The principles and limitations of geophysical exploration methods

1.1Introduction This chapter is provided for readers with no prior knowledge of

geophysical exploration methods and is pitched at an elementary level. It
may be passed over by readers already familiar with the basic principles and
limitations of geophysical surveying. The science of geophysics applies the
principles of physics to the study of the Earth.Geophysical investigations of
the interior of the Earth involve taking measurements at or near the Earths
surface that are inuenced by the internal distribution of physical
properties.Analysis of these measurements can reveal how the physical
properties of the Earths interior vary vertically and laterally. By working at
different scales, geophysical methods may be applied to a wide range of
investigations from studies of the entire Earth (global geophysics;e.g.Kearey
& Vine 1996) to exploration of a localized region of the upper crust for
engineering or other purposes (e.g. Vogelsang 1995,McCann et al.1997).In
the geophysical exploration methods (also referred to as geophysical
surveying) discussed in this book, measurements within geographically
restricted areas are used to determine the distributions of physical properties
at depths that reect the local subsurface geology. An alternative method of
investigating subsurface geology is, of course, by drilling boreholes, but these
are expensive and provide information only at discrete locations. Geophysical
surveying, although sometimes prone to major ambiguities or uncertainties of
interpretation, provides a relatively rapid and cost-effective means of deriving
areally distributed information on subsurface geology. In the exploration for
subsurface resources the methods are capable of detecting and delineating
local features of potential interest that could not be discovered by any
realistic drilling programme. Geophysical surveying does not dispense with
the need for drilling but,properly applied,it can optimize exploration
programmes by maximizing the rate of ground coverage and minimizing the
drilling requirement.The importance of geophysical exploration as a means of
deriving subsurface geological information is so great that the basic principles
and scope of the methods and their main elds of application should be
appreciated by any practising Earth scientist.This book provides a general
introduction to the main geophysical methods in widespread use.

1.2The survey methods There is a broad division of geophysical surveying

methods into those that make use of natural elds of the Earth and those that
require the input into the ground of articially generated energy.The natural
eld methods utilize the gravitational, magnetic, electrical and
electromagnetic elds of the Earth,searching for local perturbations in these
naturally occurring elds that may be caused by concealed geological
features of economic or other interest. Articial source methods involve the
generation of local electrical or electromagnetic elds that may be used
analogously to natural elds,or,in the most important single group of
geophysical surveying methods, the generation of seismic waves whose
propagation velocities and transmission paths through the subsurface are
mapped to provide information on the distribution of geological boundaries at
depth. Generally, natural eld methods can provide information on Earth
properties to signicantly greater depths and are logistically more simple to
carry out than articial source methods. The latter, however, are capable of
producing a more detailed and better resolved picture of the subsurface
geology. Several geophysical surveying methods can be used at sea or in the
air.The higher capital and operating costs associated with marine or airborne
work are offset by the increased speed of operation and the benet of being
able to survey areas where ground access is difcult or impossible. A wide
range of geophysical surveying methods exists, for each of which there is an
operativephysical property to which the method is sensitive.The methods
are listed in Table 1.1. The type of physical property to which a method
responds clearly determines its range of applications. Thus,for example,the
magnetic method is very suitable for locating buried magnetite ore bodies
because of their high magnetic susceptibility. Similarly, seismic or electrical
methods are suitable for the location of a buried water table because
saturated rock may be distinguished from dry rock by its higher seismic
velocity and higher electrical conductivity. Other considerations also
determine the type of methods employed in a geophysical exploration
programme.For example,reconnaissance surveys are often carried out from
the air because of the high speed of operation.In such cases the electrical or
seismic methods are not applicable, since these require physical contact with
the ground for the direct input of energy. Geophysical methods are often used
in combination. Thus,the initial search for metalliferous mineral deposits often
utilizes airborne magnetic and electromagnetic surveying. Similarly, routine
reconnaissance of continental shelf areas often includes simultaneous gravity,
magnetic and seismic surveying. At the interpretation stage, ambiguity
arising from the results of one survey method may often be removed by
consideration of results from a second survey method.

Geophysical exploration commonly takes place in a number of stages.For

example,in the offshore search for oil and gas, an initial gravity
reconnaissance survey may reveal the presence of a large sedimentary basin
that is subsequently explored using seismic methods. A rst round of seismic
exploration may highlight areas of particular interest where further detailed
seismic work needs to be carried out. The main elds of application of
geophysical surveying,together with an indication of the most appropriate
surveying methods for each application, are listed in Table 1.2. Exploration for
hydrocarbons, for metalliferous minerals and environmental applications
represents the main uses of geophysical surveying. In terms of the amount of
money expended annually, seismic methods are the most important
techniques because of their routine and widespread use in the exploration for
hydrocarbons.Seismic methods are particularly well suited to the
investigation of the layered sequences in sedimentary basins that are the
primary targets for oil or gas. On the other hand, seismic methods are quite
unsuited to the exploration of igneous and metamorphic terrains for the near-
surface, irregular ore bodies that represent the main source of metalliferous
minerals. Exploration for ore bodies is mainly carried out using
electromagnetic and magnetic surveying methods. In several geophysical
survey methods it is the local variation in a measured parameter,relative to
some normal background value, that is of primary interest. Such variation is
attributable to a localized subsurface zone of distinctive physical property and
possible geological importance.A local variation of this type is known as a
geophysical anomaly.For example,the Earths gravitational eld, after the
application of certain corrections, would everywhere be constant if the
subsurface were of uniform density.Any lateral density variation associated
with a change of subsurface geology results in a local deviation in the
gravitational eld.This local deviation from the otherwise constant
gravitational eld is referred to as a gravity anomaly. Although many of the
geophysical methods require complex methodology and relatively advanced
mathematical treatment in interpretation, much information may be derived
from a simple assessment of the survey data.This is illustrated in the
following paragraphs where a number of geophysical surveying methods are
applied to the problem of detecting and delineating a specic geological
feature,namely a salt dome.No terms or units are dened here,but the
examples serve to illustrate the way in which geophysical surveys can be
applied to the solution of a particular geological problem. Salt domes are
emplaced when a buried salt layer, because of its low density and ability to
ow, rises through overlying denser strata in a series of approximately
cylindrical bodies. The rising columns of salt pierce the overlying strata or
arch them into a domed form.A salt dome has physical properties that are
different from the surrounding sediments and which enable its detection by
geophysical methods.These properties are: (1) a relatively low density; (2) a
negative magnetic susceptibility; (3) a relatively high propagation velocity for
seismic waves;and (4) a high electrical resistivity (specic resistance). 1. The
relatively low density of salt with respect to its surroundings renders the salt
dome a zone of anomalously low mass.The Earths gravitational eld is
perturbed by subsurface mass distributions and the salt dome therefore gives
rise to a gravity anomaly that is negative with respect to surrounding areas.
Figure 1.1 presents a contour map of gravity anomalies measured over the
Grand Saline Salt Dome in eastTexas,USA.The gravitational readings have
been corrected for effects which result from the Earths rotation, irregular
surface relief and regional geology so that the contours reect only variations
in the shallow density structure of the area resulting from the local
geology.The location of the salt dome is known from both drilling and mining
operations and its subcrop is indicated. It is readily apparent that there is a
well-dened negative gravity anomaly centred over the salt dome and the
circular gravity contours reect the circular outline of the dome. Clearly,
gravity surveys provide a powerful method for the location of features of this
type. 2. A less familiar characteristic of salt is its negative magnetic
susceptibility,full details of which must be deferred to Chapter 7.This property
of salt causes a local decrease in the strength of the Earths magnetic eld in
the vicinity of a salt dome. Figure 1.2 presents a contour map of the strength
of the magnetic eld over the Grand Saline Salt Dome covering the same
area as Fig.1.1.Readings have been corrected for the large-scale variations of
the magnetic eld with latitude,longitude and time so that, again,the contours
reect only those variations resulting from variations in the magnetic
properties of the subsurface. As expected, the salt dome is associated with a
negative magnetic anomaly, although the magnetic low is displaced slightly
from the centre of the dome.This example illustrates that salt domes may be
located by magnetic surveying but the technique is not widely used as the
associated anomalies are usually very small and therefore difcult to detect.
3. Seismic rays normally propagate through salt at a higher velocity than
through the surrounding sediments.A consequence of this velocity difference
is that any seismic energy incident on the boundary of a salt body is
partitioned into a refracted phase that is transmitted through the salt and a
reected phase that travels back through the surrounding sediments (Chapter
3).These two seismic phases provide alternative means of locating a
concealed salt body. For a series of seismic rays travelling from a single shot
point into a fan of seismic detectors (see Fig. 5.21), rays transmitted through
any intervening salt dome will travel at a higher average velocity than in the
surrounding medium and,hence,will arrive relatively early at the recording
site. By means of this fan-shooting it is possible to delineate sections of
ground which are associated with anomalously short travel times and which
may therefore be underlain by a salt body. An alternative, and more effective,
approach to the seismic location of salt domes utilizes energy reected off the
salt, as shown schematically in Fig. 1.3.A survey conguration of closely-
spaced shots and detectors is moved systematically along a prole line and
the travel times of rays reected back from any subsurface geological
interfaces are measured.If a salt dome is encountered, rays reected off its
top surface will delineate the shape of the concealed body. 4. Earth materials
with anomalous electrical resistivity may be located using either electrical or
electromagnetic geophysical techniques. Shallow features are normally
investigated using articial eld methods in which an electrical current is
introduced into the ground and potential differences between points on the
surface are measured to reveal anomalous material in the subsurface
(Chapter 8). However, this method is restricted in its depth of penetration by
the limited power that can be introduced into the ground. Much greater
penetration can be achieved by making use of the natural Earth currents
(telluric currents) generated by the motions of charged particles in the
ionosphere.These currents extend to great depths within the Earth and,in the
absence of any electrically anomalous material, ow parallel to the surface. A
salt dome, however, possesses an anomalously high electrical resistivity and
electric currents preferentially ow around and over the top of such a
structure rather than through it. This pattern of ow causes distortion of the
constant potential gradient at the surface that would be associated with a
homogeneous subsurface and indicates the presence of the highresistivity
salt.Figure 1.4 presents the results of a telluric current survey of the
Haynesville Salt Dome, Texas, USA.The contour values represent quantities
describing the extent to which the telluric currents are distorted by
subsurface phenomena and their conguration reects the shape of the
subsurface salt dome with some accuracy.

Fig. 1.1 The gravity anomaly over the Grand Saline Salt Dome,Texas,USA
(contours in gravity units see Chapter 6).The stippled area represents the
subcrop of the dome.(Redrawn from Peters & Dugan 1945.)

Fig. 1.2 Magnetic anomalies over the Grand Saline Salt Dome,Texas,USA
(contours in nT see Chapter 7).The stippled area represents the subcrop of
the dome.(Redrawn from Peters & Dugan 1945.)

Fig. 1.3 (a) Seismic reection section across a buried salt dome (courtesy
Prakla-Seismos GmbH).(b) Simple structural interpretation of the seismic
section,illustrating some possible ray paths for reected rays.

Fig. 1.4 Perturbation of telluric currents over the Haynesville Salt

Dome,Texas,USA (for explanation of units see Chapter 9). The stippled area
 represents the subcrop of the dome.(Redrawn from Boissonas & Leonardon
1948.)

1.3The problem of ambiguity in geophysical interpretation If the internal

structure and physical properties of the Earth were precisely known,the
magnitude of any particular geophysical measurement taken at the Earths
surface could be predicted uniquely.Thus,for example, it would be possible to
predict the travel time of a seismic wave reected off any buried layer or to
determine the value of the gravity or magnetic eld at any surface location.In
geophysical surveying the problem is the opposite of the above, namely, to
deduce some aspect of the Earths internal structure on the basis of
geophysical measurements taken at (or near to) the Earths surface. The
former type of problem is known as a directproblem, the latter as an
inverseproblem.Whereas direct problems are theoretically capable of
unambiguous solution, inverse problems suffer from an inherent ambiguity, or
non-uniqueness,in the conclusions that can be drawn. To exemplify this point
a simple analogy to geophysical surveying may be considered. In
echosounding,high-frequency acoustic pulses are transmitted by a transducer
mounted on the hull of a ship and echoes returned from the sea bed are
detected by the same transducer.The travel time of the echo is measured and
converted into a water depth,multiplying the travel time by the velocity with
which sound waves travel through water; that is, 1500ms-1.Thus an echo
time of 0.10s indicates a path length of 0.10 1500 = 150m, or a water
depth of 150/2 = 75m, since the pulse travels down to the sea bed and back
up to the ship. Using the same principle,a simple seismic survey may be used
to determine the depth of a buried geological interface (e.g. the top of a
limestone layer).This would involve generating a seismic pulse at the Earths
surface and measuring the travel time of a pulse reected back to the surface
from the top of the limestone.However,the conversion of this travel time into
a depth requires knowledge of the velocity with which the pulse travelled
along the reection path and, unlike the velocity of sound in water,this
information is generally not known. If a velocity is assumed,a depth estimate
can be derived but it represents only one of many possible solutions. And
since rocks differ signicantly in the velocity with which they propagate
seismic waves,it is by no means a straightforward matter to translate the
travel time of a seismic pulse into an accurate depth to the geological
interface from which it was reected. The solution to this particular
problem,as discussed in Chapter 4, is to measure the travel times of reected
pulses at several offset distances from a seismic source because the variation
of travel time as a function of range provides information on the velocity
distribution with depth. However, although the degree of uncertainty in
geophysical interpretation can often be reduced to an acceptable level by the
general expedient of taking additional (and in some cases different kinds of)
eld measurements, the problem of inherent ambiguity cannot be
circumvented. The general problem is that signicant differences from an
actual subsurface geological situation may give rise to insignicant, or
immeasurably small, differences in the quantities actually measured during a
geophysical survey. Thus, ambiguity arises because many different geological
congurations could reproduce the observed measurements. This basic
limitation results from the unavoidable fact that geophysical surveying
attempts to solve a difcult inverse problem. It should also be noted that
 experimentally-derived quantities are never exactly determined and
experimental error adds a further degree of indeterminacy to that caused by
the incompleteness of the eld data and the ambiguity associated with the
inverse problem. Since a unique solution cannot, in general, be recovered
from a set of eld measurements, geophysical interpretation is concerned
either to determine properties of the subsurface that all possible solutions
share, or to introduce assumptions to restrict the number of admissible
solutions (Parker 1977). In spite of these inherent problems, however,
geophysical surveying is an invaluable tool for the investigation of subsurface
geology and occupies a key role in exploration programmes for geological
resources.
1.4 The structure of the book The above introductory sections illustrate in a
simple way the very wide range of approaches to the geophysical investigation
of the subsurface and warn of inherent limitations in geophysical interpretations.
Chapter 2 provides a short account of the more important data processing
techniques of general applicability to geophysics. In Chapters 3 to 10 the
individual survey methods are treated systematically in terms of their basic
principles, survey procedures, interpretation techniques and major applications.
Chapter 11 describes the application of these methods to specialized surveys
undertaken in boreholes.All these chapters contain suggestions for further
reading which provide a more extensive treatment of the material covered in this
book.A set of problems is given for all the major geophysical methods.