Review Article Helicobacter Pylori Infection: Dyspepsia: When and How To Test For
Review Article Helicobacter Pylori Infection: Dyspepsia: When and How To Test For
Review Article Helicobacter Pylori Infection: Dyspepsia: When and How To Test For
Review Article
Dyspepsia: When and How to Test for
Helicobacter pylori Infection
Maria Pina Dore,1 Giovanni Mario Pes,1 Gabrio Bassotti,2 and Paolo Usai-Satta3
1
Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Clinica Medica, University of Sassari, Viale San Pietro, No. 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy
2
Dipartimento di Medicina, Sezione di Gastroenterologia, University of Perugia, Piazza Lucio Severi 1, San Sisto, 06132 Perugia, Italy
3
Gastrointestinal Unit, P. Brotzu Hospital, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
Copyright 2016 Maria Pina Dore et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Dyspepsia is defined as symptoms related to the upper gastrointestinal tract. Approximately 25% of western populations complain
of dyspeptic symptoms each year. 70% of them do not have an organic cause and symptoms are related to the so-called functional
dyspepsia, characterized by epigastric pain, early satiety, and/or fullness during or after a meal occurring at least weekly and for
at least 6 months according to ROME III criteria. In order to avoid invasive procedures and adverse effects, to minimize costs,
to speed up diagnosis, and to provide the most appropriate treatments, primary care physicians need to recognize functional
dyspepsia. Because symptoms do not reliably discriminate between organic and functional forms of the disease, anamnesis, family
history of peptic ulcer and/or of gastric cancer, medication history, especially for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, age, and
physical examination could help the physician in discerning between functional dyspepsia and organic causes. For patients without
alarm symptoms, noninvasive testing for H. pylori, with either carbon-13-labeled urea breath testing or stool antigen testing, is
recommended as a first-line strategy. In this review, we provide recommendations to guide primary care physicians for appropriate
use of diagnostic tests and for H. pylori management in dyspeptic patients.
the diagnostic assessment, all patients are characterized as Transmission of the infection to others especially
having uninvestigated dyspepsia. family.
Dyspepsia (nonulcer).
2. Evaluation of Uninvestigated Dyspepsia Iron deficiency anaemia.
Classically, the evaluation starts with a history and physical Autoimmune thrombocytopenia.
examination designed to separate organic and functional Peptic ulcer:
causes. Here, one searches for the presence of symptoms and
findings suggestive of an organic disease (e.g., the so-called Peptic ulcer complications.
alarm symptoms or features) [2].
Alarm or red flags prompting endoscopy for the evalu- MALT lymphoma.
ation of patients with dyspepsia are as follows: Gastric adenocarcinoma.
(i) Overt gastrointestinal bleeding. Approximately 20% of those with an H. pylori infection
will experience an H. pylori-related clinical disease [6].
(ii) Anemia.
Randomized controlled trials of H. pylori eradication therapy
(iii) Unexplained weight loss. versus placebo report that only a proportion (10 to 12%) of
(iv) Progressive dysphagia. functional dyspeptic patients achieve a significant improve-
(v) Odynophagia. ment of persistent symptoms after H. pylori eradication [2, 8
12]. And relief may also take several months up to one year.
(vi) Recurrent vomiting. A recent randomized clinical trial conducted in primary care
(vii) Family history of GI cancer. patients with dyspeptic symptoms reported that 49% (94 of
(viii) Presence of an abdominal mass and/or lymphadenop- 192) improved compared to 36.5% (72 of 197) in the control
athy. group ( = 0.01; number needed to treat = 8). Similar
results have been observed in dyspeptic patients from Asia
Overall, most alarm symptoms have a low predictive value [13, 14]. A population of H. pylori infected dyspeptic patients
for the presence of an organic disease [4, 5]. However, their followed up for 7 years after H. pylori eradication showed
presence would point toward early use of more invasive diag- a 25% reduction in consultations for dyspeptic symptoms
nostic maneuvers such as upper gastrointestinal endoscopy [15]. Because eradication of H. pylori will eliminate dyspepsia
whereas absence of alarm features in a young, otherwise in only a portion of infected dyspeptic patients, it is also
healthy individual would point toward an initial trial of important to know what to tell the patient about the short-
medical therapy. The most feared diagnosis is gastric cancer and long-term expectations of H. pylori eradication. Overall,
and in regions with a high incidence of gastric cancer such patients can be assured that cure of an H. pylori infection
as Japan or Korea the age of 45 is the cut-off. Where gastric will result in healing of the gastritis and, depending on
cancer is not common, upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the reversibility of the damage that has occurred, return of
recommended for patients above 55 years old [2, 3, 6, 7]. function. Their risk of H. pylori peptic ulcers is eliminated
Among patients with dyspepsia, only 25% have an organic and if ulcers are present, they will be cured. The risk of gastric
cause (8); in the rest of the patients, a diagnosis of functional cancer is also reduced and they can no longer transmit the
dyspepsia can be made according to ROME III criteria (1). infection to other family members [6]. Importantly, the effect
on relief of dyspepsia is less assured [1, 2]. It is therefore
important in the evaluation of dyspepsia to identify in which
3. Helicobacter pylori Infection patients and when diagnostic tests for H. pylori should be
and Dyspepsia done and which are the appropriate tests. Because it is not
Although H. pylori-associated diseases commonly present currently possible to identify which patient is at risk for a
with dyspepsia (e.g., peptic ulcer and gastric cancer), the bad outcome, it has been recommended that all with H. pylori
infection itself may cause dyspepsia without obvious gross infections should receive H. pylori eradication therapy [7].
structural changes. H. pylori infection causes progressive
functional and structural gastroduodenal damage that unpre- 4. Approach for Patients in relation
dictably may progress to peptic ulcer disease and its compli- to Alarm Symptoms
cations such as atrophic gastritis or gastric cancer as follows.
Clinical outcomes related to Helicobacter pylori infection For patients with alarm features, early esophagogastroduo-
are as follows: denoscopy is recommended (Figure 1). For those without
alarm features, the decision is whether a trial of empiric
Active chronic gastritis: proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy or further diagnostic
testing. In areas where H. pylori infections are common (e.g.,
Impaired acid production.
20%), a test for H. pylori and treatment of infected individ-
Impaired drug absorption. uals are preferred over a trial of therapy with PPIs. In such
Atrophic gastritis. regions, the test-and-treat H. pylori strategy has proven cost-
Impaired B12 vitamin absorption. effective and decreases the number of endoscopies. However,
Gastroenterology Research and Practice 3
Yes No
Figure 1: Flow chart of the management of H. pylori for dyspeptic patients with dyspepsia.
to test for H. pylori as a first-line strategy is reasonable even in Urea blood test:
areas with low prevalence of infection, given that the available
tests are not invasive. Studies on economic modeling and 13C-urea blood test.
symptoms improvement suggest that eradication therapy is
a cost-effective strategy for managing functional dyspepsia Stool antigen test:
and more data demonstrated that the treatment is particularly
Polyclonal stool antigen tests.
effective for patients with peptic ulcer-like symptoms [1, 2,
16]. Monoclonal stool antigen tests.
In those in whom dyspepsia remains despite H. pylori Rapid stool antigen tests.
eradication, a trial of PPI therapy is a reasonable next step. If
symptoms persist, treatment with a prokinetic agent, antide- Invasive tests requiring endoscopy include the following:
pressant drugs or some form of alternative medications, Biopsy urease testing (rapid urease test).
might be considered, although evidence from prospective
studies to support this approach is limited [17]. Histology:
Immunostaining.
5. Diagnostic Tests for H. pylori Infection Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH).
H. pylori infection is associated with a number of diseases (see Molecular testing for susceptibility.
the previous list of clinical outcomes related to Helicobacter Molecular tests for virulent factors (VacA-
pylori infection). There are many excellent tests currently CagA).
available to identify active H. pylori infections as follows.
Noninvasive tests include the following: Brush cytology.
Serology: Bacterial culture:
for a time during which those drugs are discontinued. The A number of rapid office-based IgG kits, the so-
choice of a test is also influenced by the pretest probability of called near-patients tests, have been developed. The more
the infection [17]. convenient ones use one drop of whole blood obtained by
finger-prick; most of these tests have lower sensitivity and
5.1. Noninvasive Tests specificity than traditional ELISA tests and they are generally
not recommended [23]. Although H. pylori vary in virulence,
5.1.1. Serologic Tests. H. pylori infections are associated with no clinical utility has been found in relation to assessing the
a strong humoral immune response and the presence of presence of putative H. pylori virulence factors such as CagA
serum IgG antibodies against H. pylori has been proven to or VacA [9].
provide a reliable assessment of current or previous infection.
However, the presence of antibodies can remain for a long 5.1.2. Saliva and Urine Tests. Antibody tests using saliva and
time after the infection; thus, a positive serologic test in a urine have been developed because samples can be easily
patient should not automatically imply the presence of an obtained especially from children. Studies indicate that IgG
active infection. Most common serologic tests are based on an assays of saliva are not as sensitive as histology or serum
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technology. testing [24, 25]. Generally, because of the low prevalence of
A meta-analysis of 21 studies with commercially available infection in children, all tests will be associated with a high
ELISA kits reported overall sensitivity and specificity of false positive rate and, as a rule of thumb, only children
85% and 79%, respectively [18]. Recently, several kits were with two positive tests based on different methods should be
evaluated in Europe and a number showed high sensitivity considered to be H. pylori infected.
and susceptibility [19]. As a general rule, one should only
use what has been validated locally or regionally. Although
IgG, IgM, and IgA tests are commercially available, only the 5.1.3. Urea Breath Test (UBT). The urea breath test is the
IgG tests are recommended as the others generally have poor noninvasive test of choice for the diagnosis of H. pylori [26,
reliability. 27]. The method is based on H. pyloris urease activity which
As with any test, prevalence of the H. pylori infection splits urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. The test can be
and the pretest probability influence the positive or negative performed with the urea labeled with radioactive isotope of
predictive values [20, 21]. Overall, where the prevalence of carbon 14C or the nonradioactive naturally occurring stable
H. pylori infection and the pretest probability are low, the isotope, 13C. The carbon-labeled urea is given orally, often
negative predictive value of a serologic test is high whereas in association with a test meal in order to delay gastric
false positives are more frequent, with the opposite in high emptying and increase contact time with the mucosa. The
prevalence/high pretest probability cases (i.e., the positive preferred test meal is citric acid which also acidifies the
predictive value is high but there is increased prevalence stomach and inhibits non-H. pylori urease activity. The test
of false negative results). For example, a patient with a is administered to the patient fasting from solid food for
confirmed peptic ulcer would have a high pretest probability at least 1 hour. H. pylori urease liberates labeled CO2 that
of infection such that it would be acceptable to initiate is detected in breath samples usually obtained 15 to 20
treatment based upon a positive serology, whereas a negative minutes after urea ingestion [26, 28]. The 14C-UBT requires
test would have a good chance of being false negative and a scintillation counter and technicians trained in the use
should prompt confirmation using a test for active infection. of radioactive chemicals. The 13C-UBT requires a mass or
In contrast, a negative test would have a good chance of infrared spectrometer. There are nuclear regulatory concerns
being false negative and should prompt confirmation using for use of the 13C test in children or pregnant women. Gener-
a test for active infection. On the other hand, a positive ally, the use of radioisotopes should be restricted to those in
serologic test in a patient with symptomatic gastroesophageal need.
reflux from low prevalence regions would likely be a false The UBT is a robust test with high sensitivity (95%) and
positive and confirmation with a test for active infection specificity (95% to 100%) for the detection of active H. pylori
would be prudent before initiation of therapy. Antibody infections although it is less accurate in children below 6
testing cannot be used to confirm eradication. However, years of age unless one calculates the result using the urea
if a known positive antibody test becomes negative after hydrolysis rate [29]. False positive results are uncommon
many months, one can assume that it reliably predicts a except in areas where atrophic gastritis is common and the
successful outcome of therapy. It has been demonstrated that test does not include citric acid [28, 30]. False negative results
H. pylori titers declined by approximately 50% at 3 months, may be observed in patients who are taking antisecretory
and seroconversion from detectable to undetectable levels at therapy, bismuth, or antibiotics and patients with upper
18 months after therapy had a specificity of 100% proving to gastrointestinal bleeding [31]. To reduce false negative results,
reliably correlate with cure [22]. However, the seroconversion the patient should be off antibiotics for at least four weeks and
does not occur often. Serologic testing might be useful where off PPIs for at least two weeks [9].
the pretest probability is high (e.g., active peptic ulcer) and
tests for active infection are negative possibly because of the 5.1.4. 13C-Urea Blood Test. A blood version of the 13C-urea
presence of factors that reduce the bacterial load such as test (Ez-HBT, Metabolic Solutions Inc., Nashua, NH) was
antibiotic or bismuth use or widespread atrophy gastritis such approved by the FDA as a noninvasive tool for diagnosis of
as in gastric atrophy or MALT lymphoma. H. pylori infection. This test is performed by measuring blood
Gastroenterology Research and Practice 5
levels of 13C at baseline and 60 min after ingestion of 13C- especially in patients who have previously failed H. pylori
urea. Although the test demonstrated excellent sensitivity of eradication. Other findings need to be treated according to
92% to 100% and specificity of 96% to 97% [32], it is not used the diagnosis.
in clinical practice.
5.2.1. Biopsy Urease Testing. The biopsy urease activity often
5.1.5. Stool Antigen Tests. H. pylori present in the stom- called rapid urease testing is based on the fact that H.
ach are excreted in the stool. Available qualitative enzyme pylori contain the urease enzyme and thus the presence of
immunoassay commercial kits have been shown to be able the infection can easily be identified using a colorimetric
to detect H. pylori protein antigens in a concentration of test based on the pH change when urea is hydrolyzed into
nanograms per mL of stool. Studies evaluating the ability ammonia and CO2 . A number of gel-based, liquid-based,
of fecal antigen tests to diagnose H. pylori infection have and paper-based tests are commercially available with similar
generally been supportive. Polyclonal stool antigen testing diagnostic accuracy [39]. Some of the newer tests provide
has been proven to be less sensitive and specific than tests reliable data within one hour giving the gastroenterologist
using monoclonal antibodies and is no longer recommended the possibility of providing H. pylori eradication treatment
[9, 26, 33, 34]. The sensitivity and specificity reported for stool to the patients before leaving the endoscopic room [40].
antigen tests based on monoclonal antibodies are similar to Inexpensive and reliable homemade rapid urease test (urea
those of the urea breath test [7, 9] such that the tests can be broth plus one drop of 1% phenol red as a pH indicator) could
used interchangeably. Both require the same precautions for be made in any laboratory. The sensitivity and specificity of
the initial diagnosis of H. pylori infection and for confirming biopsy urease tests are approximately 90% to 95% and 95%
eradication following therapy [35]. For patients unable to to 100%, respectively [38]. Recent gastrointestinal bleeding,
stop PPI therapy two weeks prior to stool antigen testing, use of PPIs and/or antibiotics and/or bismuth-containing
positive test results can be considered as true positive whereas compounds, and presence of atrophic gastritis and/or diffuse
negative results may represent false negatives and should intestinal metaplasia may result in false negative test [30,
be confirmed with repeat testing two weeks after stopping 41]. On the base of experience, H. pylori is more frequently
PPI therapy. For patients complaining of severe symptoms, localized in the antrum and corpus (80%), only in the corpus
antacids or histamine-2 receptor antagonists, which do not in 10% and only in the antrum in 8% of cases [42].
interfere with testing, are allowed [36]. Because of prolonged Because a positive rapid urease test is based on the
excretion of H. pylori antigens, it has been recommended that bacterial load in the gastric biopsy, when obtaining tissue
confirmation of cure testing be delayed until 6 weeks after the samples from the antrum and the corpus, use of large
end of therapy. forceps/or multiple samples increases the sensitivity of the
test [21, 28, 43].
5.1.6. Rapid Stool Antigen Tests. A number of rapid (in the False positive tests are unusual; however, mouth flora
office) H. pylori stool antigen tests have been developed. Two may produce urease and contaminate samples. It is important
large studies demonstrated high accuracy with pretreatment for the endoscopist to take specimens from macroscopically
sensitivities of 93% and 95% and specificities of 89% and normal mucosa as H. pylori colonize healthy gastric tissue
87%. Following eradication, the reported sensitivities and and biopsies obtained from abnormally appearing mucosa
specificities were 94% and 100%, 97% and 91%, respectively (e.g., intestinal metaplasia) or from lesion margins are often
[37]. However, there are a number of other reports and negative.
abstracts showing much lower success with this and the use
of rapid stool antigen test is not recommended [9]. 5.2.2. Histology. Gastric biopsies provide information
regarding the presence and type of gastritis and whether it
5.2. Invasive Tests. Invasive tests typically require upper is complicated by intestinal metaplasia, dysplasia, atrophy,
gastrointestinal endoscopy (EGD). EGD is a gold standard MALT lymphoma, or gastric cancer. Hematoxylin and Eosin
for epigastric symptoms because it allows direct inspection (H&E) stain is excellent to define the gastric morphology
of the upper gastrointestinal mucosa and gives the oppor- but is poor for detecting H. pylori and a special stain is
tunity to take biopsy samples. EGD is widely available in recommended such as a modified Giemsa (2% diluted).
developed countries. However, it is expensive, unpleasant, The increasing use of PPIs which promote the presence
time-consuming, and not without risk. Upper endoscopy of coccoid forms of H. pylori [44], on the gastric mucosa,
is indicated in patients with alarm features (see the list of has led many laboratories to abandon these nonspecific stains
alarm or red flags prompting endoscopy for the evaluation and instead use immunohistochemistry with specific anti-H.
of patients with dyspepsia) or those aged 55 years accord- pylori antibodies for their final determination. Despite the
ing to the American Gastroenterological Association and high sensitivity of histology, problems related to sampling,
American College of Gastroenterology guidelines [2, 5, 38]. handling, and processing the tissue specimens and interob-
In Europe, the suggested age cut-off is 45 years for patients server variability among pathologists could affect results [45].
with persistent dyspepsia [9]. Biopsies of the stomach should Because of the patchy colonization of bacteria, it is possible to
be obtained to rule out H. pylori and for the histological increase the accuracy with multiple biopsies. In one study, the
evaluation of the gastric mucosa [9]. Specimens can also be combination of four biopsy sites (lesser and greater curvature
used for bacterial culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing of the mid antrum, lesser and greater curvature of the mid
6 Gastroenterology Research and Practice
body) was found to provide a good yield for the detection of PCR has proven useful for testing the susceptibility of
H. pylori and the assessment of atrophic gastritis extent [45]. H. pylori to clarithromycin and is based on the fact that
clarithromycin resistance is related to point mutations (A-G
5.2.3. Gastritis Assessment. Inflammatory cells in normal transition) in the 23S rRNA [53]. PCR has also been used
gastric mucosa are absent or rare. Because H. pylori infection successfully on gastric biopsy specimens salvaged from rapid
results in marked infiltration of the mucosa with acute urease tests and even stool. Alternatively, fluorescence in situ
and chronic inflammatory cells, histology can indirectly hybridization (FISH) has been used on paraffin embedded
point to the presence of the infection. The acute, or active, gastric mucosal biopsies. The FISH method is rapid and accu-
inflammatory component consists of neutrophils infiltrating rate (92.6%) and would provide the clinician with important
the surface, foveolar epithelium, and the lamina propria. information regarding choice of therapy [54].
This is characteristically accompanied by a chronic inflam-
matory component consisting of lymphocytes, plasma cells, 5.2.7. Culture. The gold standard for the presence of most
and scattered macrophages. This pattern is often called an infectious diseases is culture of the organism. However,
acute-on-chronic gastritis (or active chronic gastritis) and is routine culture for H. pylori is not currently widely available
characteristic of H. pylori infections. Lymphoid follicles are and, more importantly, typically requires an invasive method
often present. (EGD) to obtain gastric samples. Any experienced microbi-
Pathologists often use an organized scoring system to ology laboratory can rapidly learn to culture H. pylori and the
describe their findings (e.g., the Updated Sydney System) issues regarding transport to the microbiology laboratory are
[46]. The Sydney System evaluates histology, topography, all easily overcome.
morphology, and aetiology and scores the histology using Bacterial growth is identified as H. pylori on the basis
visual analogue scales (e.g., to score the density of H. pylori). of colony morphology, cell morphology, Grams stain, and
The Sydney System approach is then used in systems to stage positive biochemical reactions for catalase, urease, and oxi-
gastric cancer risk such as the OLGA (Operative Link for dase. Experienced laboratories achieve 90% to 95% success.
Gastritis Assessment) staging system [47]. H. pylori have been isolated from stool but with poor
H. pylori on the morphological analysis appears to the overall success and stool culture is not currently practical
pathologist as typical spiral or curved shaped bacteria on the [55].
epithelial surface and in the mucus layer of the biopsy speci-
men. As noted above, the widespread use of PPIs often results
in a few non-H. pylori bacteria or coccoid forms seen with 5.2.8. Susceptibility Testing. Culture is typically done to
special stains and has led many pathologists to always confirm determine antibiotic susceptibility. Most laboratories use the
that they are H. pylori by using immunohistochemical stains epsilometer test (-test) although agar dilution test is the
[48]. reference method [56]. The -test can accurately identify
metronidazole susceptible strains but a reading of those resis-
5.2.4. Immunostaining Techniques. Immunohistochemistry tant has been proven to be false in approximately 25% of cases.
using an immunoperoxidase technique following heat We recommend that all metronidazole resistant (by -test)
induced antigen retrieval for detecting H. pylori in gastric strains be confirmed by agar dilution. Given the current high
biopsy has been proven to be highly sensitive, easy to use, prevalence of clarithromycin and fluoroquinolone resistance,
and reliable despite being expensive [48]. it is prudent to have culture and antimicrobial suscepti-
bility testing before using a clarithromycin-containing or
5.2.5. Brush Cytology. In this technique, the mucosal surface fluoroquinolone-containing regimen as well as for deciding
is sampled using an endoscopic or even orally swallowed on therapy after initial treatment failure. However, there is
brush and then stained (e.g., with Quick Diff) for organisms strong argument among authors for pretreatment culturing
and H. pylori. Brush cytology has a reported sensitivity of 95% and sensitivity testing after the first treatment failure and
to 98% and specificity of 96%, respectively [49]. certainly after the second.
5.2.6. Molecular Tests. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in 5.3. Treatment of H. pylori Infections. Eradication of H.
situ hybridization, and real-time PCR have also been used pylori infection dramatically alters the natural history of
to detect H. pylori, assess antibiotic susceptibility, or evaluate gastritis and prevents its sequelae [6]. However, H. pylori
the presence of putative virulence factors. The sensitivity and infection is not easy to cure. As for other bacterial infections,
specificity for the diagnosis of H. pylori infection, using in situ antibiotics are necessary and, currently, a combination of
hybridization with biotinylated probes, have been reported antibiotics with antisecretory therapy is the standard of care.
to be 95% to 100% [50]. Genomic DNA identified as targets In addition, increasing antimicrobial resistance has made
for amplification are 16S rRNA, ureA, ureB, ureC, fiaA, CagA, successful treatment of H. pylori infections a challenge as the
VacA, and heat shock protein [51]. Real-time results can also effectiveness of many commonly recommended treatments
be obtained shortening significantly the time for a result [52]. such as traditional triple therapies has declined to unaccept-
PCR is not routinely used for diagnosis because specificity has able low levels [57]. The ideal therapeutic regimen should
remained an issue and false positives are common probably be based on antimicrobial susceptibility, but, in the real life,
related to as yet uncultured mouth flora. clinicians must choose the treatment without this approach.
Gastroenterology Research and Practice 7
Therefore, the rules of thumb choosing the most appropriate is indicated in patients with uninvestigated dyspepsia and
treatment for patients are awareness about without symptoms relief by empiric treatment or H. pylori
eradication. Further evaluations should be oriented based on
(1) antibiotics previously used by the patient and pres- the patients symptoms.
ence of drug allergy,
(2) the rate of resistance against the most used antibiotics
in the local area,
Competing Interests
(3) what works best locally. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
In several cases, failure to obtain good results depends on
clinicians unawareness of the poor results obtained locally Acknowledgments
with traditional therapies. Confirmation of eradication fol-
This work was supported by Sezione di Clinica Medica and
lowing treatment is mandatory [58]. Generally noninvasive
Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale.
tests such as stool antigen or urea breath tests should be used
except where endoscopy is indicated because of the clinical
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