the first solid foods fed to infants. There are numerous recipes for preparing bananas and with

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each country that produces the crop having its own traditional dishes and methods of processing.
Bananas have a high carbohydrate and low fat content, making them particularly useful in low fat
diets. As a staple food crop, the protein level is low compared to the major cereal crops. However,
the method of preparation has an effect on nutritional value of a food, and if they are fried, the oil
used in cooking will considerably boost its energy value. Bananas and plantains are also a good
source of many vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamins A, B 6 and C and potassium. It is a
dessert fruit for millions apart from a staple food owing to its rich and easily digestible
carbohydrates with a calorific value of 67 137 per 100g fruit. In fact the low sodium and high
potassium contents of the fruit are of significance in dietary terms and bananas are recommended
for low-sodium diets. In Africa, bananas and plantains provide more than 25% of food energy
requirements for around 70 million people. Owing to its multifaceted uses from underground stem
up to the make flower it is referred as Kalpataru (a plant of virtues). Banana is the fourth
important food crop in terms of gross value exceeded only by rice, wheat and maize products and
forms an important crop for subsistence farmers. The plant is versatile and, as well as being an
important food source, also provides fibre, starch and alcohol.

4. Growth physiology
The banana plant is a monocotyledonous, herbaceous, evergreen perennial. It is
herbaceous because after fruit harvest the aerial parts die down to the ground and there are no
woody components. It is perennial because new suckers grow from the base of the mother plant to
replace aerial parts, which have died. Thus it produces succeeding generations of ratoon crops.
The first cycle after planting is called the plant crop. The ratoon is the sucker succeeding the
harvested plant. The second cycle is called the first ratoon crop. The third cycle is the second
ratoon crop, and so on.
The growth cycle consists of two phases:
2.1 Vegetative phase: The vegetative phase (or 'shooting') begins with the production of leaves by
the planted sucker, and ends when the inflorescence appears at the top of the plant.

2.2 Reproductive phase: The reproductive phase begins with the transition of the vegetative
meristem into a floral shoot. The division of phases is arbitrary, and it takes several weeks before

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the inflorescence emerges at the top of the plant. The fruit filling period, that is, the time between
flowering and harvest, completes the reproductive phase and the growth cycle.
During the growth cycle, plants develop essentially three major components (Fig. 4): an
underground corm, producing suckers and roots; a pseudostem, consisting of encircling leaf
sheaths, and carrying the leaves and an inflorescence, containing female flowers that develop into
fruits

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 Fig.4. The banana plant

The length of the growth cycle depends on the cultivar. Giant cultivars have more foliage
leaves and flower later than medium-sized plants. Small cultivars flower earlier and have less
foliage. The mother plant and the ratoon are in competition for resources. During the vegetative
phase, most of the resources are directed to the growing mother plant. During flowering, ratoon
development increases. After flowering, resources are directed back to the mother plant for fruit
development. After harvest, resources are directed to the ratoon again.

4.1 Plant description

The banana plant is a large herb, with succulent, very juicy stem (properly "pseudostem")
which is a cylinder of leaf-petiole sheaths, reaching a height of 6 7.5 m and arising from a fleshy
rhizome or corm (Fig. 4). Suckers spring up around the main plant forming a clump or "stool'', the
eldest sucker replacing the main plant when it fruits and dies, and this process of succession
continues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 to 15,
are arranged spirally. They unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather,
and extend upward and outward, becoming as much as 2.75 m long and 60 cm wide. They may be
entirely green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upper side and red purple beneath.
The inflorescence, a transformed growing point, is a terminal spike shooting out from the heart in
the tip of the stem. At first, it is a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, it is seen
that the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers are clustered in whorled double rows along
the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick, waxy, hood like bract, purple outside, deep-red
within. Normally, the bract will lift from the first hand in 3 to 10 days. If the plant is weak, opening
may not occur until 10 or 15 days. Female flowers occupy the lower 5 to 15 rows; above them may
be some rows of hermaphrodite or neuter flowers; male flowers are borne in the upper rows. In
some types the inflorescence remains erect but generally, shortly after opening, it begins to bend
downward. In about one day after the opening of the flower clusters, the male flowers and their
bracts are shed, leaving most of the upper stalk naked except at the very tip where there usually
remains an unopened bud containing the last-formed of the male flowers. However, there are some
mutants such as 'Dwarf Cavendish' with persistent male flowers and bracts which wither and
remain, filling the space between the fruits and the terminal bud.

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 As the young fruits develop from the female flowers, they look like slender green fingers.
The bracts are soon shed and the fully grown fruits in each cluster become a "hand" of bananas,
and the stalk droops with the weight until the bunch is upside down. The number of "hands" varies
with the species and variety.
The fruit (technically a "berry") turns from deep-green to yellow or red, or, in some forms,
green-and white-striped, and may range from 6.4 30 cm in length and 1.9 5.0 cm in width, and
from oblong, cylindrical and blunt to pronouncedly 3-angled, somewhat curved and hornlike. The
flesh, ivory-white to yellow or salmon-yellow, may be firm, astringent, even gummy with latex, when
unripe, turning tender and slippery, or soft and mellow or rather dry and mealy or starchy when
ripe. The flavor may be mild and sweet or sub-acid with a distinct apple tone. Wild types may be
nearly filled with black, hard, rounded or angled seeds 3 16 mm wide and have scant flesh. The
common cultivated types are generally seedless with just minute vestiges of ovules visible as
brown specks in the slightly hollow or faintly pithy center, especially when the fruit is overripe.
Occasionally, cross-pollination by wild types will result in a number of seeds in a normally seedless
variety such as 'Gros Michel', but never in the Cavendish type.

5. Climatic requirement
Banana is basically a plant of the humid tropics, but is adapted to a wide range of climatic
conditions ranging from wet tropical to dry sub-tropical. It can be grown from sea level to an altitude
of 1200m. When water is not limiting, the rate of banana growth and development is determined by
temperature. New leaf emergence stops below 16 C; growth (dry matter assimilation) stops below
14C; optimum temperature for growth and for flower initiation is 22 C, and optimum leaf
emergence rate is about 31C (Fig. 5) (Ganry, 1973).

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 Fig.5. Relative leaf elongation in relation to ambient temperature (Ganry, 1973)
Bananas cannot be grown in areas where frost occurs regularly. Frost kills rapidly banana
leaves and only a few minutes below 0 C during one night is sufficient to ruin a plantation. Frosted
leaves rapidly turn black. The overall mean temperature for an optimum balance between growth
(assimilation) and development (leaf emergence) is about 27 C. The various critical temperature
thresholds for banana growth and development are shown in Fig. 6 (Taylor & Sexton, 1972;
Samson, 1980; Turner & Lahav, 1983; Robinson & Anderson, 1991). Bananas cannot be grown in
areas where frost occurs regularly.

Fig.6. Threshold temperatures for banana growth and development

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 Some other specific problems due to climate include winter chill on leaves due to drop in
night temperatures between 6 to 0 C; choke throat (restriction of bunch emergence from the plant
due to rosetted and congested leaves) due to cold winter temperatures; underpeel discolouration
(reddish-brown streaking in the vascular tissue just below the epidermis of the fruit) due to chilling
temperatures; winter leaf sunburn due to high day time temperatures of more than 30 C, low
relative humidity of less than 25%, high light intensity, and a depleted feeder root system due to
cold temperature growth cessation; summer heat stress due to lag between transpiration loss (due
high evaporative demand) and ability of the plant to extract water from the soil at field capacity;
mixed ripeness of fruit due to heat stress on fruit before and after harvest; ripe fruit breakdown due
to exceptionally high maximum temperatures of between 40 and 45 C occurring during the period
from just before to just after flower emergence. Water stagnation in poorly drained soils also leads
to poor growth.
Wind influences crop water use, tears the leaf laminae and at high speeds (about
30m/sec) destroys the plantations (50 100%). Leaf tearing increases the photosynthetic / water
use efficiency of leaves and reduce heat stress under high radiation loads. In situations of low wind
speed (< 3m/sec), where little or no leaf tearing occurs, leaf folding will achieve the same results as
tearing. Avoidance of bunching during the period of high wind velocity is advocated through
adjustment in time of planting. Other unfavourable weather effects are slight down grading of fruit
to complete devastation of plantation by hail storms and lightening damage to a dozen or more
plants in a patch.

6. Soil requirement
Banana can be grown in almost all types of soils provided adequate soil moisture is
available. Deep, well drained, friable loamy soil with adequate organic matter is ideal for banana
cultivation.
The soil physical factors important for vigorous root growth of bananas are porosity and
mechanical impedance (compaction), aeration and natural drainage (waterlogging), water-holding
capacity, and soil temperature. Stover & Simmonds (1987) suggested a grading system for the
physical evaluation of the soils in terms of banana production (Table 1):
Table 1. Banana Grading system of soil physical requirements
Grade 1 Soils Have no limitation to sustained high production. They are

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 (Very good) flat (no run off), well-drained, deep, medium textured (loam),
well structured and permeable.
Grade 2 Soils Have one or more minor limitations as follows slightly sloping
(Good) topography, tendency to light sandy or heavy clay texture,
moderate structure, slightly stony, moderate drainage,
reasonably permeable, slight risk of flooding.
Grade 3 Soils Are only marginally useful for bananas because one or more of
(Fair) these physical attributes can be severely limiting.
Grade 4 & 5 Soils Are totally unsuitable for bananas due to severe physical
deficiencies that lead to uneconomic yields.

Banana plantation longevity and sustained high production are dependent on porous,
loose soils allowing unimpeded root extension. Horizontal and vertical root spread are severely
restricted in compacted soil, and plant vigour and yield are reduced accordingly. In soils not limited
by poor drainage, banana root fresh and shoot dry weight are inversely related to bulk density (Fig.
7) (Pattison et.al., 2003). Minimum soil temperatures below 10 to 15 C are severely restricting on
root extension rate, suggesting that soils should be exposed as much as possible to direct sunlight
in winter (Fig. 8) (Robinson and Alberts, 1989).

Fig.7. Effect of increasing soil density on banana root fresh weight and shoot dry weight

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 Fig.8. Relation between soil temperatures (0800 h) at 20cm soil depth
and rate of primary extension

The important soil chemical requirements are cation balance, soil acidity and salinity. The
correct cation balance must be achieved by judicious use of applied Mg, Ca and K. Good growth
can be achieved if the ratio of K to Mg is maintained approximately at 0.25 in sandy soils and 0.5 in
clayey soils. For optimum results the soil pH, measured in water, should be between, 5.8 to 7.5.
High soil acidity causes Ca and Mg deficiency. Banana is very sensitive to soil salinity and soils
with an ECe of less than 1 dS/m are required for good growth. Excessive salinity increases the
sodium (Na) content of the soil which reduces K uptake and decreases yield. The optimum ratio for
soil K/Na is 2.5 and Na must not exceed 8% of the total exchangeable cations.
In addition to physical and chemical properties of soils suitable for banana cultivation,
certain biological limitations like plant parasitic nematodes (Radopholus similes and
Helicotylenchus multicinctus) and soil borne pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum) exist in some soils
which can make the soil unsuitable for the crop, and cultivation impossible unless expensive
chemicals are applied.
The soil quality indices proposed by Gauggel et.al. (2003) that determine commercial
banana production under field conditions are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Soil quality indices that determine banana production
Physical property Weightag Chemical property Weightag

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 e (0 to 1) e (0 to 1)
Effective root depth 0.70 Soil pH 0.25
Soil texture 0.60 Base saturation 0.20
Soil structure 0.35 Organic matter 0.40
Internal drainage 0.35 Exchangeable aluminium 0.40
Soil penetration resistance 0.35 Soluble salts 0.60
Hydraulic conductivity 0.35 SAR 0.60
Bulk density 0.35 ESP 0.60
Available soil water 0.50 CEC 0.40

7. Varieties
Several cultivars belonging to different genomic groups are in use worldwide under diverse
agro-climatic conditions depending upon preference, resource availability, export requirements and
production system. The main cultivar is Dwarf Cavendish and synonyms of this are Canary
Banana, Dwarf Chinese, Basrai in India, Governer in the West Indies, and Enano in Latin
America. This cultivar is very abundant and widespread, and is the shortest banana grown
commercially. However, it is susceptible to physiological disorder choke throat. Taller Cavendish
cultivars Williams and Grand Nain are preferred in choke throat problematic areas in view of
higher yields and better quality fruit. In Taiwan where race 4 of Fusarium wilt disease is prevalent
tolerant mutant viz., Tai Chiao No. 1 is preferred over Tall Cavendish cultivars. The main clones of
Robusta are Tall Mons Mari in Australia, Poyo in West Indies and West Africa, and Valery in
Latin America. Lacatan types include cultivars viz., Pisang Masak Hijau in Malaysia, Monte Cristo
in Puerto Rico, and Gaint Fig in the West Indies.

8. Site selection
Within the broadly suitable temperature zones the site selection for commercial banana
production has to be based on the following factors:
Land topography
Frost protection
Avoiding known hail belts or storm areas
Protection from prevailing winds
Avoiding areas prone to waterlogging
Soil salinity, Sodium adsorption ratio, Exchangeable sodium percentage
Soil pH
Exchangeable aluminum
Bulk density and soil penetration resistance
Proximity to perennial water source

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 Deep, fertile and well drained soil

9. Land preparation
Land preparation for planting depends largely on topography. On flat land, soil should
normally be chiseled with a sub-soiler, ploughed and disced before planting, to reduce compaction
within the rooting profile and to produce a suitable tilth to facilitate planting. Ploughing should occur
to a depth of 20 30cm while the soil is moist. Following these operations prepare small planting
pits or planting furrows. The dimensions of planting hole should be 40cm x 40cm x 40cm. Amounts
of basal fertilizers, insecticides and nematicides are calculated per planting pit and incorporated
with the top soil in the bottom of the soil. Provision of adequate drainage is a vital aspect of land
preparation.
On sloping land effective conservation planning is essential in order to retain top soil but
dispose of excess water safely. Phased development of a sloping banana site involves establishing
grassed waterways, digging storm water drains and designing a conservation structure.

9.1 Organic manures: Organic manures are extensively used in banana growing regions of the
world, sometimes @ 80 100 tons/ha/year. Application @ 500 tons/ha/year is also not uncommon
in Israel and Canary Islands. Considerable quantities of N, K and P are supplied in the manure.
Organic manures not only enhance growth, hasten up flowering, shorten the flowering to harvest
period; improve soil structure & water holding capacity, act as a source of trace elements, the
growth, exhibit beneficial effect on the uptake of most nutrient elements. It is important, however, to
know the exact composition of such organics, and supplement them with inorganic fertilizers. When
heavy manuring is being applied in deficient conditions, too rapid growth may occur, resulting in
disintegration of the pseudostem. Availability of large quantities of organic manure and
transportation to planting site often limits its use on a large scale. Chicken manure richer in
nutrients, especially P was found to be superior to FYM and town refuse compost. Use of
vermicompost is also recommended in banana plantations. Depending upon the availability of
organic manure application @ 35 40 tons/ha is recommended for sustained maintenance of soil
fertility and soil health.

10. Cropping systems

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 Depending upon resource availability, cultivars, traditions and marketing facilities different
production systems are adopted in banana growing regions.
Sole cropping: Banana is planted alone as pure commercial crop at higher density to give
income yearly. There is no competition for growth resources from either inter crop or
multistoried crop. This is practiced in the entire banana growing zones of world (Fig. 9).
Intercropping: In India on Palney and Shevaroy hills banana is planted predominantly as
a commercial shade crop for coffee, contributing to income in initial years. Banana
Virupakshi, Sirumalai and Ladan are grown due to their adaptability to higher altitudes
without any deterioration in fruit quality and tall stature of the plants. Perennial system of
cultivation is another important feature.

Fig.9. Banana cropping systems

In coastal regions of South-east Asia banana is grown in coconut and arecanut
plantations with tall cultivars. Apart from these palm crops, banana plantations are
intercropped with ginger, turmeric, elephant foot yam, spice crops and other vegetables to
exploit maximum income/unit area (Fig. 9).
Multistoried system: It is commonly followed in coastal plantations of Kerala, India and
Sri Lanka, where crops with different canopy levels are planted. Wherein high density
planting with coconut and arecanut forming the upper-storey followed by banana, next with
tapioca and lower most storey with colocasia, turmeric, ginger and garlic. High input
management is its important feature. Semi-tall banana Poovan and Ney Poovan are
preferred in the system.

11. Planting material

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11.1 Conventional planting material
Sword suckers are widely used as planting material in banana throughout the world. The
term sword sucker refers to a rhizome in which the central growing point is to be used for
regeneration (Fig. 10).

Fig.10. Banana sword sucker conventional planting material

Large sword suckers which have vigour, narrow leaves and a large rhizome are ideal for
planting. Avoid water suckers which have broad leaves, narrow pseudostem, a small rhizome and
low vigour as planting material. There are three main sources for multiplying conventional banana
planting material for commercial purposes. Firstly, a nursery area with high density plantation can
be established solely for the purpose of raising the maximum number of suckers per unit area
(nearly 25000 suckers/ha). Secondly, extra suckers can be allowed to grow in a commercial
plantation, for later excavation when required for planting. Thirdly, suckers and bits can be
prepared from a plantation that is to be removed. After excavation, it is important to divide the
available plant material into groups of uniform size. This ensures uniform growth in blocks so that
each plant will derive equal benefit from the available sunlight. Delays between excavation and
planting should be avoided. Suckers planted fresh from lifting give better establishment, faster
cycle and larger bunches than suckers given 10 days rest before planting (Patel and Chundawat,
1988).
Select disease free three months old sword suckers weighing 1.0 to 1.5 kg for planting.
Before planting dip the suckers in 0.1% Carbendazim (1 g/Litre) and 0.1% Monocrotophos (2.5
ml/Litre) for 15 minutes as a prophylactic measure against soil borne pathogens. Do not move

18
planting material between designated banana-growing areas. Such movement is in fact prohibited
in some countries (Australia) or requires issue of permit (South Africa) due to Fusarium wilt, bunchy
top virus and Radopholus similes nematode problems.

11.2 Tissue culture plantlets

For few decades banana planting material i.e., tissue culture plantlets derived from in vitro
techniques have been in use commercially in several countries as an alternative to conventional
planting material i.e., sword suckers. In vitro technique enables rapid and large-scale multiplication
of banana planting material, with minimum risk. It is possible to produce nearly 1000 to 2000 in
vitro plantlets from one original explant within a year (Fig. 11).

Fig.12. Healthy disease free banana tissue culture plantlets

Thus, 100 suckers have the potential to produce up to 100,000 plants in one year which is
enough to establish 25 to 50 ha of new plantations, depending upon the spatial arrangement of
plants.
11.2.1 Advantages of using tissue culture plantlets
There are many practical advantages of using tissue culture plantlets, which have fully
justified the intensive research and high capital investment costs necessary to establish this
technique as a major breakthrough in banana production technology:
a) Rapid and large-scale multiplication of disease free plantlets under hygienic conditions
b) Easy and safe transportation of plantlets to long distances thus enabling starting of banana
cultivation in new area where no conventional planting material i.e., sword suckers are not
available

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c) Under main field conditions 100% establishment rate and require no replacement or gap
filling of plants except for somaclonal variants discovered after planting.
d) Immediate and uninterrupted growth of plants in the main field since there is no
disturbance of the rooting system while planting. Thus, a tissue culture plant in the field will
have about ten functional leaves before a planted sucker has emerged through the soil
surface.
e) Tissue culture plantlets can be established successfully in the field during every month of
the year, whereas conventional suckers cannot establish properly during a cold winter, and
many deaths occur if planting coincides with hot weather/summer conditions.
f) Uniformity in size, shape and vigour of plantlets at planting followed by rapid growth,
uniform flower emergence, shooting and bunch development under drip irrigation enable
harvesting over a very short period, making crop timing accurate coinciding with higher
selling price in the market.
g) Precocity and high production Taller and thicker pseudostems, larger LAI, increased
hands per bunch and bunch weight (Fig. 12) (Robinson et.al., 1993; Israeli et.al., 1988),
shorter time to harvest etc than with conventional suckers both in plant crop and ratoon
cycle contribute to higher production.
h) Guaranteed planting material free from pest and diseases viz., nematodes, and fungal &
bacterial pathogens. Hence, reduction in the use of nematicides, insecticides and
fungicides.

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 Fig.12. Performance of tissue culture Cavendish banana plantlets and
conventional sword suckers

i) Rapid multiplication of new cultivars having known superiority or a disease resistant

mutation and very rapid distribution through the industry by in vitro methods. With the
nursery sucker method only about ten suckers can be produced from one plant in a year.

11.2.2 Disadvantages of using tissue culture plantlets

There are several disadvantages, some of which have prevented the universal acceptance
of tissue culture plant material in some regions/countries.
a) Increased costs of in vitro plantlet in a bag than for a normal sucker, some times 3 to 5
times more. This may be true but the use of tissue culture plantlets is normally more cost
effective in that the farmer is paying for established, uniform, pathogen-free plants that
produce up to 20 25% in crease in annual yield per ha.
b) Extra care at planting and establishment Young tissue culture plants are very tender and
sensitive to water and nutrient stress after establishment since they do not have any
nutrient or carbohydrate reserves and require optimum management conditions after
planting. This entails extra attention and added costs at this critical stage. After about 5
months they can be treated the same as normal sucker plants.
c) Somaclonal variation The occurrence of off-type plants during in vitro propagation has
been widely reported (1 to 20%). The main disadvantage is when the variants pass
through the nursery screening and later have to be culled out from a field plantation.
d) Transmission of viruses Since viruses such as banana bunchy top and banana streak
are not eliminated during the laboratory process, there is a risk of transmitting the virus
from infected to non-infected areas of the country via tissue culture plant material.
Wherever possible, mother blocks for in vitro propagation should be virus free and, where
doubt exists, mother plants should be indexed with monoclonal antibody or DNA probe test
to confirm freedom from viruses. This is becoming standard procedure for in vitro
consignments from one country to another.
e) Physical instability of tissue culture plantlets in the field due to the vigour of in vitro plants
and the rapid production of suckers, the developing rhizome is often pushed above soil
level where it becomes unstable. After flowering the plant can easily be blown over by

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 wind, and stringent propping is required. However, the main disadvantage is that the
selected sucker is also set above soil level thus perpetuating the problem.

12. Time of planting

Optimum time of planting for banana is determined by the choice of cultivar, timing the
crop harvest to coincide with high market prices, timing the planting date to benefit from, or to avoid
certain climatic conditions (wind, low temperatures etc). Timing for markets is usually only effective
for the plant crop and possibly for the first ratoon cycle, after which natural harvest spread nullifies
this benefit.
12.1 General principles
i) Tropical zones
a) Avoid planting in peak rainy season due to rhizome rot
b) Year round planting is suitable in tropical belt of India
c) Pre-monsoon planting with adequate irrigation is recommended
d) Avoid planting dates which coincide harvesting during high wind velocities
e) In Semi-tropics of North Queensland planting in winter (May to June) and spring
(August to October) is optimum since the crop fetches premium price; November to
April are either too wet or too hot for sucker survival or rotting occurs
ii) Sub-tropical zones
a) In Israel spring (March) planting allows flower initiation and emergence in warm
weather enabling harvesting in November/December producing good quality fruits
coinciding with high market prices
b) In cool subtropics of Burgershell, South Africa and New South Wales summer planting
in December/January is ideal to avoid flower initiation in winter and fruit quality
problem; Autumn planting induces a very long cycle over two winter seasons, low
yields per annum and prices
c) Summer planting, enables winter harvest, gives high yields, good quality fruits and
high market prices.

13. Planting density

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 It is vitally important that the appropriate planting density be chosen because it is one of
the major determinants of annual yield per ha, and, secondly, once the density is initially
chosen, it cannot easily be adjusted at a later stage.
Therefore for the highest possible yields of good quality fruit, there is an optimum plant
density, which should be maintained for the life of the plantation (Fig. 13) (Daniells et.al.,
1985; Robinson and Nel, 1989).

Fig.13. Interaction between crop cycle duration and annual bunch yield
of Williams in Queensland, Australia

The optimum varies according to agro-climatic condition, cultivar, soil fertility, desuckering,
duration of planting and system of cultivation (sole crop system, intercropping system and
multistoried system).
In most banana growing regions, solar radiation is abundant and thus productivity largely
depends upon efficient utilization of this resource.
Based on several years of field experimentation world over varied inter-row and intra-row
spatial arrangements and optimal plant population to suit local conditions ad to harvest
potential yield and to economize the equipment cost was determined under drip irrigation
(Table 3).
Table 3. Initial spatial arrangement for banana in various countries
Spacing Plant No. of R1
S.No. Country
(m) population followers

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 1 NSW, Australia 3x2 1666 1
2 North Queensland, Australia 5 x 1.5 2050 1
3 Kununurra, Australia 3x2 1666 2
4 Burgershall, South Africa 3x2 1666 1
5 Komatipoort, South Africa 3 x 1.5 2222 1
6 Taiwan 2.1 x 2.1 2250 1
7 Jordan valley, Israel 3x3 1111 2
8 Coastal plain, Israel 3 x 3.5 950 3
9 Canary Islands 3.5 x 3.5 2450 3
10 Central America 2.6 x 2.2 1730 1
11 Honduras 3 x 1.8 2100 1
12 Puerto Rico 1.7 x 1.7 3460 1
13 India 1.8 x 1.5 3700 1
1.8 x 1.8 3086 1

14. Planting configuration under drip

The planting configuration followed for raising banana under onsurface and subsurface
drip irrigation system are presented in Fig. 14 and 15, respectively.

Fig.14. Banana planting configuration under surface drip irrigation

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Fig.15. Banana planting configuration under subsurface drip irrigation

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