Project Title

Design and Development

Of Plastic Parts for

Car Interior

By

Mr. Khairnar

Membership No. 74381

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (India)

Project Guide

Mr. Vishwas Gupta BE (Mech), MBA

Manger - Development
Kinetic Communications Ltd.
G-90,D-III,Block MIDC, Chinchwad,Pune-411019,India

1
 Index

1. Basics of plastics

2. Plastic Materials

3. Plastic material Processes and applications

4. Nomenclature of Interior of a passenger car

5. Designing of Plastic parts

6. Standard geometries

7. Manufacturing of interior plastic parts with example

8. Checking of parts on assembly and design modifications

9. References

2
 Preface

Now a day use of plastic is very common in many fields. In engineering also we
can find use of plastics in many assemblies. Plastics are good in looks and with
looks it can beer strength to the some extent. Hence the cover parts of many
assemblies are of made up of plastics. Even many metallic parts are being
converted into plastics. Material wise it is cheaper than metal. Process wise it is
cheaper as in single process we can get the final shape and output in most of
design. Infact in the design process of plastic parts this thought is given prior
impotence that parts should require minimum processes, minimum material and
so on.

In an Automobile vehicle though it is a mechanical field, use of plastic is much. In

the engine area covers of engine, air cleaner like components are made up of
plastics. In the interiors use of plastics is more. Parts like dash board, head liner,
trays are made up of plastics.
Hence study of plastics is important. An engineer with plastic knowledge will play
a good role in design decisions while designing plastic parts.

In this project report study of plastics is done complied with a practical example
and tried to show you a plastic part development through various stages.

3
 Basics of plastics

Plastics and plastic materials are organic, synthetic or processed polymer

materials that typically consist of thermoplastic or thermosetting resins. They are
supplied raw materials or stock shapes and can be made into many forms. Stock
shape forms include sheet, plate, rod, tube, film, or extruded profiles. Raw
material polymer forms include pellets, sheet or bulk molding compounds (SMC /
BMC), powder or liquid resins, latexes or water based) and polymer building
blocks. Thermoplastic resin products are often supplied in the form of pellets
designed for feeding into molding machines or extrusion presses. Thermosets
may be supplied in the form of two part liquid resins such as epoxies or a non-
flowing mass premixed with fiber reinforcement as in polyester bulk molding
compounds. Water based resins, water borne resins or latex are water-soluble or
water emulsion based resin systems that typically do not contain any VOC
solvents. Typically, water based resins will result in less environmental or
regulatory control related problems. Latex or emulsions based products consist
of resin or polymer droplets dispersed and suspended in a water carrier or
solvent.

Monomers and intermediates (pre-polymers, oligomers) are the building block

chemicals that are reacted or polymerized to form polymer resins.
Homopolymers are polymers or polymer materials consisting of a single chemical
system. Copolymers and polymer blends are considered heteropolymers systems.
Copolymers consist of two or more chemical or polymer systems chemical reacted
during the polymerization process. Copolymers based resins may have unique
properties compared to the simple monomer based hompolymer systems.
Polymer blends, alloys or interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) consist of two
or mote polymer systems mechanically or physically intermixed, but retaining the
two distinct polymer phases. Additives may used to increase bonding between the
end groups on the chains of the different polymer groups. Polymer alloys or
blends may have unique properties compared to the resin systems based on a
single monomer.

Elastomers are differentiated from plastic materials by their rubbery nature or

high elastic elongation and resilience. Elastomers or rubber materials may be
based on polymer systems or combinations including natural rubber, synthetic
rubber, isoprene or polyisoprene, nitrile, neoprene or chloroprene, silicone,
polyurethane, acrylics, butyls or polyisobutylenes (polybutenes), ethylene
copolymers, fluoropolymers, styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), and vinyl.

Depending on the specific type and grade, polymer materials can be fabricated
into finished products in processes such as molding, casting, spinning or fiber
drawing, thermoforming, extrusion, pultrusion, die cutting, machining, sintering
(PTFE) and stereolithography (UV curable resins). Molding processes may include
injection molding, compression molding, reaction injection molding, compression-
injection or transfer molding. Based on the polymer materials structure and
processing characteristics, plastics and elastomers fall into two main processing
categories: thermosets and thermoplastics. Specialty polymers or resins are
unlisted, specialty and proprietary polymers, resins, monmers or intermediates as
well as plastics or elastomers based on a specialized or proprietary cure type or
technology. UV curable resins, film drying resins, latexes or other proprietary
resins and polymer used as building blocks or additives fall under the specialty
polymers area. Certain suppliers may provide custom compounding or
formulation services to tailor a plastic or elastomer materials properties for a
specific application.

4
Plastic is basically classified into two categories.

Plastic

Thermoset Thermoplastic

Thermoset plastic:-
Thermoset plastics and elastomers are crosslinked polymeric resins cured using
heat or heat and pressure. Cured thermoset resins generally have higher
resistance to heat compared to thermoplastics, but melting cannot reprocess
thermoset materials. The curing temperature may occur at room or elevated
temperatures. Two-part epoxies and room temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
silicones set or cure at room temperature. Polyester, phenolic, melamine, resorcinol
or urea formaldehyde resins are usually cured at elevated temperatures under a
specific time-temperature cure schedule. Thermoset resins include diallyl
phthalate (DAP), epoxy, fluoropolymers, furan, melamine, phenolic,
polybutadiene, polyester, alkyd, vinyl ester, polyimide, polyurea, polyisocyanate,
polyurethane, silicone, thermoset elastomers (isoprene), resorcinol
or resorcin, vulcanized fibre and other specialty resins.

Thermosets

Thermosets Properties Applications

Rigid, clear, chemical resistant,Boat hulls, building panels, lorry cabs,

Unsaturated high strength, low creep, goodcompressor housing, embedding,
Polyester UP electrical properties, lowcoating.
temperature impact resistance,
low cost.

Rigid, tough, heat resistant,Automotive distributor caps, circuit

good arc and trackingbreakers, switch gear, coloured
Alkyds AMC resistance, good long term,appliance housing.
dimensional stability, fungus
resistant, good colour stability.

Hard, transparent, abrasionOptical coatings, face shields, sealants

resistant, good electricalfor metal castings, critical long-term
Allylics DAP,insulation (even in humidhigh reliability electrical parts (e.g.
DAIP, ADC conditions), goodradomes, connectors, circuit breakers,
chemical/mechanical propertiesswitches).
and dimensional stability.

Rigid, clear, very tough,Adhesives, coatings, encapsulation,

chemical resistant, goodelectrical components, cardiac
Epoxies EP
adhesion properties, low curing,pacemakers, aerospace applications.
low shrinkage.

Furan Rigid, brittle, opaque, highChemical plant (competitive with

strength at elevatedstainless steel) foundry cases and
temperatures, good chemicalmoulds, specialised insulating foams,

5
 resistance, self extinguishing,lining of tanks, etc. for alkali resistance.
low smoke emissions.

Hard, opaque, tough, scratchDecorative laminates, lighting fixtures,

Melamines resistant, self extinguishing,dinnerware, heavy duty electrical
/Ure free from taint and odour, wide equipment, laminating resins, surface
(Aminos) colour range, resistant tocoatings, bottle caps, toilet seats.
MF, UF detergents and dry cleaning
solvents.

Hard, brittle, opaque, goodAshtrays, lamp holders, bottle caps,

electrical and heat resistance,saucepan handles, domestic plugs and
Phenolics PF resistant to deformation underswitches, welding tongs and electrical
load, low cost, resistant toiron parts.
most acids.

Polyurethane Elastic, abrasion and chemicalPrinting rollers, solid tyres, wheels, shoe
cast resistant, impervious to gases,heels, car bumpers, (particularly suited
elastomers can be produced in a wideto low quantity production runs).
(EP) range of hardness.

Rigid, translucent, goodChemical tanks, ducts, piping, process

Vinyl Esters corrosion resistance, lowequipment (particularly in corrosive
viscosity. chemical environments).

Thermoplastic:-
Thermoplastics and thermoplastic materials soften when heated and harden when
cooled. They can withstand many heating and cooling cycles and are often
suitable for recycling. Most thermoplastics consist of polymers, long chains of
molecules that contain smaller, repeating units called monomers. Typically,
monomers are held together by covalent bonds within or between polymer
chains. Addition polymers are thermoplastic materials in which a rearrangement of
bonds joins monomers together without the loss of atoms or molecules.
Condensation polymers are formed by a reaction in which a molecule, usually
water, is lost during bond formation. Some thermoplastic and thermoplastic materials
contain filler materials such as powders or fibers to provide improved strength
and/or stiffness. Fibers can be either chopped or wound, and commonly include
glass, fiberglass, or cloth. Some products contain solid lubricant fillers such as
graphite or molybdenum disulfide. Others contain aramid fibers, metal powders,
or inorganic fillers with ceramics and silicates.

There are many material grades and types of thermoplastics and thermoplastic
materials. Examples include monomers, intermediates, binders, base polymers,
elastomers, and rubber materials. Composite materials consist of a matrix and a
dispersed, fibrous or continuous second phase. Semi-finished or shaped stock
forms include bars, sheets, film, profiles, and hollow or angled materials.
Spheres, shims, and rectangular or hexagonal products are also available.
Fabricated or finished shapes or parts are formed through a variety of molding,
casting, extrusion, pultrusion, machining, welding, and grinding processes.
Resins, liquids, gels, and powders are common raw materials. Electrical,
electronic and optical-grade materials are also available.

Thermoplastics and thermoplastic materials are based upon a variety of chemical

systems. Examples include acrylics and polyacrylates; butyl, polybutene and
polyisobutylene; polymers such as liquid crystal polymer (LCP) and polyolefin;
6
ethylene copolymers such as polyethylene acrylate acid (EAA); fluropolymers
such as polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF); and
vinyl and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Common thermoplastic and thermoplastic materials
include ionomers, ketones such as polyetherether ketone (PEEK), polyamides and
polycarbonates, polyester and polyether block amide (PBA), and polyphenylene
oxide (PPO) and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS). Styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS)
and styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) copolymers are used in pressure sensitive
adhesive (PSA) applications. Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) has good resistance
to petroleum hydrocarbons and fuels. Styrene acrylonitrile copolymers include
styrene acrylonitrile (SAN), acrylic styrene acrylonitrile (ASA) and acrylonitrile
ethylene styrene (AES).

Selecting thermoplastics and thermoplastic materials requires an analysis of

physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical and processing specifications.
Physical specifications include overall thickness, overall width or outer diameter
(OD), overall length, and inner diameter (ID). Mechanical properties include
tensile strength or break, tensile modulus, and elongation. Thermal specifications
include use temperature, deflection temperature, thermal conductivity, and
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Electrical resistivity, dielectric strength,
and dielectric strength (relative permittivity) are important electrical properties.
Index of refraction and transmission are optical specifications. Processing
properties for thermoplastics and thermoplastic materials include viscosity, melt flow
index (MFI) and water absorption.

Thermoplasticsand thermoplastic materials provide a variety of features. Products that

are designed for electrical and electronics applications often provide protection
against electrostatic discharge (ESD), electromagnetic interference (EMI), or radio
frequency interference (RFI). Materials that are electrically conductive, resistive,
insulating, or suitable for high voltage applications are commonly available. Flame
retardant materials reduce the spread of flames or resist ignition when exposed
to high temperatures. Thermal compounds form a thermally conductive layer on a
substrate, either between components or within a finished electronic product.
Some thermoplastic and thermoplastic materials contain water-based or water borne
resins. Others contain solvent-based resins that use a volatile organic compound
(VOC) to thin or alter viscosity.

7
Thermo-
Properties Applications
plastics

Rigid opaque (grey) material

with a unique combination of PEEK polymer is used typically
properties, which include as a replacement for machined
exceptional chemical, wear, metals in a wide variety of high
electrical and temperature performance end-use
PEEK resistance, as well as applications. These range in
(Polyarylethe- dimensional stability and diversity from components for
retherketone) numerous processing cars, aircraft, industrial pumps,
capabilities valves and seals, to silicon wafer
carriers, connectors and
sterilisable surgical instruments
and in the medical implants
market.

PB-1 is obtained by A major application area for

polymerisation of butene-1, polybutene resins is seal-peel or
with a stereo-specific Ziegler- easy-open packaging. Typical
Natta catalyst to create a examples include carton liners
Polybutene-1
linear, high molecular, (e.g. cereal packaging) and
(PB-1)
isotactic, semi-crystalline packs for pre-packed
polymer. delicatessen products like cold
meats, cheeses and smoked
salmon.

The majority of nylons tend Nylon fibres are used in textiles,

to be semi-crystalline and are fishing line and carpets. Nylon
generally very tough films is used for food packaging,
materials with good thermal offering toughness and low gas
Nylons and chemical resistance. The permeability, and coupled with
(Polyamides) different types give a wide its temperature resistance, for
PA range of properties with boil-in-the-bag food packaging.
specific gravity, melting point
and moisture content tending
to reduce as the nylon
number increases.

Polycarbonates are strong, In recent years Polycarbonate

stiff, hard, tough, transparent blends have become increasingly
engineering thermoplastics commercially important. PC is
Polycarbonate
that can maintain rigidity up widely used in blends due to its
PC
to 140oC and toughness excellent compatibility with a
down to -20C or special range of polymers
grades even lower.

Polyesters PBT, PET and PBT Blends are Engineering polymers are used
(Thermoplastic) engineering plastics with in the manufacture of a wide
PETP, PBT, PET excellent processing range of components, including
characteristics and high under bonnet parts, exterior

8
 strength and rigidity for a parts (window wiper holders and
broad range of applications. exterior mirror housing).

Rigid, opaque non-burning Chemical pumps, hair dryer

continuous use at 240'C, grills, non-stick cookware
Polyphenylene
good chemical resistance, (alloyed with PTFE), medical
Sulphide
good electrical insulator, equipment, lamp bulb bases, TV
PPS
moisture resistant, rarely and automotive components.
used unfilled.

Semi-rigid, translucent, good Flexible and ridgid packaging,

chemical resistance, tough, automotive Bumpers, cladding,
Polypropylene good fatigue resistance, and exterior trim , consumer
PP integral hinge property, good products, and industrial uses. PP
heat resistance. fibre is used in tape and
strapping.

Window frames, drainage pipe,

compatibility with many water service pipe, medical
different kinds of additives - devices, blood storage bags,
PVC can be clear or coloured, cable and wire insulation,
rigid or flexible, formulation resilient flooring, roofing
Polyvinyl
of the compound is key to membranes, stationary,
Chloride
PVC's "added value". automotive interiors and seat
PVC
coverings, fashion and footwear,
packaging, cling film, credit
cards, synthetic leather and
other coated fabrics.

Soles and heels for sports

Flexible, clear, elastic, wear shoes, hammer heads, seals,
Thermoplastic
resistant and impermeable. gaskets, skate board wheels,
Elastomers
synthetic leather fabrics, silent
TPE, TPR
running gears.

Rigid, opaque, glossy tough, Telephone handsets, rigid

Acrylonitrile good low temperature luggage, domestic appliance
Butadiene
properties, good dimensional housings (food mixers),
Styrene
(ABS) and Other Specialist stability and easily electroplated parts, radiator
Styrenics electroplated, low creep. grills, handles, computer
housings.

Drinking tumblers, hi-fi covers,

Rigid, transparent, tough, lenses, water jugs and
Styrene Acrylonitrile toothbrush handles, kitchen and
resistant to greases, stress
(SAN) & Acrylonitrile picnic ware, radio dials, TV set
cracking and crazing, easily
Styrene Acrylate screens, washing machine trims.
processed, resistant to food
(ASA)
stains.

Rigid, opaque, high strength, Aerospace components,

exceptional thermal and reinforcing fibres, high
Aramids PI
electrical properties (up to temperature resistance foams,
Aromatic Polyamide
480'C), resistant to ionising chemical fibres and arc welding
rediation, high cost. torches.

9
 Spectacle frames, Spectacle frames, toothbrushes,
Cellulosics toothbrushes, tool handles, tool handles, transparent
CA,CAB transparent wrapping, wrapping, metallised parts
CAP,CN metallised parts (reflectors (reflectors etc), pen barrels.
etc), pen barrels.

Flexible (rubbery), Teats, handle grips, flexible

Ethylene transparent, good low tubing, record turntable mats,
Vinyl temperature flexibility (- beer tubing, vacuum, cleaner
Acetate 70'C), good chemical hosing.
EVA resistance, high friction
coefficient.

Semi-rigid, translucent, Non-stick coating, gaskets,

exceptional low frictioin packings, bearings, high and low
characteristics, superior temperature electrical and
chemical resistance, medical applications, laboratory
Fluoroplastics impervious to fungi or equipment, pump parts, thread
PTFE bacteria, high temperature seal tape.
FEP stablilty (260'C), low
temperature toughness (-
160'C), good weathering
resistance and electrical
properties.

Rigid, translucent, tough, Business m/c parts, small

spring-like qualities, good pressure vessels, aerosol valves,
Polyacetals stress relaxation resistance, coil formers, clock and watch
POM good wear and electrical parts, nuclear engineering
properties, resistant to creep components, plumbing systems,
and organic solvents. shoe components.

Flexible, translucent / waxy, Chemical drums, jerricans,

weatherproof, good low carboys, toys, picnic ware,
Polyethylene
temperature toughness (to household and kitchenware,
(High Density)
-60'C), easy to process by cable insulation, carrier bags,
HDPE
most methods, low cost, good food wrapping material.
chemical resistance.

Semi-rigid, translucent, very Squeeze bottles, toys, carrier

tough, weatherproof, good bags, high frequency insulation,
Polyethylene
chemical resistance, low chemical tank linings, heavy
(Low Density)
water absorption, easily duty sacks, general packaging,
LDPE, LLDPE
processed by most methods, gas and water pipes.
low cost.

Polymeth-ylpentene Rigid, tough, lightweight Medical ware, syringes, lamp

PMP (density 0.83 gm/cm), covers, (good heat resistance),
chemical resistant, additives radar applications,
are required for outdoor use, encapsulation, microwave food
highly permeable to gases, packaging

10
 transparent crystalline
material.

Rigid, opaque, good Coffee pot and washing m/c

dimensional stability at high parts (where high temperature
Poly-
temperature and humidity and moisture are critical),
phenylene
conditions, difficult to process replacement for die castings,
Oxide PPO
(blended to ease injection drink vending machines,
moulding), tough. microwave components.

Brittle, rigid, transparent, low Toys and novelties, rigid

shrinkage, low cost, excellent packaging, refrigerator trays and
Polystyrene (General
X-ray resistance, free from boxes, cosmetic packs and
Purpose)
odour and taste, easy to costume jewellery, lighting
GPPS
process diffusers, audio cassette and CD
cases.

Hard, rigid, translucent, Yoghurt pots, refrigerator

Polystyrene impact strength up to 7 x linings, vending cups, bathroom
(High Impact) GPPS, other properties cabinets, toilet seats and tanks,
HIPS similar. closures, instrument control
knobs.

Plastic Processes

Thermoplastic Processes:-

Process Applications

Injection Moulding Most thermoplastics can be processed by Injection Moulding.

Injection Moulding (Gas Enhanced quality, reduced cycle times and component weight
Assisted ) reductions can be achieved by gas assisted injection moulding.

Injection blow moulding is used for the production of hollow objects

in large quantities. The main applications are bottles, jars and other
Injection Blow
containers. The Injection blow moulding process produces bottles of
Moulding
superior visual and dimensional quality compared to extrusion blow
moulding.

Injection Stretch Injection stretch blow moulding is used for the production of high
Blow Moulding quality containers.

11
 -under construction-

Thermoforming has close similarities with Vacuum Forming except

that greater use is made of air pressure and plug assisted forming of
Thermoforming the softened sheet. Only thermoplastics sheet can be processed by
this method.

-under construction-

Extrusion Blow Moulding Used for the production of hollow objects in large quantities. Obvious
application are bottles and similar containers.

Inserts can either be incorporated at the time of the moulding

Insert Moulding process, or be inserted as a post moulding operation

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for the production of a number

Moulding Expanded
of applications. However its major application is as a protective
Polystyrene (EPS)
packaging for consumer electronic products and white goods.

Vacuum formed products are all around us and play a major part in
Vacuum Forming our daily lives. Virtually all thermoplastics can be supplied as sheet
and vacuum formed.

The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular die,

Blown Film
followed by "bubble-like" expansion.

Structural Foam is a term commonly used to describe thermoplastic

Structural Foam injection moulding components made by the injection moulding
process which have a cellular core.

Rotational moulding differs from all other processing methods in that

the heating, melting, shaping, and cooling stages all occur after the
Rotational Moulding
polymer is placed in the mould, and no external pressure is applied
during forming.

Various other extrusion processes not mentioned above:EXTRUSION

Other Extrusion
OF CAST FILM, CALENDERING OF THIN
Processes
SHEET/FILM, COEXTRUSION/LAMINATING

Thermoset Processes:-

Process Applications

The materials are widely known as Dough or Bulk Moulding Compounds

SMC / DMC (DMC or BMC). In sheet form they are known as Sheet Moulding

12
 Compound (SMC).
Moulding

Electrical switch and fuse boxes. Domestic electrical equipment

Compression microwave containers and tableware. Business machine housings. Gas
Moulding and electricity meter housing. Dish aerials.

Usually involves impregnation of glass fibre mat with a liquid polyester

GRP mix. 'Gel Coat' provides a good surface on the mould side. Large
Moulding mouldings e.g. boat hulls, lorry cabs.

Nomenclature of Interiors of a passenger car

Door trims

Pillar

Horn pad

Dashboard

Dash Board assembly

Assembly components of Dash Board assembly

13
14
Assembly component Glove box

Air Vent and Bezel

15
 Air Duct

Insinuation-IP

Insulation Assembly

16
Cluster Trim

17
Designing of Plastic parts used in Interiors of a Car
Wall Thickness
The typical plastic part may be considered to have a shell type configuration with
a basic surface and features which are attached to it to meet
functional requirements. From a moldability standpoint, the following
are commonly regarded guidelines.

18
Wall Thickness Considerations

The actual determination of the wall thickness is based on a number of

considerations.

These include:
Application Requirements. Structural requirements including strength,
impact, fatigue or deflection will be influenced by the wall thickness selected.
Electrical loads may also impact on the wall thickness.
Moldability The size of the part and the ability of the material to fill the
furthest point can determine the minimum wall. The maximum flow length is
also a function of tool design with gate location and number of gates used.
Agency requirements. For some agency properties, the rating is based on a
minimum wall thickness which the part design must meet or exceed to satisfy
an agency requirement. This would be the case for UL flammability or RTI.

The wall thickness specified typically should meet all the considerations noted.
From a cost standpoint, the thinnest wall utilizes the least material and results in
the fastest molding cycles.

Gussets

Gussets may be considered a subset of ribs and the guidelines for ribs apply to
gussets.

19
Parting Line and Ejection

The designer needs to consider how the mold will part and design in appropriate
draft and shutoff. Often design changes to a feature can eliminate the need for
action in the mold, saving tooling cost and maintenance costs later on. Guidelines
relating to draft, shutoff and parting lines are offered below

Appearance Parts

20
21
Ribs

22
Radii, Fillets and Corners

Engineering Analysis
Classic Closed-Form Elastomeric Analysis
Hand Calculations
Simple Geometries - Loads & Restraints
Linear Stress/Strain Assumption
Temperature Dependent Modulus
Small Deflections Only
Stresses Below Yield Point of Material
Short-Term Load Only
No Sharp Corners/Notches/Holes
Computer-Aided Engineering
Shell Effect or Membrane Stiffening Effect
Viscoelasticity

Hand Calculations

Hand calculations are frequently used for analyzing structural cases for a variety
of conventional materials with reasonable accuracy. However, plastics behave
differently enough to introduce behavior and responses outside the basic
assumptions on which the calculations are based. This limits the applicability of
the equations and may not describe the stresses nor the deflection of a part as it
reaches the limit of its capability. Failure modes are likely to be inaccurate. A set
of general rules for when hand calculations are less likely to be valid is offered
below.

Simple Geometries Loads & Restraints

Most conventional hand calculations are developed for primitive shapes like
beams, plates or cylinders. To analyze a typical molded part, the engineer must
simplify the geometry to approximate a shape with a derived formula. Localized
geometry often gets neglected and accuracy is compromised. Loading of plastic
parts can also be complex with multiple loads.
23
Linear Stress/Strain Assumption

Most hand calculations assume a linear relationship between stress and strain.
Plastic materials often exhibit nonlinear stress/strain relationship beginning at a
relatively low stress. Also, plastics exhibit viscoelastic behavior which contributes
a portion of the nonlinear deformation that may recover over time. Thus,
occasionally plastic parts may undergo strains that are beyond the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve for short periods of time (i.e., a snap fit).

Temperature Dependent Modulus

A modulus value which is accurate for the material at the specific end use
temperature should always be used.

Small Deflections Only

Hand calculations apply primarily when deflections are less than the nominal wall
thickness of the part. The nature of the geometry, loadings and constraints will
dictate the severity of the diaphragm stiffening effect, which is not accounted for
in conventional hand calculations.

Stresses Below Yield Point of Material

Whenever a hand calculation is done for a plastic part, the results should be
critically analyzed while examining a stress/ strain curve for the material at the
appropriate temperature. If the stress values approach or exceed the proportional
limit (where the stress/strain curve becomes nonlinear) error is introduced to the
analysis. Engineering judgment should be used to make a conservative decision
based upon these inaccurate results.

Short-Term Load Only

When long term loading occurs, creep and stress relaxation effects become
significant to the accuracy of the analysis. Most hand calculations do not account
for these long term effects which are particularly relevant at elevated
temperatures or stress levels. For a better understanding of design considerations
for long term loading See the Thermoplastic Materials Properties Guide.

No Sharp Corners/Notches/Holesiname

Local discontinuities such as sharp corners, notches, holes or other stress

concentrators pose significant variations from stress calculated with hand
calculations. Stress concentration factors can be applied to approximate the
stress riser; however, the characteristics of plastics make simple stress
concentration factor calculations only moderately accurate. The detailed geometry
of the stress concentration and the material properties must be taken into
consideration.

Computer-Aided Engineering

Finite element analysis can be used on more complex parts under more complex
load cases, over large deflection analysis and above the linear elastic material
response range. However, there are limitations for this technique. Some general
limitations for finite element analysis techniques are discussed along with the
factors affecting the accuracy of these techniques.

Shell Effect or Membrane Stiffening Effect

24
Diaphragm stiffening is a nonlinear increase in stiffness resulting from a change in
curvature of a part. This effect is particularly pronounced when fixed boundary
conditions are used.

The stiffening effect results from the fact that the thin wall is stretched into
tension as the plate deflects. The load deflection in Figure 3-1 illustrates this
phenomenon.

Figure -Load Deflection.

Viscoelasticity

Viscoelasticity is a phenomenon observed in plastics where time dependent elastic

strain changes occur. Figure 3-2, a strain vs. time graph, shows an example of
viscoelastic behavior where the load is removed and delayed strain recovery
occurs.

Viscoelasticity Exhibited by Many Polymers.

Finite Element Analysis

Geometric Modeling

Load Conditions

Load Driven Analysis (Static)

Deflection Driven Analysis (Static)

Thermal Analysis (Static)

Frequency Response Analysis (Dynamic)

25
Impact Analysis (Dynamic

Structural analysis using the finite element method is a numerical technique

where complex geometries and loads are simplified by reducing the problem into
small subproblems where classical analysis methods can be applied. The
technique geometrically divides a structure into finite elements such as triangles,
quadrilaterals or solid bricks. This structural model of the part can be thought of
as a system of springs that deform when a load is applied. The deformations are
transmitted from the applied load through the springs until equilibrium is reached.
Each element in the model is combined into a large matrix of equations from
which deflections and stresses of the structure can be calculated.

Appropriate geometric and material modeling of a part, as well as accurate load

and constraint information, is crucial to the accuracy of the results. It must be
determined what the loads on the part are, how these loads will be distributed
over the part, and through what directions and distances the part is able to move.

Experience is required in order to understand the effects of various simplifying

assumptions on the results. It is necessary to critically review and interpret the
results of any finite element analysis due to the effects of variables such as
element types and mesh densities.

Geometric Modeling

The first step in any finite element analysis is the geometric modeling of the part.
This geometric model is then meshed (broken up into smaller pieces or elements)
to create a finite element model of the part.

Load Conditions

Although exact load conditions and constraints on a part are sometimes difficult
to determine, the accuracy of this information is as important to the solution as
the part geometry. There are two basic loading conditions: static and dynamic.
Static loading is used when the loads are time independent, while dynamic
loading is used when the loading conditions change over a given period of time.
The five primary load situations are included below and are followed by a typical
description of the loading condition.

Load Driven Analysis (Static)

In a load driven analysis, loads are usually applied in one or more of the
following ways:

Point Lode on a node

Pressure Load on an element surface
Inertial Load
Moment Load a torque applied at a specified angle.

Desired outputs from load driven analysis are usually stresses and strains (or
deflections).

Deflection Driven Analysis (Static)

An example of a deflection driven analysis is a snap fit analysis. The useful

outputs obtained from a snap fit analysis follows.
26
Thermal Analysis (Static)

The thermal/mechanical effects, shown in Table 3-2, and heat transfer problems
are often studied in plastic parts:

Material Properties

The mechanical properties of engineering thermoplastics are highly temperature

sensitive, compared to the properties of metals.

Linear Material Analysis

In a linear material type analysis, an energy minimization solution technique is

used to solve for deflections, stresses and strains. This method uses a simple
linear relationship between stress and strain with a specified slope (modulus).

Non-Linear Material Analysis

In a nonlinear material analysis, an iterative solution method is used, in which the

stress-strain relationship information is taken from a multilinear approximation of
the actual stress-strain curve. This type of analysis is necessary as the stress
-strain behavior becomes nonlinear. An example of an analysis where this method
is required is a one-time snap-fit assembly where the material must be taken to

27
its limits. Another example is a part which is designed to yield and deform
permanently, without failing, when exposed to a one-time load.

Small Deflection Analysis

A small deflection analysis is generally used when the anticipated deflections are
less than the nominal wall thickness. A closed form solution method is used to
solve for the desired values. Because the analysis is linear, the results can be
scaled to applied loads of different magnitudes.

Large Deflection Analysis

A large deflection analysis (geometric nonlinear) is generally used when

deflections are greater than the nominal wall thickness. Large deflection analysis
uses an iterative solution technique to account for the geometric changes in the
part and the shell effect or membrane stiffening effect. In this iterative
process, small increments of load are applied with an updated (recalculated)
stiffness matrix and load vectors at each step.

Finite Element Structural Analysis Limitations

Mold Filling Analysis

Mold Filling Definitions

Mold Filling Assumptions

Input to Mold Filling

Geometry

Material Properties

Output from Mold Filling

Computer-Aided Mold Filling Analysis Limitations

Mold filling analysis is a computer-aided engineering technique used to simulate

the injection molding process. The analysis is comparable to molding trials in that
molding conditions and material grades can be varied to examine the effects on
certain part properties. Changes in part design and the subsequent effects can
also be modeled.

The goal of mold filling analysis is to optimize tool design so as to maximize

processing latitude and part quality. An analysis performed before the tool is
made can often reduce or eliminate any tooling modifications due to filling
problems. Tooling parameters such as runner size and layout, gate size and
location can often be designed to facilitate even, low pressure filling of the part.

Mold filling analysis using the finite element method is a numerical technique
where complex geometry is reduced to smaller geometries where flow
characteristics can be calculated more easily. Interpreting mold filling results
should be combined with practical experience to filter out unreasonable or absurd
theoretical conclusions.

28
Mold Filling Definitions

Mold Filling Assumptions

The assumptions made to make a mold filling analysis feasible typically include:

29
Geometry

The geometry used for a mold filling analysis is a finite element model of the part
geometry plus filling geometry (runners, sprues, etc.). A finite element model
used for mold filling analysis can be significantly different from one used for
structural analysis because a different focus must be used in deciding on the
required accuracy of the model in different areas.

Material Properties

The rheological properties are input as a mathematical model of viscosity as a

function of temperature and shear rate. This information is used to predict the
flow properties of the resin as it experiences different conditions in the tool. The
other material properties required are density, thermal conductivity, specific heat
and freeze-off or no-flow temperature. Included below are some of the processing
conditions needed for a mold filling analysis:

30
Often these inputs are varied to study the sensitivity of the moldability of a
specific application to the processing parameters.

Output From Mold Filling

The type of output from a mold filling analysis is highly dependent upon the
software package used and the options selected within it. Below are some of the
types of output that are currently possible:

All of these outputs can be interpreted to help predict flow conditions within the tool. This
can be helpful in designing parts and runner systems so that good consistent parts can be
molded over a wider processing window with lower levels of polymer shear, lower levels of
molded-in stress, improved location and integrity of knit lines, and many other
advantages. Results are intended to supplement the knowledge of an experienced
processing specialist.

Computer-Aided Mold Filling Analysis Limitations

Although finite element mold filling analysis can be a very powerful tool in
designing plastic parts, there are limitations to the accuracy and capability. Finite
element analysis technology has not been developed for mold filling to the same
extent that it has been for structural applications. This has been due to the
difficulties associated with fluid dynamics in comparison to statics and dynamics.
Therefore, the results from finite element mold filling analysis are not consistently
valid. All results must be critiqued and interpreted by experienced processing
specialists. The information provided by mold filling analysis should be viewed as
a supplement to the knowledge of an experienced processing specialist, not as
information to be used in place of such.

The following list is a general description of some of the limitations of mold filling
analysis:
31
Design for Strength
Common Modes of Failure

32
Strength of a part may be considered to be the maximum load applied to a part
before the part fails to function as intended. Different perceptions of strength
arise from the number of ways in which a part may fail. Common modes of failure
include:

The meaning of the term strength of a plastic part will depend upon the type of
application, the function of the part, loading and restraint conditions.

Load Controlled Applications

A load controlled application is an application which must resist a specified load.

This magnitude is fixed and the strength of the part is usually judged in one of
the following ways. Part ultimate strength: The part is loaded beyond the normal
functioning range. The strength of the part is the maximum loading it can take
prior to failure. This concept of strength is common in engineering design,
especially when factors of safety and worst case loading (or overloading/abuse)
are being considered. A good example of this type of strength concept is the
design of load bearing aircraft components. In such a design, loads of many times
the expected use load are often considered in order to assure safety. In this case,
other part strength concepts such as stiffness and permanent deformation are not
of concern.

Concepts for Part Strength

Part Yield Strength
Part Stiffness
Strain Controlled Applications
Part Ultimate Deflection
Part Yield Deflection
Part Stiffness
Part Toughness

Ultimate part strength is dependent on the ultimate strength of the material, the
geometry of the part and the nature of the loads and restraints. For more
information on the ultimate strength of plastic material and what affects it, please

33
refer to the Mechanical Properties information in the Thermoplastic Materials
Properties Guide.

Part Yield Strength

The part is loaded beyond the normal functioning range of loads and the onset of
permanent deformation beyond a certain point determines the strength of the
part. This permanent deformation can cause the part to stop functioning. An
example is a plastic in a load controlled application. Permanent deformation of the
spring normally makes it dysfunctional. Part yield strength is dependent on the
yield strength of the material, the geometry of the part and the nature of loads
and restraints.

Part Stiffness

The part is loaded and the amount of deflection which occurs is considered to be
the strength of the part. This ratio of load to deflection is actually the stiffness of
the part rather than the strength of the part. However, this is still considered to
be a strength value by some designers. Examples of this type of consideration are
common for load bearing members such as mounting brackets. In applications of
this type, loading to yield or to failure rarely occurs. Precise location and
orientation of mounted components can be critical even under load. Part stiffness
is dependent on the elastic modulus of the material, the geometry of the part,
and the nature of loads and restraints.

Strain Controlled Applications

A strain controlled application is one in which a definite strain is applied. The

failure mode for the part may be fracture from exceeding the maximum
elongation for the material, permanent deformation from exceeding the yield
point, or fracture over time from strain close to the maximum elongation and
subsequent creep rupture.

Part Ultimate Deflection

The maximum deflection of an application is dependent upon the percent strain to

failure of the material, part geometry, loading and constraint effects.

Part Yield Deflection

The part is loaded beyond the normal functioning range of deflections and the
onset of permanent deformation determines the strength of the part. This
permanent deformation causes the part to malfunction. An example of this
concept is a plastic snap fit. A snap fit is a deflection controlled flexure where
over-deflection can cause permanent set of the snap finger. This can make the
snap fit useless if it cannot return to engage the stop.

The permanent deflection of plastic parts is dependent upon the yield strain of the
material, part geometry, restraints and loading conditions.

Part Stiffness

The part is deflected and the amount of load which is required to cause this
deflection is considered to be the strength of the part. This ratio of load to
deflection is actually the stiffness of the part rather than the strength of the part.
However, this is still considered to be a measure of strength by some designers.
This is common for applications such as pool steps. In applications of this type,
34
permanent deformation and failure rarely occur, but many consumers base their
opinions of part strength of the amount of deflection which occurs when they step
on the part. Part stiffness depends on the elastic modulus of the material, the
geometry of the part, and the nature of the loads and restraints.

Part Toughness

Part toughness is occasionally considered to be a measure of part strength. Part

toughness is measured by calculating the area under the load-deflection curve,
from initial load to part failure. The toughness of a part is applicable for both load
and deflection controlled applications. It tends to be a good indication of the
general strength characteristics of a part because it reflects the amount of energy
absorbed by the part. Part toughness may be useful when comparing alternate
designs and materials.

Part toughness depends on the material toughness, part geometry, loading and
constraints. Material toughness is calculated from the area under the stress-strain
curve for the material.

Part toughness is often used for a rough approximation of impact performance

since it indicates the energy absorption capability. This method is not very
accurate because of the dependence of the stress-strain characteristics of the
material on strain rate, temperature and type of stress.

Design Considerations.

Avoid Stress Concentrators

Avoid Uncontrollable Loading Situations

Design for Compression Stress

In Tension, Design for Uniform Cross Sectional Area

In Bending, Design for Moment of Inertia

Design for Moldability

Use Materials Strategically

Select Materials Carefully

Use Factors of Safety

Consider the Worst Case

Check Material Stress-Strain Curve

Be Critical of Analysis Techniques

Ultimate Strength

Strain to Fracture

35
Proportional Limit

Elastic Modulus

From a non-engineering perspective, part strength is often considered to be a

function of how solid the part looks or feels. Obviously, information of this type
is not directly useful in a functional sense. However, the real success or failure of
many plastic applications is partially determined by this non-technical perception
of strength. Therefore, plastic designers should take this into consideration when
designing plastic parts which will be viewed by consumers.

36
There are a number of design techniques which can be used to address
this issue. A few examples are as follows:

Roll over external part edges so that a thin wall section cannot be seen.
Thicken part edges to give a solid look when roll over is not practical.
Stiffening ribs and geometric factors should be used for skins (even when not
functionally required) if the skin is likely to flutter or vibrate.
Thin wall, hollow parts or structural foam parts will have a more solid look at
equivalent weight.

Avoid Stress Concentrators

Stress concentrators such as sharp notches or internal corners, sharply angled

wall intersections, large wall thickness transitions and surface interruptions, such
as holes and inserts, can significantly reduce the strength of plastic parts and
result in premature product failure.

Design for Compression Stress

Plastic materials will tend to fail by yielding when loaded in compression. Because
the strain limit in compression is quite generous, designs which load the plastic
part in compression are preferred.

A note of caution, slender geometries loaded in compression should be checked

for buckling.

In Tension, Design for Uniform Cross Sectional Area

In a plastic part which is primarily in a tensile loading situation, uniform cross

sections should be used to obtain uniform stress distributions.

In Bending, Design for Moment of Inertia

In a plastic part which is primarily subjected to flexural loading, the moment of

inertia is critical in determining the load bearing capacity. For maximum load
bearing strength, material should be located as far away from the neutral axis of
the part as possible. For maximum deflection without yield, material should be
concentrated along the neutral axis.

Design for Moldability

When designing a plastic part, one should remember processing aspects which
affect strength. Weld lines occur where two flow fronts meet and exhibit lower
strengths than other areas. Parts and tools should be strategically designed to
either locate weld lines in non-critical areas or reinforce them.

Fiber reinforced plastics can have significantly different strength values in and
across the direction of flow. Flow should always be kept in mind when designing
parts for strength.

37
Use Materials Strategically

Techniques such as finite element analysis can be used to locate areas of high and
low stress. Areas of high stress should be redesigned to reduce stress levels,
while areas of low stress should be redesigned to reduce material usage.

Strategic use of material in design can significantly reduce the material required
for an application and/or increase the strength of the part.

Select Materials Carefully

When choosing a material for an application, carefully consider the properties

which are most important. The type of strength which is desired will greatly affect
the material selection process.

For example, unreinforced materials tend to work better in high strain situations
while glass reinforced materials tend to work better in high stress situations.

Use Factors of Safety

As with any material, it is impossible to control every aspect of part production

and use. Therefore, conservative estimates and factors of safety must be used
when appropriate. This is especially crucial when there is a risk of injury.

Consider the Worst Case

In addition to analyzing the expected use for a proposed plastic part, a

worst case scenario should also be studied. For example, the following
types of questions should be asked:

How can improper installation affect part life?

What is the highest temperature that this part could ever see?
What are the properties of this material at that temperature?
Are there any chemicals which this part could be exposed to?
Is the selected material likely to experience chemical attack?
How could this part be misused or overloaded?
What effect will poor molding or fabrication techniques have on part life?

Check Material Stress-Strain Curve

When possible, one should always check the stress-strain curve of the material in
order to become familiar with the behavior characteristics.

Results of structural calculations should always be checked using a stress-strain

curve to assess material behavior.

Visit our Visualizer tool to obtain a stress-strain curve online.

Be Critical of Analysis Techniques

A check of the assumptions made during any analysis is strongly suggested to

avoid unrealistic answers and misleading conclusions.

38
Ultimate Strength

The ultimate strength of a material will significantly affect the ultimate strength of
a part made from it. A part made from a material with a higher ultimate strength
will bear a larger load before failing. Yield Strength: The yield strength of a
material will significantly affect the load which a part can bear before deforming
permanently.

Strain to Fracture

The strain to fracture of a material will limit the elongation a part can withstand
and affect the toughness it exhibits.

Proportional Limit

The proportional limit of a material will affect the range over which a variety of
analysis techniques are valid.

Elastic Modulus

The elastic modulus of a material affects the stiffness the part exhibits.

Product Assembly Guide

Parts made from thermoplastic materials lend themselves to a number of ways of

assembly and finishing. Many assembly techniques can use the inherent nature of
the material to eliminate parts. Finishing may serve decorative or functional
requirements of an application. A variety of techniques are offered. The best
suited technique for a particular design is dependent on performance, cost and
Assembly Options number of units to be produced. In most cases,
Press-fits design considerations should be examined early
Inserts in the development cycle.
Snap Fits
Molded-In Plastic Threads
Fasteners Coatings/Shielding
Solvent Bonding Hardcoating
Adhesive Bonding Shielding Principles
Aesthetic/Decorative
Decorating Shielding Theory
Plastic Fusion Designing for
Printing
Staking Electromagnetic
Painting
Press-fits Compatibility
Shielding Effectiveness
The strength of a press fit is dependent on mechanical
interface, thus it is possible to assemble parts made of dissimilar materials,
whether they are dissimilar plastics, or metal and plastic parts. With no physical
bond at the interface, the designer should not expect a hermetic seal.
Stress Level Calculations
Press fits involve a significant level
Temperature Effects/Thermal Expansion
of stress applied continuously. This
Modulus Change condition makes environmental
Long Term (Time) Effects elements and long term
Pull Out Strength performance key items of concern.
Chemical compatibility of materials under stress must be assessed. Temperature
changes will affect the joint strength as modulus change; interference may
change with dissimilar materials with significantly dissimilar coefficients of
thermal expansion and the rate of creep will change. Despite the complex
39
interactions, press fits are frequently used to retain contacts or hold conductors in
electrical bases.

Stress Level Calculations

For a cylindrical interference press fit the contact pressure is needed in order to
calculate the stress levels.

Press Fit Dimensions

In the case of a press or shrink fit, r - r i is the radial interference; twice this sum
is the diametrical interference, , or

Keeping with prudent design practices, a reasonable factor of safety must be used
when designing a press fit. Dimensional tolerance required for parts used in press
fits can be critical and should be accounted for by doing a worst case calculation
for the maximum material conditions (maximum tolerance limit O.D. of inner
part, minimum tolerance limit I.D. of outer part). Initial stress level should be
interpreted using accurate stress-strain curves. Long term material response
should also consider creep curves for viscoelastic considerations.

be approximated by multiplying the joint pressure, joint area and coefficient of

friction of the materials together.
40
and other variables.

Inserts

Insert Designs.

Installation Methods.

Other Insertion Methods

Inserts should be considered when an application requires repeated assembly and

disassembly, or the available engagement length is not sufficient. There are
several different varieties of inserts to choose from, each having its own
advantages and disadvantages, and many of these styles can be used for more
than one application. For instance, an insert that is specified for use as an
ultrasonic insert might work just as well in a thermal application.

Insert Designs

Insert Designs

The aspects of an insert's exterior profile are designed to provide certain

properties:

Knurls - Provide a general holding enhancement. They provide minimal pullout

and strip out values.

Apposed Herringbone - Provide excellent strip out values and minimal pullout
and jackout enhancement.

Undercuts - Provide excellent jack out and pull out values. Provide little strip out
enhancement.

Translation and guidelines

The impact behavior is representative for most unfilled, non FR Lexan grades,
such as Lexan 163R, Lexan 143R, or Lexan HF1130R in similar colors. High
viscosity grades will have a higher initial impact, while high flow grades
exhibits slightly lower initial impact values.
Color retention is not influenced by viscosity.
Darker colors have visually less color change, lighter colors a larger change.
Colors with higher initial yellow tint show a smaller color change

Snap Fits

Analysis Techniques

Calculation of Tapered Beam for Snap-Fits

41
Strain Recovery

Tapered Beams

The snap fit is an effective method of assembling plastic parts. Snap fits use the
inherent flexibility of the plastic materials and the molded-in functional capability
of injection molding to eliminate fasteners and secure parts in assembly. They can
be used to locate and mount components, attach adjacent parts or assemble
complete units.

Figure 5-6. Snap Fit Assembly Forces.

Snap fits can be designed for either permanent (one-time) assembly or multiple
insertion and removal. The design of snap fits may appear to be a simple task,
using linear beam equations. However, the large stress and strain levels
associated with the assembly step often lead to nonlinear stress-strain effects.
Also, snap fit designs can be geometrically complex when the base radius, angle
of orientation, taper, and thickness gradient are varied. Often, these factors
cannot be accounted for in a simple beam equation.

Snap Fit Design.

Analysis Techniques

Snap fits are strain controlled analysis situations. For a given deflection, strain
varies approximately linearly with the deflection. Strain at the intersection of a

42
constant width and thickness beam at is support may be calculated using the
equations shown in Figures 5-8 and 5-9.

Dynamic Strain - Straight Beam.

Dynamic Strain - Tapered Beam(A).

The normal reaction force is also an important piece of information to consider

because of its influence on snap-in and snap-out force (the force necessary to
engage or disengage the snap fit). The nonlinear stress-strain behavior of the
material will also significantly affect the normal reaction force. For one-time
assembly applications, it is often desired that the normal reaction force be very
high to prevent potential disengagement.

Calculation of Tapered Beam for Snap-Fits

VALOX DR51 resin is to be used for a tapered beam in a related snap fit design.
When the deflection is .125 in. (3.2mm), what is the strain induced to the beam?

Dyanamic Strain - Straight Beam

Using the equation for a strain of a tapered beam:

43
This strain level is too high for VALOX DR51 resin in a cyclic condition. It should
be reduced to 2%. To reduce the levels of strain, the degree of taper must be
increased.

First determine what Ks factor will reduce the strain to 2%.

From Figure 5-12 the corresponding R value is 0.42,

Strain Recovery

It is important to consider recovery after loading to ensure that the snap fit will
function properly by returning to engage. Since this is mainly a problem for
unreinforced resins, a laboratory test technique was developed to provide the
necessary material data.

44
Recovery as a Function of Applied Strain

Tensile specimens were loaded to various strain levels at a rate of 10%/second

and then rapidly unloaded, while the strain recovery was monitored. Since the
rate of recovery was very slow after 10 minutes due to viscoelasticity, the percent
recovery (residual strain/applied strain) after 10 minutes was plotted as a
function of applied strain. A design rule of 90% recovery is shown in the strain
recovery plot, establishing the strain limits for snap fit applications in these
materials.

Tapered Beams

Applications which make use of tapered beams require the use of a separate set
of beam equations. The maximum deflection of a tapered beam of constant width
(b):

Where:

Ymax = maximum deflection

F = normal force at end of beam
E = flexible modulus
b = width of beam (constant)
L = Length of beam
R = ratio of height of tip to height of support
ho =height of tip

Product Design
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
10 Basic Rules

In todays manufacturing cycle, achieving increased productivity gains requires

new and different approaches than those used in the past. These approaches can
no longer be simple one-for-one material replacements; rather, consideration
should be given to the use of engineering thermoplastics for both the
consolidation of parts into more functional applications and the assembly of these
parts during manufacture. By considering manufacturing and assembly steps in
the initial design equation, manufacturers have the opportunity to engineer both
the part and the production process at the same time.

45
This approach allows design engineers to maximize the use of engineering
thermoplastics. More functional designs can mean fewer parts. Attachment
methods such as snap-fits, integrated slides, screw threads and bosses can be
incorporated with extremely close tolerances. Through this kind of parts
consolidation, inventory and assembly time are reduced, as is the entire product
development cycle. Within the manufacturing process there is also the
opportunity for greater automation and reduced energy consumption during the
manufacturing process.

The ten basic rules of design that follow can assist designers in obtaining positive
results when utilizing engineering thermoplastics.

Rule 1 Minimize the number of parts

Having fewer parts is beneficial to the manufacturer from a number of

standpoints. It reduces overhead by eliminating documentation, (drawings,
material specifications, purchase orders, inspection reports, routing and
inventory), speeds assembly and improves quality.

To determine the theoretical minimum number of parts required in an

assembly, the need for each part should be challenged. A part can be
identified as a candidate for elimination if all three questions are found
to be negative.
Does the part move relative to the mating part?
Does the function require a different material?
Is the part required for disassembly or service?

Rule 2 Minimize Assembly Surfaces

Multiple assembly surfaces typically add time and motion to the assembly
sequence. In addition to the time required to rotate a partially assembled
product, parts which are not fully secured can dislodge requiring rework or worse,
a quality problem.

If automating, multiple assembly surfaces can increase fixture costs and

equipment costs. If plastic parts are involved, the multiple assembly surfaces will
likely complicate the mold with side pulls or lifters.

Rule 3 Design for Z-Axis Assembly

The simplest and most preferred assembly motion is a straight down (Z-axis)
stroke. This design utilizes gravity to assist the assembly. It also tends to result in
the most automatable assemblies.

Alignment features such as depressions, locating pins, slots, or ribs can guide
mating parts together and facilitate assembly.

Rule 4 Improve Assembly Access

Provide a clear view for assembly operations. This is important for manual
assembly and, in most cases, essential for automatic assembly. Avoid parts or
assembly sequences that require tactile sensing for installation. Such blind
assembly exposes the manufacturing process to significant quality risks.

46
Nut & Bolt vs. Stud & Nut.

Rule 5 Maximize Part Compliance

Part mating is a major challenge to automatic assembly. Part misalignment and

tolerance stack-up is the form in assembly where different processes such as
stamping, injection molding, casting, and machining all from different vendors
are to be mated. Compliance, the ability of one part to move so that it can
mate with another, must be designed into both the product and the production
process. Product design compliance techniques include generous chamfers on
both mating parts, adequate guidance surfaces and specifications requiring part
consistency. One simple example of design for compliance is the use of oblong
holes rather than round holes for post mating or screw assembly. This allows for
slight misalignments due to tolerance issues. Part tolerance specification should
be reasonable as they can drastically increase per part cost.

Figure -Part Mating.

Rule 6 Maximize Part Symmetry

The more symmetrical a part, the easier it is to handle and orient, both manually
and automatically. Symmetry also reduces assembly quality risks. The need for
symmetry increases significantly with high rate automation. If symmetry is
impossible, existing asymmetry should be identified on the outer surfaces of the
part in order to provide easy recognition of parts for feeding devices or to avoid
component mislocation.

Figure -Nut & Bolt vs. Stud & Nut.

Rule 7 Optimize Part Handling

Avoid flexible parts, such as wiring for parts that require two-handed
manipulation, whenever possible. Flexible parts are difficult to automate
economically. If possible, retain part positioning from the point of manufacture to
the point of assembly. For example, retain position of plastic parts by
automatically unloading parts to palletized trays. Avoid part designs that nest,

47
tangle, stick together, are slippery or require careful handling. For robotic or
automatic handling, provide symmetrical vertical surfaces to simplify gripper
design. Simple surfaces or towers can often be molded in to allow for neat and
orderly stacking of parts without sticking.

Rule 8 Avoid Separate Fasteners Wherever Possible

Fasteners are a major barrier to efficient assembly. They are difficult to feed, can
cause jamming due to poor quality, and normally require monitoring for presence
and fastening torque. In manual assembly, the cost of driving a screw can be six
to ten times the cost of the fastener. The best design approach is to incorporate
the fastening function into a major component. In plastic design, threaded
fasteners are particularly poor due to the high levels of hoop stress they can
generate and the notch effects they can induce. See the Product Assembly Guide
for molded-in fastening techniques.

Rule 9 Provide Parts with Integral Self-Locking Features

Design parts to nest so that no further repositioning is required. Provide

projections, indentations or other surface features that maintain the orientation
and position of the parts already in place. Self-locking features are especially
important for automation if the difficult task of handling and orienting parts can
be uncoupled from the easier task of securing parts in the assembly sequence.

Rule 10 Drive Toward Modular Design

Modular design simplifies final assembly because there are fewer parts to
assemble. Automation system downtime is reduced, since experience has shown
that total system performance is directly related to the number of parts being
assembled. Try to limit subassemblies, including the final assembly, to no more
than 15 components. Modules lend themselves to easier quality inspection prior
to their insertion into the final assembly.

48
 Material Selection

Sr. Part Material

No.
1 Top Cover PC, ABS
2 Center Bezel PC, ABS
3 PAB, Light PC, ABS
4 Vent AC PC, ABS
5 AC Duct PP
6 Door trim PP
7 Door Handle ABS
8 Substrate ABS

49
Standard geometries

Clips
These are available as standard geometries
for design.

Use-
Used in assembly design of components to
facilitate ease in assembly. Provides semi
permanent fitment joint.

For example pillars, dashboard components

etc.

Types-
Available in may types and

Material-
Available in both plastic and sheet metal
material and available in loose pieces.
Clip Tower-
This is also available as standard geometry
available for design.

Use-
Used in design of fitment of components of
assembly. Provides semi permanent fitment
joint.
For example used pillars, dashboard
components.

Types-
This is a standard geometry. Normally this
is an inherent geometry attached to the
basic component.

Material-
Plastic. Same material of basic component.
Not available in loose pieces
Dog-
This is also a standard geometry component
available for design.

Use-
Used in fitment design of assembly
components. Provides semi permanent
fitment joint.
For example used in Door trims, etc.

Types-
Plastic materials.

Material-
Nylon plastic.
Dog House-
This is a standard geometry available for

50
design. This facilitates ease in fitment of
assembly.

Use-
Used in door trims Cantrell of a car.

Types-
This is a standard geometry. Normally this is
an inherent geometry attached to the basic
component.

51
 Manufacturing of interior plastic parts

IN the previous chapter we have seen the manufacturing process of plastic

materials. In that we have seen most of thermoplastic is manufactured by
Injection molding process. Many car interior parts are being manufactured by
Injection molding process.

Here we will see the injection molding process and the knowledge of injection
moulds. This is knowledge helps us while designing a plastic part.

Injection molding process-

Principle-
Plastic material is heated in to a barrel up a plastisize temp. churned properly by a
screw and injected with a pressure into a mold to fill a cavity. This filled part is left to
set for some time and then ejected after mold opens.

In the fig it shown that granules of plastic

material comes from hopper into the barrel. In
the barrel it is heated upto plastisize temp. and
churned properly by a rotating screw which act
as conveyer. This plastisized material collected at
the tip of screw, then injected in the mold by a
pressure.

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Mould-

Plastic mould is a production tool used to produce plastic parts. As we know many car
interior parts are being manufactured by injection molding process, here a brief
illustration of injection mould is given below.

When a material is injected it passes through a feed system and finally pushed in
the cavity. Feed system consist of sprue, Runners, and Gate.
Figure above shows elements of a typical injection mould. sprue, runners.

A mould has got the cores and cavities. Air gap formed between core and cavity
when mould gate closed. This gap is being filled by a plastic material when
injected through a feeding system.

Mould is splited in to two halves. Core half and Cavity half. These are aligned with
the guide pins (pillars). Whole mould is with the molding machine with the help of
locating ring.

Ejector mechanism is used to eject moldings from a mold. Ejector mechanism

consists of ejector plate, ejector back plate, ejector guide pin and various types of
ejector pins. Simplex and complex mechanisms can be used as per part geometry
for ejection purposes. Ejector rod of molding machine is being used for actuation
of ejector mechanism. Some times air is also used for ejection purposes.
Movable core mechanism is being used for clearing the undercuts which comes in
the normal ejection direction. This mechanism consists of a metal piece called as
slider, Guide pieces for control of action of slider. For actuation mechanical or

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hydraulic actions are used. In mechanical action, mold opening action is used for
movement of slider. In this Angle pins Cam track, springs, wedges and used.
Various mechanisms are there for actuation purposes. Some of them are available
as standard designs.
Many mould makers provides theses as standard mould base hardware parts.
Mould bases are available in variety. There are standard catalogues are available
for a mould designer.

Mould is given a texture, which is expected on a molding. Molding comes out with
the same texture.

Post Processes-
Post process of a plastic part consist surface finishing processes like painting.

If a designer has knowledge of all these processes he can produce a good design
of a plastic part keeping all the advantages and limitations.

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 Checking of parts and design modifications

Design is the stage where all type of aspects can be taken care off. Design can
control much of the cost of a product. Further each stage up to the final
production adds on cost. Hence checking is a very important process.

A design request sheet is prepared prior to start of design. Then action sheet
is made and then further a check sheet prepared. After design request (DR)
made, it is floated to every department. Every department prepared their own
check sheet. Like wise Design check sheet is prepared.

Design is checked for fictional aspect, assembly aspect, cost aspect, ease of
manufacture, handling aspect, packaging and transportation.
After checking, corrections are done on the flaws of design at the design stage
itself.

Now a days a phenomenon called Design for manufacture, Concurrent

engineering, Value Engineering are very popular.

In design for manufacture, manufacturing is also seen as a very important

aspect.

In Concurrent engineering, designing and manufacturing, assembly fixture

design and line setup is done parallel. All concerned departments are working
together simultaneously on the same project.

In value engineering, study is being made to improve the value of a product.

For example cost can be reduced, two parts can be merged into a single part,
geometries can be separated in two different parts and according material can
be assigned, use of standard parts can be increased.

After part gets manufactured, it is checked as per design drawing.

Discrepancies are reported and conveyed to concerns. It is checked for further
processes like assembly, handling, packaging and transport. Accordingly check
sheet report are prepared. A design department studies these report and
modifications are made to improve the value on this parts.

This way a checking process at various stages done, which helps to improve
the productivity.

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 References

1. Material Conductivity Measurement

2. Please refer to the Electrical Properties section in the

Thermoplastic Material Properties Guide.

3. Product Design for Manufacturing and Assembly by Bart

Huthwaite.

4. PENN PLASTICS, INC.

[email protected]

5. Frequently Asked Questions

http://www.tjdesigns.com/FAQ.html

6. GE Plastics
www.geplastics.com

7. Mould design by R. G. W. Pie

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