9.2 Sinusoids (1) e A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function. e A general expression for the sinusoid, v(t) = V,, sin(at + g) % % 0 \ 0 \ ’ a Se eR rt @ » where Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid @ = the angular frequency in radians/s ® = the phase9.2 Sinusoids (2) A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for all t and for all integers n. 1) = Vy sin eo * Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by their amplitude and phase difference. e If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero, they are out of phase.9.2 Sinusoids (3) Example 1 Given a sinusoid, 5sin(4zt—60°), calculate its amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and frequency. lution: Amplitude = 5, phase = -60°, angular frequency = 4nrad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.9.2 Sinusoids (4) Example 2 Find the phase angle between i, =—4sin(377t + 25’) and i, =5cos@77t-40°), does i, lead or lag i,? Solution: Since sin(wt+90°) = cos wt i, = 5sin(377t — 40” +90°) = 5sin(377¢ +50’) i, = —4sin(377t + 25°) = 4sin(377t + 180° + 25°) = 4sin(377t + 205”) therefore, i, leads i, 155°. 49.3 Phasor (1) e A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. e It can be represented in one of the following three forms: a. Rectangular z=x+ jy=r(cos@+ jsin g) =) aye Imaginary axis 4 Real axis b. Polar z=rZd , =pel# c. Exponential 2 =re where o=tan ay9.3 Phasor (2) Example 3 e Evaluate the following complex numbers: a. [5+ j2)(-1+ jA4) -5260°] b. 10+ j5 +3240° —3+ j4 +10. 230° Solution: a. -15.5 + j13.67 b. 8.293 + j2.2i 2. So 8. 4 Dr 6. 7 9.3 Phasor (3) Mathematic operation of complex number: Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Reciprocal . Square root . Complex conjugate Euler's identity 2 +2, =(% +¥2)+ J +2) 2 ~ 2) =(% 2) +I Y2) 2122 =i 4 + ah a4 sg -g, aon Tol tuts zor vz =vr 24/2 Zz =x-jy=rZ-g=re”* e** =cospt jsing9.3 Phasor (4) e Transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to the phasor domain: v(t) =V,, cos(@t+9) —— V=V, Zo (time domain) (phasor domain) e Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids. ¢ Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by subtracting from the phase.9.3 Phasor (5) Example 4 Transform the following sinusoids to phasors: i = 6cos(50t - 40°) A v = -4sin(30t + 50°) V Solution: a. 1=6Z—40° A b. Since -sin(A) = cos(A+90°); v(t) = 4cos (30t+50°+90°) = 4cos(30t+140°) V Transform to phasor => V=42140° V 99.3 Phasor (6) Example 5: Transform the sinusoids corresponding to phasors: a. V=-10230° V b. 1=j(5 -jl2) A Solution: a) v(t) = 10cos(wt + 210°) V b) Since I =12+j5 HVPE Za = 13.222.62° i(t) = 13c0s(ot + 22.62°) A 109.3 Phasor (7) The differences between v(t) and V: . v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain representation V is the frequency or phasor-domain representation. ° v(t) is time dependent, V is not. v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is generally complex. jz iO OD : Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; when it is applied to two or more sinusoid signals only if they have the same frequency. 119.3 Phasor (8) Relationship between differential, integral operation in phasor listed as follow: Wt) ——- V=VzZ¢ dv ; dt ne JoV Vv frar arn i9.3 Phasor (9) Example 6 Use phasor approach, determine the current i(t) in a circuit described by the integro-differential equation. 41+ 8idr—3© = 50cos(2t + 75°) Answer: i(t) = 4.642cos(2t + 143.2°) A9.3 Phasor (10) In-class exercise for Unit 6a, we can derive the differential equations for the following circuit in order to solve for v,(t) in phase domain V,. 60.2 - 20 cos(4r— 13) @ 10mF == 5H 3 x, : Z ua 45. 4 20y, = sinc ar —15°) dt 3 dt 3 However, the derivation may sometimes be very tedious. Is there any quicker and more systematic methods to do it? 149.3 Phasor (11) The answer is YES! Instead of first deriving the differential equation and then transforming it into phasor to solve for V,, we can transform all the RLC components into phasor first, then apply the KCL laws and other theorems to set up a phasor equation involving V, directly.9.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements (1) Resistor: Inductor: Capacitor: z - i 1 i 1 + + + + + Roy R 3 Loy BL coy @9.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements (2) Summary of voltage-current relationship Element Time domain Frequency domain 7 v=Ri V=RI L v= a V = jell c is ce v= =9.4 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements (3) Example 7 If voltage v(t) = 6cos(100t — 30°) is applied to a 50 uF capacitor, calculate the current, i(t), through the capacitor. Answer: i(t) = 30 cos(100t + 60°) mA9.5 Impedance and Admittance (1) * The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current |, measured in ohms Q. V Z=—=R+ jx ; j where R = Re, Zis the resistance and X = Im, Z is the reactance. Positive X is for L and negative X is for C. * The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S). Y= ! v 19 a Z9.5 Impedance and Admittance (2) Impedances and admittances of passive elements Element Impedance Admittance R 1 = Y=— Z=R R L =j yo Z = joL Fol. Cc z=. Y= jac Joc9.5 Impedance and Admittance (3) @=0;Z=0 —o—o—. L Short circuit at de Z = joL —o_ o— Open circuit at arn;Z>0 high frequencies (a) Searing O=0;Z +0 Cc pen circuit at de + — _ —o—o— Foe Short circuit at a>w;Z=0 high frequencies (b)9.5 Impedance and Admittance (4) After we know how to convert RLC components from time to phasor domain, we can transform a time domain circuit into a phasor/frequency domain circuit. Hence, we can apply the KCL laws and other theorems to directly set up phasor equations involving our target variable(s) for solving.9.5 Impedance and Admittance (5) Example 8 Refer to Figure below, determine v(t) and i(t). v, =S5cos(102) @ 0.2H 3 v Answers: i(t) = 1.118cos(10t— 26.56°) A; v(t) = 2.236cos(10t + 63.43°) V 239.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain (1) * Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor domain or more commonly called frequency domain. * Moreover, the variables to be handled are phasors, which are complex numbers. * All the mathematical operations involved are now in complex domain.9.7 Impedance Combinations (1) * The following principles used for DC circuit analysis all apply to AC circuit. * For example: a. voltage division b. current division c. circuit reduction d. impedance equivalence e. Y-A transformation9.7 Impedance Combinations (2) Example 9 Determine the input impedance of the circuit in figure below at w =10 rad/s. 2mF 20Q 2H —SfRewm—— rw Z ces == 4mF 50Q Answer: Z,, = 32.38 — j73.76 26Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time. The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the maximum value or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform. The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average value is zero). area under the curve Average or mean value = length of base The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate rule or Simpson's rule. For a sine wave, average value = 0.637 x maximum value (ie. 2/m & maximum value) 9/27/2016 27The RMS value of a set of values (or a continuous-time waveform) is the square root of the arithmetic mean (average) of the squares of the original values (or the square of the function that defines the continuous waveform). In the case of a set of n values {71,22,--- formula: rms = | dhe abe +28). The corresponding formula for a continuous function (or waveform) f(t) defined over the interval Ti maximum value) rms value Form factor = —————_—_ average value maximum value Peak factor = ——_____ rms value 9/27/2016 For a sine wave. form factor = 1.11 For a sine wave, peak factor = 1.41 30Sine Waves e Most important form of alternating quantity Tr : f=V/TSine Waves e Instantaneous Value — Shape of the sine wave is defined by the sine function y=Asino -in a voltage waveform 6 (degrees) 0 (rad) jor 90° «180° 270° 360° 0 n/2 om. 3m2 OnAngular Frequency e Frequency f (in Hertz) is a measure of the number of cycles per second e Each cycle consists of 2x radians e Therefore there will be 2xf radians per second e Angular frequency (rad/sec) w = 2nfEquation of a Sine Wave e Angular frequency w can be thought of as the rate at which the angle of the sine wave changes e At any time, 0 = at V=V, sin ot or V = V, sin 2nft I=I1,sinot or I=1, sin 2nftExample Determine the equation of the following voltage signal >» Period is 50 ms = 0.05 s > Thus f= 1/T =1/0.05 = 20 Hz > Peak voltage is 10 V # (ms) V=V psin 2aft =10sin 27720t =10sin 126tPhase Angles e Expressions given above assume the angle of the sine wave is zero att=0 e If this is not the case the ()y=Asin(or+9) (b) y= A sin(wr- 9)Phase Difference e Two waveforms of the same frequency may have a constant phase difference —- We say that one is phase-shifted with A= FV, sin(wt) A= FV, sin(wt) B=V, sin(wt— 1/2) B=V, sin(ot+ %/2) BA >@ =90° /|0' (a) B lags A by 90° (b) B leads A by 90°Average Value of a Sine Wave e Average value over one (or more) cycles is clearly zero e However, it is often useful to know the average magnitude of the waveform independent of its polarity — Average value over half a cycle - Average value of the rectified signalAverage Value of a Sine Wave y Ap = 0.637 A (a) Average value over halfa yp _ | pry, (b) Average value of cycleof asinewae av > [rV,sind do rectified sine wave 4 = —[-cosof x w, =—*=0.637x/, aRMS Value of a Sine Wave e Root Mean Square (RMS) Value e Instantaneous power (p) in a resistor is given by p= R Average power is given by v [Average (or Mean) of v> ]_ oe where favthe mean-square voltageRMS Value of a Sine Wave e While the mean-square voltage is useful, more often we use the square root of this quantity, namely the root-mean-square voltage Vina” -where Vims= Vi — We can also define I,,,,_ 1 4 V,=0.101V, Taye 1,=0-1071, V. mms m= EY, va"?RMS Value of a Sine Wave e RMS values are useful because their relationship to average power is similar to the corresponding DC values P,=Vinel, Var R P.=DmsR P=Form Factor e For any waveform the form factor is defined as RMSValue Form Factor =——————_—_ . AverageValue e For a sine wave, T07V, Form Factor =— P=l. 0.637,Peak Factor e For any waveform the peak factor is defined as Peak Value RMS Value Peak Factor = e For a sine wave, Vv Peak Factor= P___] 414 0.7079,Nodal Analysis » Since KCL is valid for phasors, we can analyze AC circuits by NODAL analysis. > Practice Problem 10.1: Find v, and v, using nodal analysis 0.2 42 SL Ww 10 sin 2rA 4) 203% 32H ®, 31, Hence, the circuit in the frequency domain is as shown below. “72.50 42 1 + - 10.20° A a 22 = vy js BV, VzNodal Analysis » Practice Problem 10.1 At node 1. ad) At node 2. where V, J = j2.5V) = j4(V, — V2) +2.58V, — V2) 0=-(7.54 JV, + (2.54 JL5)V, (2) Put (1) and (2) in matrix form. - ee S4j4 -j4 Tv,] [100 L-(7.5+j4) 2.5 v, 1° 0! where A = (5+ j4)(2.5 + j.15) —(-j4)(-(7.5 + j4)) = 22.5 — j12.5 = 25.742 - 29.05°Nodal Analysis Practice Problem 10.1 || 100 0 2.915.230.96 —— =11.32 ° 75.742 229,950 100) 11.32260.01 =(100) = 5 — (100) = 33.02.257.12° In the time domain, V,(t) = 11.32 sin(2t+ 60.019) V V,(t) = 33.02 sinQt+ 57.129) VMesh Analysis > Since KVL is valid for phasors, we can analyze AC circuits by MESH analysis. Practice Problem 10.4: Calculate the current /, Meshes 2 and 3 form a supermesh as shown in the circuit below.Mesh Analysis Practice Problem 10.4: Calculate the current /, For mesh 1, 50+(15— j4)1, —(-j4)1, - 51; =0 (15— j4) 1, + 41, For the supermesh, — (j8— j4) 1, + (5— j6)1, —(5— j4)1, =0 Also, 1, =1, +2 Eliminating 1, from (1) and (2) (IS~ ja), +6541, = 60 (-5+ j4)1, +(5 1 10+ jl2 From (4) and (5). 15—j4 L-5+j4 | 60 | i, /-| - 10+ j12 2 () (5)Mesh Analysis Practice Problem 10.4: Calculate the current /, A Do 3414 58— jl0 = 58.8 9.78 = = =5 -9,.78° -54j4 5-j2 38 — jl0 = 58.862 -9.7 298 — j20 = 298.67 2 -3.84° Il Ln = nt rg IN ga Ko nq ° raSuperposition Theorem > Superposition Theorem applies to AC circuits as well. » For sources having different frequencies, the total response must be obtained by adding individual responses in time domain. Exp. 10.6 Superposition Technique for sources having different frequencies 2H 12 4Q 2sin StA = O1F 5V 10 cos 2rV a) All sources except DC 5-V set _b) All sources except 10cos(102) set to to zero zeroSuperposition Theorem Exp. 10.6 Superposition Technique for sources having different frequencies 119 | | tw ty, 7 joo = @ 2-0 — 20 S40 c) All sources except 2 sin 5t set to zero Vo= Vit Vo V3Superposition Theorem P.P.10.5 Find I, using superposition. 2A J22 6Q AQ 10730 V sa ua @ , +1, where I), and I, are due to the voltage source and current source For I, consider the circuit in Fig. (a). Formesh 1, (8+ j2)I,—j4I, =0 1, =(0.5-j2)1, a) Formesh2, (6+ j4)I, — j4l, -10230°= 0 @Superposition Theorem Substituting (1) into (2), _ 10230” (6+ j4)(0.5— j2)1, - j41, = 10230" b= Tagg = 0.08 0.556 i For I’, consider the circuit in Fig. (b). 220° A pa 6Q 1, € 80 Bia @) Let Z,=8-j2Q Z,=6|)j4= = 1.8464 2.770 1 =8-j2Q, a =e (agg eens Z, 1.846 + j2.7 I Et (gy - DU B16+ 2.77) _ 9 41624 0.53 Z,+Z, 9.846+ j0.77 Therefore, 1, =I, +1) =0.4962+ j1.086 I, = 1.194265.44° ASuperposition Theorem P.P.10.6 Superposition Technique for sources having different Freque ~ 8Q + 2cos 10rA & 30 sin St V t V,=V, +V,. where v,, is due to the voltage source and v’ is due to the current source. For v,. we remove the current source. The circuit in the frequency domain is shown in Fig. (a). 82 900 Ti te} 3020° V C) (a)Superposition Theorem Note that - jl 55 =-j1.25 By voltage division, zi yi =o °~ B-9L25 Thus, Vv, = 4.63 lsin(St —81.12°) 30) = 4.6312 -81.12 For v,. we remove the voltage source. 2cos(10t) —> 220° w=10 1 0.2F —» —~=———= jaC j(10\(0.2) 1H — > _ jol. = j(10)(1) = jlo -j0.5 The correspondit circuit in the frequency domain is shown in Fig (b).Superposition Theorem . i80 . Let Z,=-j0.5. Z, =8|| 10 =~ = 4.878 + 3.9 c acl 2 =8i| l0=e j10 Jj By current division, Z, = (2) Z,+Z, Vo =1(-j0.5)= 2 (2\(-j0.5) = AG8774 j3.9) 0) SZ, PT e784 Bd » 6.245Z-51 1.0512 - 86.24° ° §,94.234.88° Thus, vi, = 1.051 cos(10t — 86,24°) Therefore, bv, 1 sin(5t—81.12°) + 1.051 cos(10t—86.24°) VAC Superposition - Example 6.17 Z, = joL 60 cos 5t V © Gs 4H lea v% iv 502 \ Find v, 3 sin 2tA However, what is the value of w?0=5?,@=2?AC Superposition - Example 6.17 1M 4H | 60 cos 5t V + 1 ve ne 502 © T roca Superposition Princj zy zs 4H 4H 60 cos 5¢ V + + 1 Voir gf <7 502 Vora EF 502 ® | | 3 sin 2¢A Gl aac 1aunve2AC Superposition - Example 6.17 Vo = Ver + Veo es M 60 cos 5¢ V ot 1 : © 2502 Yaa dF 50a ® “Te | 3sin 2¢A Bs J 1 60 /o° 38 1 w=2 + ® » J 502 Vo-2 aR 25 502 ® o=5 “ye | 3 L:s0° The oa element has differentAC Superposition - Example 6.17 3y + Os j20 8 o=2 + + Veo.) == 10 502 Vo-2 j25 50Q @ ae ~ | 3 /-90° 1 =337 o_o ee so(-10j) _-soj 8/(-25/)__ 200 _ 200 . 50-107 5—j 87-257 -17j7 17 et o=3/—29 Vo. = 60-4 — =55.72-158.2 7 5) 200 =0F 4 90; 7! Soi 200 Ves =leaX 5 J=34AZ166.8" Vc_,(t)=55.7 cost -158.2°) V valt)=34 eos 4166.8 VvTHEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources X, = 80 + E = 10V 20° XoAN20SR 4 = Thévenin FIG. 18.24 Example 18.7.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources E = 10V 20° o 2| Thévenin Lo FIG. 18.25 Assigning the subscripted impedances to the network in Fig. 18.24.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources fiom Z Z, i o 1 aa — + | b Zn o£ Zy Ep, © = FIG. 18.26 Determining the FIG. 18.27 Determining the Thévenin impedance for the open-circuit Thévenin voltage network in Fig. 18.24. for the network in Fig. 18.24.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources FIG. 18.28 The Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in Fig. 18.24.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources R EN =50 R a AW AW 6a 72 + + ue — 2 Q)xvais Ee @ | Thévenin FIG. 18.29 Example 18.8.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources =} E, A) 10V 20° Z, | 5 4’ | Thévenin FIG. 18.30 Assigning the subscripted impedances for the network in Fig. 18.29.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources FIG. 18.31 Determining the Thévenin impedance for the network in Fig. 18.29.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources FIG. 18.32 Determining the open-circuit Thévenin voltage for the network in Fig. 18.29.THEVENIN’S THEOREM Independent Sources FIG. 18.33 The Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network in Fig. 18.29.NORTON’S THEOREM Independent Sources R X, E = 20V 20° Norton FIG. 18.62 Example 18.14.NORTON’S THEOREM Independent Sources Z % ° ty = Norton FIG. 18.63 Assigning the subscripted impedances to the network in Fig. 18.62. FIG. 18.64 Determining the Norton impedance for the network in Fig. 18.62.NORTON’S THEOREM Independent Sources FIG. 18.65 Determining |, for the network in Fig. 18.62.NORTON’S THEOREM Independent Sources - rB75900 REON — ya saz ax) h, Son XeAR2500 FIG. 18.66 The Norton equivalent circuit for the network in Fig. 18.62.