Vision o Density diff: Air vs cornea > fluid space vs lens

Objects in center of field of view focused onto fovea centralis

Light Image formed
Visible light tiny portion of spectrum of EM radiation o Upside down
o Radiant energy described by wavelengths & o Right to left
frequencies Brain restores image to proper orientation
o Wavelength distance bet two successive wave peaks
Radio waves several km
Gamma rays trillionth of meter Light waves from closer objects
o Frequency Hz; cycles per second; inverse to o Strike cornea at greater angles
wavelength o Refracted more to reconverge on retina
o Visible spectrum wavelength that can stimulate eye Accommodation
receptors o Adjustments for distance
400-750 nm
o Made by changes in lens shape
different wavelengths different colors
Ciliary mm
Eye receptors sensitive to visible light
o Control lens shape
o Cxn relax zonular fibers globular lens (near)
Anatomy
Pupil constriction occur simultaneously help
Sclera Cornea
sharpen image
Choroid Iris, Ciliary mm, Zonular fibers o Rlx tense zonular fibers flatter lens (distant
o Portion is darkly pigmented absorb light rays at back objects)
of EB o * more globular more bending of light
Retina Presbyopia
o Contain sensory cells of eyes photoreceptors o Lens lose elasticity
Ophthalmoscope o Reduced ability to assume spherical shape
o Macula lutea o ability to accommodate for near vision
yellow spot o 45 y
center of retina
Determine point of convergence
free of BV
o Cornea
o Fovea centralis
o Lens
Central shallow pit
o EB length
Within macula
Myopia
High density of cones
o EB too long
Few light-obstructing retinal neurons
o Images of faraway objects focus IN FRONT of retina
Highest visual acuity
o Near objects clear; but without normal rounding of
o Optic disc
lens via accommodation
Nasal side of retina
Hyperopia
Neurons from photoreceptors exit eye as optic
o EB too short
nerve
o Images focused behind retina
o BV
o Distant objects seen if accommodation reflex activated
Enter eye at optic disc
Astigmatism
Branch extensively at inner surf retina
o Lens, cornea not have smoothly spherical surf
Glaucoma
o P within eye
o major cause irreversible blindness retinal cells dged
d/t P

Photoreceptor Cells & Phototransduction

Rods
o Extremely sensitive
o Respond to very low levels of illumination
o Disc intracellular structures
Cones
Optics of Vision o Less sensitive
Ray of right represented by line in direction of wave o Respond only when light is bright
o Discs in-foldings of plasma mem
Light waves diverge in all directions from every point of visible
object Light sensitive portions of photoreceptors (outer segment)
o Refracted when wave crosses from air denser o Face away from incoming light
medium (glass, water) o /: light rays pass thry all cell layers of retina before
Allow us to focus accurate image of object reaching photoreceptors
onto retina Mller cells
/: when light waves diverging from pt on object pass from air o 20% vol of retina
into curved surf of cornea & lens refracted inward; converge o 1:1 (cone)
into a point on the retina o 1: 10 (rod)
o metabolic support
o NT degradation
o Deliver light rays thru retinal layers to photoreceptors
(2) pigmented layers absorb light rays that bypass
photoreceptors; prevent reflection & scattering blur
o Choroid
o Pgiment epithelium of back of retina
Photopigments (PP)
o Molecules contained in photoreceptors
o Consist of:
Mem-bound prots opsins
Different in each PP
/: each PP absorbs light most
effectively at specific part of visible
spectrum
Chromophore molecule (retinal in all types
of PP)
Part that is light sensitive
o Rhodopsin
Photopigment for rods
Three types of cones each with unique
photopigments
Role in focusing light waves: Cornea > lens b/c Dark depolarized
Light hyperpolarized
Bright sunlight darkened room o Reflects longer wavelengths (red) excite PP of retina
o Temporary blindness until dark adaptation most sensitive to red
o In darkened room only rods supply vision (more White
sensitive) o Mixture of all wavelengths
o Bright light Black
Rhodopsin in rods completely activated; o Absence of all light
retinal dissoc Color vision begins with activation of PP in cones
/: rhodopsin cant respond fully again until o (3) types of cones
restored to resting state (retinal + opsin) L or Red cones optimal at long wavelengths
several minutes M or green cones med wavelengths
VitA essential for night vision; provides S or blue gones short wavelengths
retinal for rhodopsin Each type of cone excited over a range of wavelengths
Light adaptation o Greatest response center of range
o Dark bright For any given WL (3) cones excited to diff degrees
o Initially: eye extremely sensitive to light (rods o 531 nm
overwhelmingly activated) image to bright; poor green maximal
contrast
Red less
o Later: rhodopsin inactivated (bleached) retinal
Blue not at all
rhodopsin
o As long as remain in bright light: Ganglion cells respond to broad band of wavelengths
Rods unresponsive o One type
Cones operating /: rcv input from all three
Neural Pathways of Vision Do not signal specific color, but general
Light photoreceptor bipolar cells ganglion cells brightness
Photoreceptor, bipolar
o Opponent color cells (another type)
o Only graded responses
Signal specific colors
o d/t lack of voltage-gated channels
Excitatory input from one type of cone
Ganglion Inhibitory input from another
o First cell where AP initiated
Absence of light:
o PP depolarized
o Glutamate released
Two pathways:
o ON pathway
Bipolar cells spont depolarize in absence of
input
Glutamate receptors inhibitory
Glutamate bind to rec
Breakdown of cGMP
/: Hyperpolarization
o OFF pathway
Bipolar cells hyperpolarize in absence of input
Glutamate receptors excitatory

Blue light - firing rate

Yellow light - firing rate
White light weak response (b/c contains both blue & yellow)
Ability to discriminate color also depends on intensity of light
striking retina
o Bright conditions
Differential response of cones good color
vision
o Dim light
Only highly sensitive rods respond
Rods activated over a range of wavelengths
that overlap with those that activate cones
BUT no mechanism for distinguishing
frequencies
/: colored objects perceived in shades of gray
in the dark

Color Blindness
High light intensities (daylight vision)
o 92% male normal color vision
o 99% F normal color vision
Defects of color vision from mutations in cone pigments
o Red-green color blindness MC color blindness
o M: 1/12
o F: 1/200
ON/OFF Pathways o Lack/abnormal Red or Green cone pigments
o Greatly improves image resolution Discrimination between shades of these
o Increase perception of contrast at edges/borders colors poor
Amacrine & horizontal cells Recessive mutation in one or more genes encoding cone
o Pass info between adjacent areas of the retina pigments
Convergence o Red & green close to each other on X ch
o Many PP synapse on each bipolar cell Can cause recombination
o Many bipolar on (1) ganglion Changing spectral chars of red & green
Axons of ganglion cell form optic nerve pigments
/: some color blind individuals distinguish red
Color Vision or green under some conditions
Colors perceived related to wavelength of light that pigments of o Blue ch 7
objects reflect, absorb or transmit o
Red
o Absorbs shorter wavelengths (blue)