Physics Unit 4 Summary

Further Mechanics
Momentum Concepts
Momentum = mass x velocity
=

Momentum is conserved in collisions and explosions

Elastic collision: Kinetic energy is conserved. E.g. Elastic ball bouncing on the floor
Inelastic collision: Kinetic energy is not conserved. E.g. Stone falling on the floor

Newtons Second Law: The net (resultant) force on an object is equal to the rate of change
of its momentum

= =

Impulse = change in momentum = force x time

= =

Area under force-time graph gives the impulse (which also is the change in momentum)

Circular Motion
Angular velocity: Angle covered in the circle in unit time (rad-1)

Angles in a
Angular velocity 2
= full circle
(omega)

Period: Time
to complete a
full cycle
1
= = 2

Tangential/linear velocity: Distance covered on the circle in unit time (ms-1)

2
= Circumference

of the circle
Combining the above equations gives:
=
 Centripetal acceleration:
magnitude: stays constant
velocity
direction: changes
2
= = 2

When theres acceleration, there must be a net (resultant) force

Centripetal force, always towards the centre of the circle

Using = gives:
2
= = 2

When the object is about to lift off or feels weightless, normal reaction force is zero
E.g.
R =
2
=
v
For weightlessness, = 0
2
mg =

Simple Harmonic Motion

Necessary condition: Acceleration is directly proportional to displacement from centre, but
in the opposite direction
= (2)2 = 2
Graphs against time:

= cos 2
= 22 2

= 2
(at the centre)

= (2)2
(at maximum displacement)

Period of a mass-spring system:

= 2

where is the mass and is the spring constant.
Period of a simple pendulum:

= 2

where is the length of the pendulum and is the acceleration due to gravity.
 Total of Kinetic Energy (K) and Potential Energy (U) is constant, assuming no energy is
dissipated due to friction or air resistance.
o K is max at the centre (where is maximum)
o U is max at maximum displacement (where is zero)

Resonance occurs when the driving force matches the natural frequency.
Damping is the effect that reduces the amplitude of oscillations.
o Critical damping: System reaches equilibrium as fast as possible without oscillating.
o Over-damping: System does not oscilate, but reaches equilibrium slowly.
o Under-damping: System continues oscillating with smaller amplitude and eventually
reaches equilibrium.
 Gravitation

Newtons Law
Theres an attractive force between all masses
1 2
=
2

where is the gravitational constant and is the distance between point masses 1 and 2

Gravitational Field Strength

A force field is a region where an object experiences a force.
Gravitational field lines show the force that a small test mass experiences in such a region.

Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass that an object experiences in the field:

In a radial gravitational field around mass ,

=
2

Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential is the work done in bringing an object with unit mass from infinity to
a point in a gravitational field.

Gravitational potential difference is the difference in the gravitational potentials of two

points in a gravitational field.
Just like gravitational field strength, gravitational potential is a property of a particular point
in the gravitational field and does not depend on the object in the field.
and can be related by:

The work done in moving an object of mass between two points in a gravitational field is:

Orbits of Planets and Satellites

The orbiting object (mass ) is in circular motion. Use = with = and
2
2
=
= 2
Equation can be solved to find speed (), angular speed (), radius of the orbit (), or using
2
= , its period ().

A lower orbit (smaller ) has less potential energy and more kinetic energy than a higher
orbit (bigger ).

Geosynchronus orbits have a period of one day.

 Electric Fields
Coulombs Law
The force between two point charges in a vacuum is:

1 1 2
=
40 2

where 0 is the permittivity of free space and is the distance between point charges 1 and 2

Force is repulsive between like charges and attractive between unlike charges.

Electric Field Strength

A force field is a region where an object experiences a force.
Electric field lines show the force that a small positive test charge experiences in such a
region.

Electric field strength is the force per unit charge that an object experiences in the field:

In a radial electric field around charge ,

1
=
40 2

In a uniform electric field, where theres a potential difference of in a distance ,

Electric Potential
Electric potential is the work done in bringing a positive unit charge from infinity to a point
in an electric field.

1
=
40

Electric potential difference is the difference in the electric potentials of two points in an
electric field.
Just like electric field strength, electric potential is a property of a particular point in the
electric field and does not depend on the object in the field.
The work done in moving an object of charge between two points in an electric field:

Comparison of Electric and Gravitational Fields

The concepts of field, field strength and potential are the same for both, charge in electric
fields is replaced by mass in gravitational fields
o Similarity: Both are inverse square laws.
o Difference: Gravitational force is always attractive, electric force can be both
attractive and repulsive
 Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance () is the charge () stored per unit voltage ().

Energy Stored by a Capacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor is given by:

1 1 2 1 2
= = =
2 2 2

The energy stored is equal to the area under charge against pd graph.

Capacitor Discharge
Time constant () determines how long it takes a capacitor to charge or discharge.
After one time constant, the charge in a capacitor falls to 37% of the initial value.
A capacitor is considered fully discharged after 5 time constants.
The charge on a discharging capacitor is given by:

= 0

where 0 is the initial charge on the capacitor.

The time constant can be found graphically:

The graphs for current and pd for a discharging capacitor are similar:

For a charging capacitor,

 Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is formed around a current carrying wire. Use Right Hand Grip Rule:

A current carrying wire experiences a force in a magnetic field. Use Flemings Left Hand Rule.
The magnitude of the force is:

A charge moving in a magnetic field experiences a force. A moving charge is the same as a
current. Use Flemings Left Hand Rule. The magnitude of the force is given by:

Cyclotrons use magnetic fields to keep charged particles in circular orbits.

A current is induced in a wire if it moves in a magnetic field. Use Flemings Right Hand Rule:

Flux:
o =
o , =
o = =

Faradays Law: The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linkage
Lenzs Law: The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the change that induces
it.

=

 E.m.f. induced in a coil in a uniform field:

= sin

Step-up transformers increase the voltage

High voltage is used in the National Grid to reduce power loss to resistance of cables.

=

Causes of inefficiency:
o Eddy currents
o Resistance in coils
o Not all of magnetic flux though coil one passes through coil two