FORCES AND MOTION

MODULE 3.1-3.5
By Suhayl Patel SP RESOURCES
Module 3.1 Motion:

1. Distance travelled by an object is the length of path taken.

a. SI unit is metre (m)
b. Scalar quantity
c. Can never be negative.

2. Displacement is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object.
a. SI unit is metre (m)
b. Vector quantity
c. Can be negative and positive. The sign determines the direction of which an object is
displaced from its starting point.

3. Speed is the distance moved per unit time.

a. SI unit is metre per second (ms1)
b. Scalar quantity

c. Equation: = where d is distance travelled and t is time taken.

4. Average speed: the distance travelled divided by the time elapsed.

total distance travelled

a. This can be calculated using
total time taken

5. Instantaneous speed is the speed at any instant.

a. This can be measured by a speedometer, like in cars.

6. Velocity: the velocity (v) of an object is the rate of change of displacement with respect to
time.
a. SI unit is metre per second (ms1)
b. Vector quantity
c. The magnitude of velocity is speed

d. = , where s is displacement and t is time taken.

7. Acceleration: Acceleration of an object is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
a. SI unit is ms2
b. Vector quantity

c. = , where v is final velocity, u is initial velocity and t is time taken.

d. If the velocity of an object increases, the object is undergoing acceleration. Hence, if

the velocity of an object decreases, it is undergoing deceleration.
e. If the velocity of the object is constant, the acceleration is zero.
f. An object is said to be undergoing uniform acceleration when there is a constant
change in velocity per unit time.
g. If the direction of an object changes, it is undergoing acceleration by definition.
Change direction = change in velocity = acceleration

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 8. Displacement-time graphs:
a. The gradient of a d-t graph gives the velocity.

b. Therefore = =

c. To work out the instantaneous speed at a point on a curved graph, a tangent to the
curve is drawn, and the gradient of that is calculated.

d. The steeper the gradient of a d-t graph, the faster it travels. If the gradient remains
constant, then an object is travelling at constant velocity. If it is horizontal, the
object is stationary. If it has a decreasing gradient then it is decelerating. If it has an
increasing gradient it is accelerating.

9. Velocity-time graphs:
a. The gradient of a v-t graph gives the acceleration.

b. Therefore = =

c. Uniform acceleration is always a straight line.
d. The steeper the gradient, the greater the acceleration.
e. Increasing acceleration = increasing gradient
f. Decreasing acceleration = decreasing gradient

g. The area under a v-t graph is the displacement.

h. Areas under any negative parts of the graph count as negative areas, as they show
the object moving back to its starting point.

i. To find the displacement of a curved v-t graph, you estimate the area under the
graph by splitting the graph into squares and counting up the area covered by each
square.

10. Sketching graphs :

a.
(d - t)
Area Gradient
(v - t)

Area Gradient
(a - t)

b.

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 11. Linear motion and Equations of motion:
a. Whenever an object has uniform (constant) acceleration, there are four main
equations that can be used to solve problems. These equations assume there is no
air resistance. They are called suvat equations:
b. SUVAT equations:
i. v = u + at
1
ii. s = 2 (u + v)t
1
iii. = + 2 2
iv. 2 = 2 + 2

c. Deriving SUVAT equations from velocity time graphs:

i. The gradient of a v-t graph represents the acceleration.

ii. From this simple fact we can write: =
iii. Which can be rearranged to make: v = u + at - This is the first suvat
equation
iv. The second equation can be found by knowing that the area underneath the
graph is the distance and is a trapezium:
1
v. The area of a trapezium is : s = 2 h(a + b)
vi. Where a and b are the parallel sides and h is the length between them.
1
Translating this to our diagram means: s = 2 (u + v)t
1
vii. Alternatively the area can be thought of as a triangle, ( 2 ) , plus a
rectangle () In which case we can write:
1
viii. = + 2 ( )
ix. This isnt a useful suvat equation but we can replace ( ) by from the
1
first equation that was derived and then we get: = + 2
2

x. Finally rearranging the first equation for t we get: =
1
xi. Substituting this expression into = + 2 2
1
xii. we have: = 2 ( + )( )
xiii. Which can be rearranged to: 2 = 2 + 2

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 12. Free Fall and the Acceleration of g:
a. g is the acceleration due to gravity: it is 9.81 ms-2
b. Free fall: the motion of an object undergoing an acceleration of g.
c. Measuring the Acceleration due to gravity using the trapdoor and electromagnet
arrangement:

d. Estimating the acceleration due to gravity:

i. measurements taken / instruments used
1. measure distance ball falls, using metre ruler
2. measure time of fall using stopwatch (OR electronic timer linked to
electromagnet and trap-door)
ii. how the measurements are used to estimate g
1
1. = + 2 2 and u = 0 ms-1
2
2. Therefore =
2
3. OR plot a graph of s against t2 (for various values of s)
4. And g = 2 x gradient
iii. g is an estimate because
1. drag (on ball) is ignored
2. reaction time on starting & stopping stopwatch (if stopwatch used
for timing)
3. parallax problems with landing time (if experiment is using ball
dropped from wall)
4. residual magnetism delays release of ball (if experiment uses
electromagnet)
5. trapdoor takes time to open (if experiment uses trapdoor)

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 13. Explain how Galileo disproved the idea that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones
a. two cannonballs with different masses (but the same size)
b. dropped from the same height (top of leaning tower of Pisa)
c. they hit the ground at the same time
d. Galileo proved that both balls had the same acceleration of free fall. He disproved
Aristotles idea that heavy objects fall faster than light objects.

14. Projectile Motion:

a. A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in motion by its
own inertia and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity.
b. In projectiles the horizontal and vertical components of the objects motion are
completely independent. Projectiles follow a curved path because the horizontal
velocity remains constant, while the vertical velocity is affected by the acceleration
due to gravity.
c. Projectiles that have an initial velocity at an angle can be resolved to get the
horizontal and vertical component of the velocity.

15. Stopping distances of Cars:

a. = +
b. Thinking distance: the distance travelled by a vehicle during the drivers reaction
time (time taken to hit the brakes after seeing the hazard).
c. =
d. Braking Distance: the distance a vehicle travels after the brakes are applied until the
vehicle comes to a stop.

16. Factors that affect the thinking distance of a driver. Describe how each factor affects the
thinking distance:
a. Consumption of drugs / alcohol increases thinking distance
b. Driver fatigue/tiredness increases thinking distance.
c. Car speed: An increase in the speed will increase the distance over the same
reaction time.

17. Factors that affect the braking distance of a car. Describe how each factor affects the braking
distance:
a. The speed of the vehicle An increase in the speed will increase the kinetic energy of
the vehicle. The braking force of the brakes will stay the same. So the brakes will have to
be applied for a longer duration in order to stop the vehicle. Therefore the distance will
increase. Additionally, the braking distance is directly proportional to the speed squared,
(due to Ek = 1/2mv2 = Fd). If the speed doubles, the braking distance quadruples.
b. Mass of the Vehicle: Greater mass means greater braking distance (braking distance
proportional mass).
c. Road Conditions: Wet / slippery / icy road means less friction. As a result, the braking
force will have to be applied for a longer duration (W = F x d), thus increasing the
braking distance.
d. Car conditions: If the tyres of the car have little grip, or they have worn out treads, then
the contact between the tyres and road is less. Therefore, the braking force will be
reduced. As a result, the braking force will have to be applied for a longer duration (W =
F x d), thus increasing the braking distance.

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Module 3.2 Forces in Action:

1. What is a force:
a. A force can be a push or a pull.
b. A force can:
i. make a stationary body move
ii. change the speed of a body
iii. change the direction of motion of a body
iv. change the size or shape of the body

2. A net/resultant force is needed for an object to accelerate. If there is no resultant force

acting on an object, then the object is in equilibrium.

3. Free body diagram:

a. They show the forces acting on a single body.
b. They do not include the forces the object exerts on other objects.
c. Some forces that may act on an object:
i. Weight
ii. Normal contact force.
iii. Tension
iv. Friction.
v. upthrust

4. =
a. =
b. Where F is the resultant force measure in Newtons (N)
c. Where m is the mass of an object measured in kilograms (kg)
d. Where a is the acceleration of the object measured in metres per second squared
(ms-2)
e. The acceleration is always in the same direction as the resultant force.
f. Acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.
g. The greater the resultant force the greater the acceleration.

5. The equation F=ma cannot be applied to a particle travelling at very high speeds
a. The mass of the particle increases
b. As its speed approaches the speed of light.

6. Newton: One Newton is the force that causes a mass of 1 kilogram to have an acceleration
of 1ms-2.

7. Forces can also be resolved into vertical and horizontal components. When three coplanar
forces all act on an object in equilibrium, there is no net force on the object. These forces
can be drawn as a closed loop.

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 8. Objects on a slope:
a. Whenever an object is on a slope, draw a similar diagram to this one.
b. If this object is in equilibrium, Ff = Fm

9. Mass: the mass of an object is the amount of matter in it.

10. Using = , we can work out the weight of an object. The mass is m and the
acceleration is g. Therefore the weight is given by =

11. =
a. The weight is the force experienced by a mass due to a gravitational force.

12. Centre of Mass: A point where the (entire) weight of the object (appears to) act.

13. How to find the centre of mass of a symmetrical object:

a. The centre of mass of a symmetrical object is at its centre. This is the point where
the symmetry lines of an object cross.

14. How to find the centre of mass of an irregular object:

a. suspend the shape from a point
b. use plumb line to mark a vertical line on the shape from the point
c. suspend from another point
d. use a plumb line to mark a vertical line on the shape from the second point
e. Where the lines intersect gives the position of the centre of mass.

15. An object is stable if the line of action of its weight falls within its base. An object will topple
over if the line of action of the weight falls outside the base area. Stable objects have a low
centre of mass and a wide base.

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 16. Drag: The frictional force experienced by an object travelling through a fluid.

17. Fluid: A liquid or a gas (something that can flow)

18. Factors that affect drag:

a. Viscosity of the fluid an object is travelling in.
b. The speed of the object. Drag increases as speed increases.
c. Shape and size of the object.

19. Frictional forces:

a. Always act in opposite direction to the motion of an object.
b. Can never speed things up or start moving something.
c. Convert kinetic energy to heat energy.

20. Terminal Velocity: the maximum speed reached by an object when the drag force on it is
equal and opposite to the force causing the motion of the object.

21. A skydiver jumps from a plane several kilometres above the ground. Describe and explain
the motion of the skydiver before he/she opens the parachute in terms of acceleration and
forces:
a. Immediately after jumping:
i. speed = 0
ii. drag = 0
iii. net force = weight
iv. acceleration = g
b. at a time before terminal velocity (during free-fall) is reached:
i. speed has increased
ii. drag has increased (drag proportional speed2)
iii. net force has decreased (net force = weight drag)
iv. net force F = ma therefore acceleration is less than g
c. at terminal velocity (during free-fall)
i. speed has increased to constant maximum value
ii. drag has increased (drag proportional speed2)
iii. net force = 0 because weight = drag
iv. net force F = ma therefore acceleration = 0

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 22. A skydiver jumps from a plane several kilometres above the ground. Describe and explain
the motion of the skydiver after he/she opens the parachute in terms of acceleration and
forces:
a. immediately after the parachute has opened:
i. drag has greatly increased (because of large area of parachute)
ii. net force is large and upwards (net force = weight drag)
iii. net force F = ma therefore acceleration is large and upwards.
b. at a time before terminal velocity (with parachute open) is reached:
i. speed has decreased
ii. drag has decreased (drag proportional speed2)
iii. net force has decreased (net force = weight drag)
iv. net force F = ma therefore deceleration has decreased
c. at terminal velocity (with parachute open)
i. speed has decreased to constant maximum value
ii. drag has decreased (drag proportional speed2)
iii. net force = 0 because weight = drag
iv. net force F = ma therefore acceleration = 0

23. The graph of velocity against time for the free-fall period is shown below. Suggest the
changes to the graph for a heavier skydiver of the same shape.

a. the terminal velocity increases

b. initial gradient is the same (initial a = g)
c. Time taken to reach terminal velocity is longer.

24. Determining the terminal velocity of objects in fluids.

a. In the following experiment,
i. Frictional force acting upwards = (weight - upthrust)
ii. Average speed = distance travelled / time taken

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 25. Density: The density of an object is its mass per unit volume.

a. =

b. =
c. Where is the density measured in kgm-3
d. Where m is the mass measured in kg
e. Where V is the volume measured in m3

26. Pressure: Pressure is the Force applied per unit area.

a. =


b. =
c. Where p is the pressure measured in Pascal (Pa)
d. Where F is the Force applied measured in Newtons (N)
e. Where A is the area measured in m2

27. The pressure acting on an object due to a fluid depends on the depth of the object in the
fluid (h), the density of the fluid () and the acceleration due to gravity (g).
a. =
b. Where p is the pressure measured in Pascal (Pa)
c. Where h is the depth of the object in the fluid in metres (m)
d. Where is the density measured in kgm-3
e. Where g is the acceleration due to gravity measure in ms-2

28. Upthrust:
a. Upthrust is an upward force that fluids exert on objects that are completely or
partially submerged in a fluid.
b. Its caused because the top and bottom of a submerged object are at different
depths. Since = , there is a different in pressure between the top and
bottom surfaces, which causes and overall upwards force known as upthrust.

29. Archimedes Principle:

a. An upthrust force in Newtons acting on an immersed object is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.
b. =
c. = (= )
i. Where F is the upthrust acting on an object measured in Newtons (N).
ii. Where is the density measured in kgm-3
iii. Where g is the acceleration due to gravity measure in ms-2
iv. Where V is the volume measured in m3

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 30. Moment: The product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the pivot point.
a. The moment is the turning effect of the force.
b. =
c. =
d. Where M is the moment measured in Newton Metres (Nm)
e. Where F is the Force measured in Newtons (N)
f. Where d is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and
the pivot point.

31. For a set moment, the greater the distance the less the force required to produce that
moment. To produce the same moment, the smaller the perpendicular distance, the greater
the force required to produce the required moment.

32. Equilibrium:
a. For an object to be in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on it must be zero,
b. And the resultant moment on it must be zero ( or the sum of anticlockwise moments
= sum of clockwise moments)
c. The lines of action of the three forces must all pass through the same point.

33. If the resultant force acting on an object is not zero, it will accelerate.
34. If the resultant moment on an object is not zero, it will rotate with angular acceleration.

35. The principle of moments: For a body in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a
point are equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point. The
resultant moment about a point must be zero.

36. How to verify the principle of moments:

a. Experiment:
i. Upon a uniform beam, known masses are placed on either side of the pivot.
ii. The masses are moved until the beam is in equilibrium.
iii. The distance between the pivot and the centre of mass of each mass is
measured.
iv. This is repeated with other masses.
b. Calculations:
i. The weights of the masses on either side of the pivot is calculated.
ii. The product of the weights and the perpendicular distance to the pivot on
either side of the pivot provide the clockwise and anticlockwise moments.
iii. These should be equal if the principle of moments is correct.

37. Couple: A couple is a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces, whose lines of action do not
cross and tend to produce rotation only.
a. A couple does not cause any resultant linear force, but does produce a turning effect
which is called a torque.

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 38. For two forces to be a couple they must be
a. Equal in magnitude
b. Opposite in direction
c. Parallel to each other

39. Torque: The product of one of the forces in couple and the perpendicular distance between
the forces.
a. =
b. =
c. Where T is the torque of a couple measured in Newton Metres (Nm)
d. Where F is one of the forces in couple measured in Newtons (N)
e. Where d is the perpendicular distance between the forces.

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Module 3.3 Work, energy and power:

1. =
a. =
b. Where W is the work done measured in Joules (J)
c. Where F is the Force applied measured in Newtons (N)
d. Where x is the distance moved in the direction of the force measured in metres (m)

2. Work done is equal to the energy transferred from one form to another.

3. Joule: One Joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton moves an object through a
distance of 1 metre.

4. For forces at an angle, the horizontal component of the force is Fcos. Therefore, Work
done is given by = cos

5. Principle of Conservation Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can be

transferred from one form to another but the total amount of energy in a closed system will
not change.

6. Kinetic Energy: The energy of a body due its motion (J).

1
a. = 2
2
b. Where Ek is the kinetic energy measured in Joules (J)
c. Where m is the mass of the object measured in kilograms (kg)
d. Where v is the velocity of the object measured in metres per second (ms-1)

7. How to derive the equation for kinetic energy:

a. The change in kinetic energy is equal to the work done so =
(+)
b. You know = , = and = average velocity * time =
2
c. Substituting these into the equation gives = . .
(+)
d. Which equals =
2
1 1
e. After simplification you get = 2 2 2
2
f. When u is zero the object has no kinetic energy.
1
g. So the equation for kinetic energy is = 2
2

8. Gravitational potential energy (Ep): the energy an object has due to its position in a
gravitational field.
a. =
b. =
c. Where Ek is the kinetic energy measured in Joules (J)
d. Where m is the mass of the object measured in kilograms (kg)
e. Where g is the gravitational field strength measured in Newton per kilogram (Nkg-1)
f. Where h is the change in height of the object measured in metres (m)

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 9. Gravitational Field strength: Gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass
at that point.

10. How to derive the equation for Gravitational potential energy:

a. The gravitational potential energy gained is equal to the work done in moving the
object a distance h upwards, so = =
b. The force that work is done against is the weight of an object, which is equal to mg.
c. Therefore =

11. Power: the rate at which work is done.

a. =

b. =
c. Where P is power measured in Watts (W)
d. Where W is work done measured in Joules (J)
e. Where t is time measured in seconds (s)

12. Watt (W): The rate of energy transfer that is equal to 1 joule per second
a. 1 Watt (W) = 1 Joule per second (Js-1)

13. =
a. =
b. Where P is power measured in Watts (W)
c. Where F is the Force measured in Newton (N)
d. Where v is final velocity measured in metres per second (ms-1)
e. The force and motion of the object must be in the same direction.
f. If they are not then you can resolve the Force and get =

14. How to derive the second equation for Power:

a. We know that =
b. And =

c. Substituting this in gives =

d. And =
e. So =

15. Efficiency = 100

a. Efficiency has no units.

b. U = T

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Module 3.4 Forces in Action:

1. Extension/tensile deformation occurs when a material is stretched. This is caused by tensile

forces.

2. Compression/compressive deformation occurs when a material is squashed/compressed.

This is caused by compressive forces.

3. Hookes Law: The extension of a stretched material is directly proportional to the force
applied, as long as the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
a. =
b. Where F is the force applied to the material measured in Newton (N)
c. Where k is the force constant measured in Newton per metre (Nm-1)
d. Where x is the extension or compression of the material measured in metres (m)

4. =

5. Hookes law can also be applied to springs. When a force is applied to a spring to hold it in a
compressed or extended position, the spring applies an equal and opposite force. This force
is called the restoring force. For springs, the constant of proportionality, k, can also be called
the spring constant.

6. Force/Spring constant: Force per unit extension.

7. Springs can be placed in series and in parallel. When this occurs the overall force constant
changes. To calculate the spring constant for different arrangements use the following
formulas:
1 1 1 1
a. Series: = + + +
1 2

b. Parallel: = 1 + 2 + +

8. Limit of Proportionality: The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which Hooke's law
is no longer true when stretching a material.

9. Elastic limit: The point beyond which the material you are stretching becomes permanently
stretched so that the material does not return to its original length when the force is
removed.

10. Elastic Deformation: A material will show elastic deformation up to its elastic limit. The
material will return back to its original shape after the force is removed

11. Plastic Deformation: If a deformation is plastic, the material is permanently stretch and will
not return back to its original shape. The elastic limit is exceeded.

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 12. Force-extension Graphs:
a. The gradient is force/spring constant.
b. The area under the graph is the elastic potential energy.
c. The limit of proportionality is the point which Hookes Law is no longer obeyed.

13. Elastic potential energy: Before the elastic limit, the work done in stretching or compressing
a material is stored as elastic potential energy.
a. If a material is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the work done is not stored as
elastic potential energy, but rather lost as heat and used up when separating atoms.

14. Elastic Potential Energy:

1
a. =
2
1
b. = 2

2

c. Where E is the elastic potential energy measured in Joules (J)

d. Where F is the force applies measured in Newton (N)
e. Where x is the extension measured in metres (m)
f. Where k is the force/spring constant measured in Newton per metre (Nm-1)

15. Deriving the equations for Elastic Potential Energy:

a. The work done on a material in stretching it is equal to the energy stored.
b. As =
c. And the force is an average force
1
d. So =
2
e. As Hookes Law is obeyed by the material, =
1
f. So = 2
2

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 16. Investigating Hookes Law:
a. Equipment:
i. Clamp and clamp stand
ii. Object being tested
iii. Masses, used to produce an extension.
iv. Ruler/micrometer, used to measure original length and extension
b. Measurements:
i. Measure the original length of the object being tested.
ii. Add masses one at a time at the bottom of the object.
iii. Measure the new length of the wire.
iv. Calculate the extension, extension = new length original length
v. For each mass calculate the weight using W = mg to get the force applied to
the material.
c. Determining Force/spring constant
i. For different weights, find the different extensions.
ii. Plot these results on a Force against extension graph.
iii. The gradient of the line of best fit in the elastic region is the force constant.

17. Tensile stress: force per unit area of cross-section.

a. =


b. =
c. Where is the tensile stress measured in Pascals (Pa) or (Nm-2)
d. Where is the Force applied measured in Newton (N)
e. Where is the cross-sectional area measured in metres squared (m-2)

18. Tensile strain: Extension divided by the original length of the material.

a. =

b. =
c. Where is the tensile strain. There is not unit for strain as it is a ratio.
d. Where is the extension measured in metres (m)
e. Where is the original length of the material measured in metres (m)

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19. =

a. The Young modulus of a material is the tensile stress divided by the tensile strain of
a material, within the limit of proportionality whilst Hookes law is obeyed. It should
be measured before the elastic limit.

b. = = =

c. Where E is the Young Modulus measured in Pascals (Pa) or (Nm-2)

d. Where is the tensile stress measured in Pascals (Pa) or (Nm-2)
e. Where is the Force applied measured in Newton (N)
f. Where is the cross-sectional area measured in metres squared (m-2)
g. Where is the tensile strain. There is not unit for strain as it is a ratio.
h. Where is the extension measured in metres (m)
i. Where is the original length of the material measured in metres (m)

20. Stress-Strain Graphs:

a. Gradient = Young Modulus
1
b. Area under graph = elastic potential energy per unit volume = 2
c. Yield Point: The point at which there is a large increase in the extension of a
material when no or little force is applied.
d. Breaking Point: The point at which the material breaks.
e. Ultimate Tensile Strength: The maximum stress that a material can withstand
before breaking.

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 21. Material Characteristics and their Stress-strain graphs:

a. Ductile Materials:
i. Examples: Copper
ii. Can be formed into a wire.
iii. Initially deforms elastically.
iv. Past the yield point, a ductile material stretches with
little increase in the load.
v. Past the elastic limit, Hookes Law is not obeyed, and
the material does not return back to its original shape
when the force is removed.
vi. Before the breaking point, necking occurs. This is when
the material gets thinner and thinner as the breaking point is reached.
vii. The material is likely to break here as the stress
increases (as area decreases). Necking of the wire just
magnifies the stress.

b. Brittle Materials:
i. Examples: Glass, cast iron
ii. They have no plastic region.
iii. Only have elastic region.
iv. They return to their original shape when the force is
removed.
v. Hookes law is obeyed.

c. Polymeric Materials:
i. Polythene:
1. Deforms Plastically.
2. Ductile
3. Does not return to its original shape.
4. Does not obey Hookes Law.
5. Easy to stretch with a low force.

ii. Rubber:
1. Rubber behaves elastically.
2. The loading and unloading curves are
different.
3. Some energy is lost as heat when it is
stretched.
4. Area between curves is equal to energy
(-per unit volume if a stress-strain graph)
lost as heat.
5. Do not obey Hookes Law.

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 22. Investigating the Young Modulus of a wire:
a. Equipment:
i. A very long and thin wire clamped at one end of a bench. The longer the
wire, the smaller the uncertainty in your measurements.
ii. Masses, used to produce an extension.
iii. Metre Rule and micrometer, used to measure original length, extension and
diameter.
iv. A thin marker that will be placed on the wire.

b. How the equipment is used to make these measurements:

i. Measure the diameter in several places along the wire using a micrometer.
ii. Measure the original length of the object being tested with the metre rule.
iii. Add masses one at a time at the bottom of the object.
iv. Measure the new length of the wire.
v. Calculate the extension, extension = new length original length
vi. For each mass calculate the weight using W = mg to get the force applied to
the material.
vii. Record the extension achieved for several masses/loads.
viii. When unloading weights, re-measure the extension for each of weight.

c. Determining young Modulus

i. Young Modules = stress/strain
2
ii. Cross-sectional Area of wire = = 4
iii. Either
1. Plot a graph of Force against extension.

2. =
iv. Or
1. Plot a stress-strain graph.
2. Gradient of graph is the Young Modulus

v. The gradients should be calculated within the elastic limit.

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Module 3.5 Newtons laws of motion and momentum:

1. Newtons First Law of Motion: an object will remain at rest or keep travelling at constant
velocity unless it is acted on by an external force.

2. Newtons Second Law of Motion: The resultant force acting on an object is directly
proportional to the rate of change of momentum. (The force acts in the same direction as
the change in momentum).

3. Newtons Third Law of Motion: If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts
an equal and opposite force on object A.

a. These two forces are called force pairs.

b. To be a force pair there must be two forces that
i. Act on different bodies
ii. Are equal in magnitude
iii. Are opposite in direction
iv. Are of the same type.

4. Linear Momentum: the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

a. =
b. =
c. Where is the momentum of an object measured in kgms-1
d. Where is the mass of the object measured in kg
e. Where is the velocity of the object measured in ms-1
f. Momentum is a vector quantity. This is because velocity is a vector quantity and the
product of a scalar and vector is a vector.

5. According to Newtons second law = =

a. When mass is constant

()
b. =
()
c. And =
d. So =
e. = Is a special case of Newtons second law, as mass is constant.

6. State why the equation F=ma cannot be applied to a particle travelling at very high speeds
a. The mass of the particle increases
b. As its speed approaches the speed of light.

7. Impulse: The product of force and time for which the force acts.
a. =
b. Impulse is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
c. Where Impulse is measured in Ns.
d. The unit of impulse is equal to the unit of momentum. 1Ns = 1kgms-1

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 8. Deriving Impulse:

a. Newtons second law states that =
b. Rearranging this equations gives.
c. =

9. The area under a force-time graph is equal to the impulse which is equal to the change in
momentum.

10. Conservation of Momentum: For a closed system, the total momentum of objects before a
collision = total momentum of the objects after collision.

11. In some cases given, the collisions and explosions happen in more than one plane. In two-
dimensional collisions, momentum is conserved in both dimensions. You can solve two
dimensional collision problems by resolving vectors. You can work these out by using the law
of conservation of momentum in just the horizontal (or just the vertical direction).

12. Explain how the principle of conservation of momentum is a natural consequence of

Newtons laws of motion.
a. Newtons third law states that in a collision the forces acting on the two objects are
equal but opposite. The collision time is the same for both so the impulses on the
objects are equal and opposite. As Impulse = change in momentum, the gain in
momentum for one object is equal to the loss of momentum for the other object. So
momentum is conserved.

13. Types of collisions:

a. Perfectly elastic: a collision which there is no loss of kinetic energy in the collision.
b. Inelastic: A collision in which part of the kinetic energy before the collision is
transferred to other forms of energy after the collision.

Type of collision Momentum Kinetic Energy Total Energy

Perfectly elastic Conserved Conserved Conserved
Inelastic Conserved Not conserved Conserved

14. Car safety:

a. Newtons second law states that =

b. When a car crashes, the change in momentum is large. This means is large.
c. When a car crashes, the car comes to a stop quickly. This means is small.
d. The force acting on a person in a crash depends on the initial speed, and the time of
the collision.
e. Therefore, for a constant change in momentum, to reduce the force acting on a
person, the time of collision must be increased.

15. Most car safety devices are designed to slow you down gradually. Modern cars have built-in
features that increase the time over which the change in momentum can take place.

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 16. Car safety devices:

a. In all three devices, the time of impact is increased. Using = , for a constant

change in momentum, a larger impact time reduces the force applied on the driver

b. Crumple zones:
i. At the front of the car and at the rear of the car.
ii. Designed to crumple on impact.
iii. The kinetic energy of the car is transformed into heat energy when the
metal is deformed.
iv. Crumple zones increase the time taken for a car to slow down which reduces
the forces acting on the passenger and whatever it hits.
c. Air Bags:
i. Triggered by a large deceleration in the car.
ii. Cushions of air inflate very quickly on collision.
iii. They increase the collision time and slow down the passengers gradually.
iv. They prevent passengers from hitting solid parts of the insides of a car,
during a crash.
v. However, they cannot be used with rear facing child seats.
vi. They can also cause injury if the passenger is not wearing a seat belt.
d. Seat belts:
i. Designed to stretch slightly.
ii. Stops passengers from being thrown from their seats.
iii. Increases the time that the wearer comes to a stop because it stretches.
iv. Decreases the deceleration of the driver.
v. Therefore using F=ma, the force acting on the driver is also reduced.
vi. However, seatbelts can cause bruising during a crash.
vii. They are also dangerous for small children. Children may not be secure and
seatbelts could cause injuries to their necks if not worn properly.

17. The introduction of mandatory safety features in cars is a consequence of the scientific
community analysing the forces involved in collisions and investigating potential solutions to
reduce the likelihood of personal injury. Crash tests has allowed car manufacturers to test
the effectiveness of certain car features.

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