Transition elements and

Co-ordination compounds

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 Transition Elements

Very little difference in the energies of (n-1)d and ns orbitals

Half filled and completely filled orbitals are relatively more stable

Greater horizontal similarities in the properties of the transition elements in contrast

to the main group elements Screening Effect
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Electronic configurations of the elements of the First d-series

Atomic number Inner shell 3d 4s

21 SCANDIUM Ar
22 TITANIUM Ar
23 VANADIUM Ar
24 CHROMIUM Ar
25 MANGANESE Ar
26 IRON Ar
27 COBALT Ar
28 NICKEL Ar
29 COPPER Ar
30 ZINC Ar

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 Comparison of some physical and chemical
properties of d-block and s-block metals

1. d-block metals generally have smaller

atomic radii than s-block metals
2. d-block metals show considerable similarity
in atomic radius across the series
3. The densities of d-block metals are
generally higher than those of the s-block
metals

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 Comparison of some physical and chemical
properties of d-block and s-block metals
4. The densities of individual d-block elements
increase across the First d-series
5. There is a general decrease in atomic radii
across the d-block series. The atomic radius of
the elements at first decrease, then remains
unchanged in the middle of the series. At the
end of the series, the atomic radius actually
increases again

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 Comparison of some physical and chemical
properties of d-block and s-block metals
6. The d-block metals have therefore much
higher melting points (except for zinc) than
the s-block metals
7. Variable valencies

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 Various Oxidation states of
Manganese

O.S. of Mn Major chemical species

+2 Mn2+ or [ Mn(H2O)6]2+ : pink
+3 Mn(OH)3(s) :pink
Mn3+(aq) :deep red
+4 MnO2 :brownish-black
+6 MnO42- :green
+7 MnO4- :purple

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 Properties and Electron Configuration
of Transition Metals
the properties of the transition metals are similar to
each other
and very different to the properties of the main group metals
high melting points, high densities, moderate to very hard, and very good
electrical conductors
in general, the transition metals have two valence
electrons we are filling the d orbitals in the shell
below the valence
Group 1B and some others have 1 valence electron due to promotion of
an electron into the d sublevel to fill it
form ions by losing the ns electrons first, then the (n 1)d

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 Physical properties
High tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high thermal and
electrical conductivity, and metallic lustre
Strong inter atomic bonding exists which involves the
participation of both (n-1)d as well as (n)s electrons

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 Atomic Size

the atomic radii of all

the transition metals
are very similar
small increase in size
down a column

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 Ionization Energy
the first ionization
energy of the
transition metals
slowly increases
across a series
third transition series
slightly higher 1st IE
trend opposite to main
group elements
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 Electronegativity
the electronegativity of
the transition metals
slowly increases across
a series
except for last element in the
series
electronegativity
slightly increases down
the column
trend opposite to main group
elements
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 Oxidation States
often exhibit multiple oxidation states
vary by 1
highest oxidation state is group number for 3B to 7B

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 Coordination Compound

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 Coordination Compounds
Some Important definitions:

Ligand: The ligands are the ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the coordination
entity. It can be neutral or charged.

Central atom/ion: The atom/ion to which are bound a fixed number of ligands in a definite
geometrical arrangement around it, is called the central atom or ion.

Coordination number: The coordination number of the central atom/ion is determined by the
number of sigma bonds between the ligands and the central atom/ion.

Chelation: When coordination of more than one sigma-electron pair donor group from the ligand
to the same central atom/ion takes place, it is called chelation, and the ligand a chelating ligand.

Denticity: The number of electron pairs donated by a ligand is known as its denticity.
Eg:-Carbonate is a Didentate ligand as it can donate 2 electron pairs.

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 Complex Ion Formation
complex ion formation is a type of Lewis acid-
base reaction
a bond that forms when the pair of electrons is
donated by one atom is called a coordinate
covalent bond

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 Ligands with Extra Teeth
some ligands can form more than one
coordinate covalent bond with the metal atom
lone pairs on different atoms that are separate enough so that
both can reach the metal
chelate is a complex ion containing a
multidentate ligand
ligand is called the chelating agent

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 Some Common Ligands

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 EDTA
a Polydentate Ligand

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Complex Ions with Polydentate Ligands

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 oxalate ion
ethylenediamine
O O 2-
CH
2CH
2
C C H
2N NH
2
O O * *
* *

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 O EDTA O

*O C CH
2 *
2C O
CH
* CH
N *
2N
2CH

*O C CH
2 2C O
CH *
O O

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 Complexes: Have metal ion (can be zero oxidation state)
bonded to number of ligands.
Complex contains central metal ion bonded to one
or more molecules or anions
Lewis acid = metal = center of coordination

Transition metals can act as Lewis acid

Lewis base = ligand = molecules/ions covalently
bonded to metal in complex
Ligand: Lewis base contain at least one nonbonding pair of
electrons
Ni2+(aq) + 6NH3(aq) Ni(NH3)62+(aq)

Lewis acid Lewis base Complex ion

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 Naming Coordination Compounds
determine the name of the noncomplex ion
determine the ligand names and list them in alphabetical
order
determine the name of the metal cation
name the complex ion by:
(i) name each ligand alphabetically, adding a prefix in front of each ligand to
indicate the number found in the complex ion
(ii) follow with the name of the metal cation

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 Common Ligands

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 H 2N
NH2
ethylene diamine

phenanthroline
O

O-

-O

O
oxalate
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 [Fe(en)(NH3)4]Cl3
Fe is +3
3 moles of AgCl would form
+3

NH3

N NH3
H2C
Fe

H2C
N NH3

H
NH3

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 Common Metals found in
Anionic Complex Ions

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 Naming Coordination Compounds

1. Cation, Anion
2. Complex ion or molecule:
ligand first in alpha order, followed by name of metal.
Ligands:
anions with ite or ate change the final e to o as in nitrate to
nitrato.
anions with ide change to o as in cyanide to cyano.
molecules uses common name except for water changes to aqua;
ammonia to ammine; and CO to carbonyl.

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 Naming Coordination Compounds
Ligands: (Cont.)
multiple simple ligands are prefixed with di, tri, tetra,
penta, or hexa. Complex ligands are prefixed with bis, tris,
tetrakis, pentakis, or hexakis.
3. If the complex is an anion, the suffix ate is
added to the metal name.
4. The name of the metal is followed by the
oxidation number of the metal in Roman numerals.

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 Naming Coordination Compounds
Tetracyanonicklate(II) potassium
K2[Ni(CN)4]

Diaquobis(oxylato)chromate(III) sodium
Na[Cr(C2O4)2(H2O)2]

Tetrakis(phenanthroline)ruthunium(III) chloride
[Ru(phen)4]Cl3
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 Formula
aquachlorobis(ethylenediamine)
cobalt(III) chloride
[Co(H2O)(Cl)(en)2]Cl2

Pentacarbonyliron(0) Fe(CO2)5

Triammoniachloroetheylenediamenecobaltate(III)
[Co(NH3)3(Cl)(en)]2+
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 Bonding in coordination compounds

Alfred Werner
VBT
Crystal Field Theory (CFT)
Modified CFT, known as
Ligand Field Theory

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 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1913 Alfred Werner
(University of Zurich, Switzerland)
in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in
molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier
investigations and opened up new fields of research especially
in inorganic chemistry

Prior to Werner's work, it was not known how the atoms in a

molecule of the chemical formula [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] were
connected.
The theories at the time predicted such molecules to be
connected as linear chains:
[Pt-NH3-NH3-Cl]Cl or Cl-NH3-Pt-NH3-Cl

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 Werner studied the conductivities of solutions. Other factors being equal, the
conductivity of an aqueous solution of an ionic salt is proportional to the
number of ions produced when the salt is dissolved.

Werner studied the following series:

[Pt(NH3)6]Cl4 has relatively high conductivity (more ions)
[Pt(NH3)5Cl]Cl3 has decreasing conductivity
[Pt(NH3)4Cl2]Cl2 has decreasing conductivity
[Pt(NH3)3Cl3]Cl has decreasing conductivity
[Pt(NH3)2Cl4] has zero conductivity
K[Pt(NH3)Cl5] has increasing conductivity
K2[PtCl6] has increasing conductivity

These experiments led Werner to postulate the presence of 2 different types

of bonding in inorganic coordination compounds:
1. Primary valences, fixed in number by charge balance;
these were ionic (i.e. to ions only) and non-directional.
2. Secondary valences, determined by the nature of the central
metal atom (usually 4 or 6); non-ionic, directional.

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 Drawbacks of Werners theory:

Werners theory has several drawbacks:

It fails to explain why only certain metals can
form coordination compounds.
It fails to explain the directional nature of the
bonds.
It does not say any thing about magnetic and
optical properties.
It fails to predict the shape of coordination
compounds.
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 Valence Bond theory
Developed by Pauling
The theory considers which atomic orbitals on the metal are used
for bonding. From this the shape and stability of the complex are
predicted.
Coordination compounds contain complex ions, in which
ligands form coordinate bonds to the metal.
The ligand must have a lone pair of electrons, and the metal must
have an empty orbital of suitable energy available for bonding
The magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired
electrons( here =n(n+2) Bohr Magneton.)

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 Hybridization and shape

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 Drawbacks of Valence Bond theory :

This theory does not explain the colour and spectra of the
complexes.
Though the magnetic moment can be calculated but there is
no quantitative interpretation of magnetic moment.
It has nothing to say about the spectral properties of
coordination compounds.
It does not distinguish between the natures of the ligands.

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 Crystal Field Splitting

A purely ionic model for transition metal complexes.

Ligands are considered as point charge.
Predicts the pattern of splitting of d-orbitals.
Used to rationalise spectroscopic and magnetic
properties.

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 Octahedral Field

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 We assume an octahedral array of negative charges placed around the metal ion
(which is positive).
The ligand and orbitals lie on the same axes as negative charges.
Therefore, there is a large, unfavorable interaction between ligand (-) and these
orbitals.
These orbitals form the degenerate high energy pair of energy levels.
The dxy, dyz, and dxz orbitals bisect the negative charges.
Therefore, there is a smaller repulsion between ligand and metal for these
orbitals.

These orbitals form the degenerate low energy set of energy levels.

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 In Octahedral Field
dyz

dz 2

dxz

dx2-
y2 dxy

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 In Tetrahedral Field

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 Crystal Field Splitting Energy (CFSE)
In Octahedral field, configuration is: t2gxegy
Net energy of the configuration relative to the
average energy of the orbitals is:
= (-0.4x + 0.6y)O

BEYOND d3
In weak field: O P, => t2g3eg1
In strong field O P, => t2g4
P - paring energy
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 Ground-state Electronic Configuration,
Magnetic Properties and Colour
[Mn(H2O)6]3+
Weak Field Complex
the total spin is 4 = 2
High Spin Comple,x

[Mn(CN)6]3-
Strong field Complex
total spin is 2 = 1
Low Spin Complex,
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 The magnetic moment of a complex with total
spin quantum number S is:
= 2{S(S+1)}1/2 B (B is the Bohr magneton)
B = eh/4me = 9.274 10-24 J T-1
Since each unpaired electron has a spin ,
S = ()n, where n = no. of unpaired electrons
= {n(n+1)}1/2 B
In d4, d5, d6, and d7 octahedral complexes,
magnetic measurements can very easily predict
weak versus strong field.
Tetrahedral complexes - only high spin
complexes result, for t O.
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 n = no. of unpaired electrons
= {n(n+1)}1/2 B
Io
n n S /B E
xp erimenta
C
alcula
te l
d
Ti3+ 1 1
/2 1.73 1.71 .8
3+
V 2 1 2.83 2.72 .9
Cr3+ 3 3
/2 3.87 3.8
3+
Mn 4 2 4.90 4.84 .9
e3+
F 5 5
/2 5.92 5.3

Similar Calculation can be done

for Low-spin Complex
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 The origin of the color of the
transition metal compounds
E2

E h

E1

E
E
=
E
2
=
h
1

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The optical absorption spectrum of [Ti(H2O)6]3+

Assigned transition:
eg t2g
This corresponds to
the energy gap
O = 243 kJ mol-1

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 Ligands influence O, therefore the colour
Spectrochemical Series: An order of ligand
field strength based on experiment:
Weak Field I- Br- S2- SCN- Cl-
NO3- F- C2O42- H2O NCS-
CH3CN NH3 en bipy phen
NO2- PPh3 CN- CO Strong Field

H2 N NH2
N
N N N
Ethylenediamine (en)
2,2'-bipyridine (bipy) 1.10 - penanthroline (phen)

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 [CrF6]3- [Cr(H2O)6]3+ [Cr(NH3)6]3+ [Cr(CN)6]3-

As Cr3+ goes from being attached to a weak field

ligand to a strong field ligand, increases and the
color of the complex changes from green to yellow.
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 Crystal Field Effects in Octahedral Coordination Entities:

dx2-y2,dz2
eg

Energy O

Average energy of the

orbitals in a spherical
crystal field

t2g
dxy ,dyz, dzx
Splitting of -orbitals
in an octahedral
d orbitals crystal field
in free ion
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20_459

d orbitals in Tetrahedral Field of Ligands

dz2 dx2 y2

dxy dxz dyz

(a) (b)

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 Crystal Field Effects in Tetrahedral Coordination Entities:

dxy ,dyz, dzx

t2g

Energy
t

Average energy of the

orbitals in a spherical
crystal field

eg
dx2-y2,dz2
Splitting of -orbitals
d orbitals in an tetrahedral
in free ion crystal field
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 Spectrochemical Series
I-<Br- <S2-< Cl- < NO3-< F- <OH- < EtOH <oxalate <H2O <EDTA< (NH3 and pyridine) <dipridyl

Will never cause pairing {May or may not cause pairing (depending on other
ligands ,if present) }

< NO2-< CN-< CO

(Will always cause pairing)

A pattern of increasing donation is as follows:

Halide donors < O donors < N donors < C donors

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 Low Spin & High Spin Complexes

diamagnetic paramagnetic

low-spin complex high-spin complex

only electron configurations d4, d5, d6, or d7 can have low or high spin
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 What is the electronic basis of the color of metal
complexes?

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 Complex Ion Color
Absorbs all colors-but- the one you see or
Reflects most colors but absorbs the the
complimentary

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 Stability of complexes
The stability of a coordination compound [MLn] is measured in
terms of the stability constant (equilibrium constant), given by the
expression:

n = [MLn]/[M(H2O)n] [L]n

for the overall reaction:

M(H2O)n + nL MLn + nH2O

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 The factors that affect the stability of a complex are:

For a given metal and ligand the stability is generally greater, the greater
the charge on the metal ion

The complexes in which the central atom/ion attains noble configuration

are more stable than others.

The stability of complexes depends on the formation of chelate rings.

For same metal ion didentate ligand more stable than unidentate ligand.

If multidentate ligand is cyclic without any unfavourable steric effects

then stability is increased further.

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 Coordination complexes: isomers
Isomers: same atomic composition, different structures
Different composition!

We will check out the following

types of isomers:
Ionisation
Hydrate
Linkage
Coordination
Cis-trans
Optical (Enantiomers)

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 Hydrate isomers:

Water in outer sphere (water that is

part of solvent)

Water in the inner sphere

water (water is a ligand
in the coordination
sphere of the metal)

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 Linkage isomers

Example: S C N Bonding to metal may occur at the S

or the N atom

Bonding occurs from

N atom to metal

Bonding occurs from

S atom to metal

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 Coordination isomers

Coordination compounds
made up of cationic and
anionic coordination entities
show this type of isomerism
due to the interchange of
ligands between the cation and
anion entities.
E.g.:- [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6]
and [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6].

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 Geometric Isomers
geometric isomers are stereoisomers that differ
in the spatial orientation of ligands

cis-trans
cis-trans
fac-mer
isomerism
isomerism
isomerism
ininsquare-planar
inoctahedral
octahedralcomplexes
complexes
complexesMA
MA
MA
4B32B
2B32

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 Draw the structures and label the type for all
isomers of [Co(en)2Cl2]+
the ethylenediamine ligand (en = H2NCH2CH2NH2)
is bidentate
each Cl ligand is monodentate
octahedral
MA4B2

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 Optical isomers: enantiomers
Mirror images are either superimposible or they are not

Enantiomers are mirror images which are not superimposable

Enantiomers do not have a plane of symmetry

Any molecule which possesses a plane of symmetry is

superimposable on its mirror image

Enantiomers rotate polarized light in different directions; therefore,

enanotiomers are also termed optical isomers

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 Enantiomers: non superimposable mirror images

A structure is termed chiral if it is not superimposable on

its mirror image

Mirror image
Structure
Of structure

Two chiral structures: non superimposable mirror images:

Enantiomers!
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Two coordination complexes which are enantiomers

NH3 NH3
H3N Co Cl Cl Co NH3
H2O Cl Cl H2O
H2O H2O

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 Ex 24.7 Determine if the cis-trans isomers of
[Co(en)2Cl2]+ are optically active

draw the mirror

image of the
given isomer
and check to
see if they are
superimposable

trans isomer
cis isomer mirroridentical
image istononsuperimposable
its mirror image
no optical isomerism
optical isomers
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 EDTA complexes are optically active
No plane of symmetry

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Which are enantiomers (non-superimposable mirror images) and which
are identical (superimposable mirror images)?

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 Applications of
Coordination Compounds
extraction of metals from ores
silver and gold as cyanide complexes
nickel as Ni(CO)4(g)
use of chelating agents in heavy metal poisoning
EDTA for Pb poisoning
chemical analysis
qualitative analysis for metal ions
blue = CoSCN+
red = FeSCN2+

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 Applications of
Coordination Compounds
commercial coloring agents
prussian blue = mixture of hexacyanoFe(II) and Fe(III)
inks, blueprinting, cosmetics, paints
biomolecules
porphyrin ring
cytochrome C chlorophyll
hemoglobin
chlorphyll

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