R

10

12a
R
1d 12d 12g
12b
Reinforcement, R, shall not
1b exceed 1/8 inch
1a 1c 12c 5

2a
Fig. 4-43 Acceptable butt weld profile.
12e 4
8
12a 7
12f
Groove Weld Profiles
Figure 4-43 shows an acceptable groove weld
8
profile. It should be noted that the recommended
9
reinforcement does not extend more than 18 inch
above the surface of the plate. Figure 4-44 shows
Fig. 4-41 Discontinuities in a single-pass double fillet weld on a T-joint. 1a, 1c. defective butt weld profiles.
Uniformly scattered and piping porosity. 1b. Cluster porosity. 1d.Aligned porosity.
2a. Slag inclusion. 4. Incomplete fusion. 5. Undercut. 7. Overlap. 8. Lamination. Groove Weld with Insufficient Size A decrease in
9. Delamination. 10. Seam and lap. 12a. Longitudinal crack. 12b. Transverse size, Fig. 4-44A, reduces the size of the butt weld.
crack. 12c. Crater crack. 12d. Throat crack. 12e. Toe crack. 12f. Root crack. 12g.
The thickness of the weld is less than the thickness
Underbead and heat-affected zone (HAZ) cracks.
of the plate, and the weld will not be as strong as
the plate. Failure of the weld under maximum load
is certain. This defect is usually caused by a combination
of high welding current and travel that is too fast. Although
improper gas shielding will penetration at the root of the weld may be complete and fu-
generally lead to porosity. sion to the plate surfaces may be excellent, these desirable
Figure 4-42 is an example characteristics cannot overcome insufficient weld size.
of subsurface porosity in a
Fig. 4-42 Porosity. groove weld. Generally po- Groove Weld with Excessive Convexity This is the op-
rosity is not considered to be posite of a concave profile, Fig. 4-44B. It may be less
as severe a concern as cracks or incomplete fusion. The strong than the weld with insufficient size, due to con-
rounded shape the discontinuities take does not concen- centration of stress in the weld. Comparative strength, of
trate stress, as would a crack or fusion-type defect. Some course, depends upon the degree of convexity of one weld
general guidelines for porosity are found in Table 4-2. and the size insufficiency of the other. Excessive convex-
This is for structural steel type welding requirements; ity may be caused by travel that is too slow or low weld-
other applications may differ significantly. ing current. Even though complete penetration and good

Table 4-2 Acceptable Porosity Limits Guideline

Sum of Diameters
Type of Weld and of Individual Porosity
Location Diameter (in.) Pores (in.) Length of Weld (in.)
Groovetransverse No visible piping N/A N/A
totensile loading porosity allowed
Groovefillet >132 38 3
8 1
Groovefillet 8
3 3
4 12
FilletCJP groove 32
3
Single pore 4
piping porosity

128Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 Insufficient Size Underfill Excessive Convexity Exclusive Undercut Overlap
A B C D

Fig. 4-44 Defective butt weld profiles.

fusion may exist, these desirable characteristics cannot

overcome the loss of strength due to extreme convexity.
There is also the possibility of porosity and slag inclusion
in the weld. The defect wastes material and time, thus
increasing costs. Very poor appearance will also result.
A B
Groove Weld with Undercut As with the fillet weld, a
cutting away of the plate surface at the toe of the weld
Fig. 4-45 Slag inclusions, between passes at A, and at
results in a reduction of actual plate thickness, Fig. 4-44C. undercut at B.
The reduction in plate surface, together with the concen-
tration of stress at the toe due to the sharp corner, may
cause failure of the welded joint at this point.
Undercutting may be acceptable if its depth and length
do not exceed the acceptance requirement of the code or
specification being applied. Table 4-3 gives an example of
allowable undercut. Because the undercut has a radius and is
not a sharp notch, the stress concentrations are not as high as
once believed. Undercut is a discontinuity to be avoided, but Fig. 4-46 Incomplete fusion from oxide or dross of center of
it does not need to be repaired unless it exceeds the accep- joint, especially in aluminum.
tance criteria. It is usually caused by high welding current,
travel that is too fast, or improper electrode manipulation.
Groove Weld with Overlap Overlap (Fig. 4-44D) results
from poor fusion. It is basically an incomplete fusion at
the toe of the weld. Most codes or specifications will
not allow any amount of lack of fusion. Overlap is usu-
ally caused by low welding current, slow rate of travel,
or improper electrode manipulation. A weld with exces-
sive convexity and overlap usually contains a certain Fig. 4-47 Incomplete fusion and incomplete penetration in a
amount of porosity and poor fusion. Figures 4-42 through groove weld.

Table 4-3 Acceptable Guideline Undercut 4-47 illustrate the defects that may be found alone or in
Limits combination.

Groove Weld with Various Other Discontinuities

Material Thick- Depth of Length of
ness (in.) Undercut (in.) Undercut
Figure 4-48, page 130 shows many of the possible defects
that can be encountered in the base material or the weld bead.
<1 132 Unlimited
<1 32 16
1 1 1
2 in. in any Other Discontinuities Found on Groove
12 in. of
weld and Fillet Welds
1 116 Unlimited
Cracks A weld crack is a fracture-type discontinuity that
Not including depths equal to 116 in.
1
has a sharp tip and a length much greater than its width

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4129

 weld. A small crack formed in the crater due to
9 the shrinkage forces, and the crack propagated
out of the crater all the way around the joint.

3
12b 6 8 Hydrogen CrackingHydrogen cracking is also
1b
1a 1c referred to as delayed cracking. In certain situ-
1d
2a ations, inspection will be delayed for up to sev-
5 12a
2a 12a 12f eral days to let this type of crack manifest itself.
12d
12c Cracking of this nature is brought about by one of
4 the following four factors:
10 12g
7 Presence of hydrogen
Hard grain structures
Amount of restraint in the joint
Low temperature operation of weldment
Hydrogen in the form of moisture can come
Fig. 4-48 Single-bevel groove weld in a butt joint. 1a and 1c. Uniformly from many sources. The coating on the SMAW
scattered and piping porosity. 1b. Cluster porosity. 1d. Aligned porosity. 2a. Slag electrode, the flux in the core of a FCAW elec-
inclusion. 3. Incomplete fusion. 4. Incomplete joint penetration. 5.Undercut. trode, oxides on the metal, lubricants, con-
6.Underfill. 7. Overlap. 8. Lamination. 9. Delamination. 10. Seam and lap. tamination on the plate or the filler metal,
12a.Longitudinal crack. 12b. Transverse crack. 12c. Crater crack. 12d.Throat and even the moisture in the air. For particu-
crack. 12f. Root crack. 12g. Underbead and heat-affected zone (HAZ) cracks.
lar materials, such as hard grain structure type
steel, this problem is very pronounced. Some
examples of materials susceptible to hydro-
or opening. In most codes or specifications cracks of any gen cracking are the carbon-manganese and low alloy
length, location, or orientation are not allowed. In this steels. Only the hard grain structures are sensitive to
case all cracks would be defects and must be repaired.
Because they have a sharp tip, cracks are considered a
stress riser. They can also propagate rapidly across the
joint or weldment.
SH OP TA L K
Cracks can generally be classified as either hot cracks
or cold cracks. Insufficient ductility at high temperatures Saving Time and Money
will cause hot cracks. These cracks move between grains Fillet welding can be done about four to
in the weld metal or at the weld interface. If cracks occur seven times faster than butt welding. This results in time
once the weld metal has solidified, then they are consid- and money savings. Welders with lower skills can pro-
ered cold cracks. The weld metal, heat-affected zone, or duce consistent and high quality fillet welds, while this is
base metal can be affected by cold cracks. Cold cracks not true of butt welding. Fillet welds can be verified visu-
ally. This also results in time and money savings. A butt
occur because of improper welding procedure or tech- weld currently can be verified by a radiograph which is
niques or the welding service condition. Figure 4-49 is an costly. The fillet welds help deliver projects on time and
example of a crack starting in the crater area of a weld. The under budget.
crater was not properly filled to the full cross section of the

Fig. 4-49 Longitudinal crack propagating from

crater crack. American Welding Society. Welding
Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 96, fig. 9.7; 2000

130Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

this type of cracking. Low heat input with its fast cool- over, insulating the root from the arc force. The welder
ing rate will create more problems as the hydrogen can- needs to pay very close attention to the shape of the weld
not escape from the weld area and is trapped. Also if the pool when making the root pass to ensure that a notch
joint is highly restrained, it will have a greater tendency is not formed, which would indicate that the root has
for this type of cracking. If the service condition of the been bridged. Great care must be taken to ensure com-
product will be at low temperature, this type of cracking plete penetration. This discontinuity is generally not ac-
will also be more prevalent. Since the service condition ceptable in most codes or specifications. No amount of
of the weldments, along with the amount of restraint ap- incomplete penetration is generally allowed, so it is con-
plied to the joint and the type of metal used for fabrica- sidered a defect that must be repaired. It is undesirable
tion can be hard to control, the best method to eliminate because at the root of the joint, which may be subject to
delayed cracking or hydrogen cracking is to eliminate or tension or bending forces, the weld size is not as large as
reduce all levels of hydrogen to acceptable levels. The required and a failure will result. Even if the structure
hydrogen can be in the form of contaminants in or on does not have bending or tension forces at the root, the
the metal, the electrodes, or shielding gas. Any source shrinkage forces of the weld cooling may lead to cracks.
of moisture can create h ydrogen-induced cracking. It is These cracks may propagate from the root out into the
also good practice to use proper welding procedures that base metal or out through subsequent weld passes. It is
will help control the cooling rate. Use of preheat and in- important to not provide a crack-initiating site by getting
terpass temperature and postweld heat treatment may be complete joint penetration. Figures 4-40 and 4-47 show
required as well. This type of cracking is usually found incomplete joint penetration as well as incomplete fusion.
in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). These cracks may not Figures 4-14 and 4-15, page 116117 show excellent pen-
open to the surface initially, so they are sometimes called etration on a fillet weld. You will note that penetration is
underbead cracks. This makes them difficult to locate measured by how far the weld penetrates into the joint
and is why final inspection may be delayed to allow the not the base metal. The line indicating the depth of the
crack to propagate to the surface. effective throat is also an indication of the amount of root
penetration. It can be seen that the weld actually pen-
Incomplete FusionIncomplete fusion is a weld dis-
etrated deeper into the bottom plate; however, this adds
continuity that occurs when the weld metal is in contact
nothing to joint strength and is not considered part of the
with other weld metal, the joint groove, or root face but
joint penetration. Figure 4-14 shows the root penetration
does not fuse with it. In most codes and specifications in-
on a fillet welded T-joint.
complete fusion is not allowed no matter the size, length,
location, or orientation to the applied load. It is always
Inclusions Inclusions are entrapped solid materials that
considered a defect and must be repaired. Improper weld-
are not intended to be in the weld joint. Examples of ma-
ing techniques, joint preparation, or joint design will re-
terials found in inclusions are slag, flux, oxides, and tung-
sult in incomplete fusion. Lack of welding heat or access
sten. Virtually anything solid found in the joint that should
of the arc (or other heat source) to the required fusion area
not be there would be called an inclusion. Inclusions can
will result in incomplete fusion. The joint and prior welds
be located in between weld passes, and/or between a
must be properly cleaned of oxides. Incomplete fusion can
weld pass and the joint groove or root face. Figure 4-45,
occur even if the heat and access are available if the welds
page 129 shows an example of slag inclusions between
are being made over dense, tightly adhering oxides. Fig-
passes and trapped in a section of undercut located along
ures 4-39, 4-40, page 127, 4-46, and 4-47, page 129 show
the groove face. If the inclusion is open to the surface, it
incomplete fusion at various locations.
should be repaired, as there is no fusion at that location.
Incomplete Joint Penetration Incomplete joint penetra- However, if there are subsurface inclusions, they are not
tion occurs when the weld metal does not extend all the as critical. If subsurface inclusions are of a specific size
way into the root of the joint. If the weld metal pene- and separated by sufficient distance, then they may be
trates the root but does not fuse, then it is referred to as considered to be discontinuities and allowed to remain in
incomplete fusion. Incomplete joint penetration may be the weldment. If subsurface inclusions exceed the accep-
caused by not dissolving surface oxides or impurities, but tance requirement of the code or specification being used,
most generally it is due to not applying sufficient heat then they will need to be repaired. Generally inclusions
and arc force to penetrate the root of the joint. The areas do not pose as severe a problem as porosity. This is due to
above the joint root will reach melting temperatures first. the fact that being solid, inclusions can transmit a certain
If improper techniques, process, joint geometry, or con- amount of load. They generally do not have sharp edges,
sumables are used, then the molten metal will bridge so in some situations fairly large inclusions are allowable.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4131

For example, on a statically loaded nontubular steel struc- good appearance. Inability to do so with the high quality
ture, a weld size of inch would allow an inclusion of equipment available suggests carelessness on the part of
up to approximately 516 inch as long as there is at least the welder. It will surely lessen the regard that the shop
1-inch clearance between the edges of this type of inclu- supervisor and other workers have for the welder.
sion. Inclusions should be avoided if at all possible. They Because the welder is watching every inch of weld as it
can be caused by a number of factors, but can best be con- is being made, he or she is in the best position to do the vi-
trolled by following the welding procedure, proper weld sual inspection. Visual inspection needs to be done before
bead location, and proper welding techniques. Cleaning welding with the proper joint fitup and selection of materi-
between passes will greatly reduce the possibility of cre- als. It should be done during the welding after tacking, root
ating inclusions. pass, fill passes, and cap passes. Visual inspection should
also be done after welding is completed to determine weld
Underfill This condition exists when the weld face or dimensions, overall part dimensional accuracy, and when-
root surface extends below the surface of the material ever postweld heat treatment is required. The American
being welded. It results from poor welder observation Welding Society has a certification program that recog-
and technique. Some amount of underfill is usually al- nizes those people who have the work experience and have
lowable depending upon the acceptance criteria of the passed a multiple-part test covering welding fundamentals,
code or specification being used. In most cases underfill code interpretation, and practical inspection techniques.
will provide better fatigue properties than overwelding. Each portion of this three-part test has a maximum 2-hour
Figure 4-44A, page 129 depicts the underfill discontinuity. time limit. However, weld quality cannot be inspected
in. It must be built in. Weld quality is built in by each
Discontinuities, Defects, and Visual person who is involved with the project. As a professional
Inspection welder, you should be properly trained for the work you are
Welding students often ask questions such as: doing. If it is code work, you will have to take a certifica-
tion test to demonstrate the required welding skills. Some
Which defect contributes to joint failure?
companies will conduct knowledge tests that may include
Which ones may pass inspections?
your ability to recognize weld discontinuities or defects.
Are there jobs on which weld defects are permitted?
A professional welder should have available the welding
Knowing the construction and use of the weldment helps procedure for the work being done, and in many cases the
the welder answer these questions. In general, the welders code requires the procedure to be displayed and the welder
goal should be to avoid all defects; they all contribute to educated on its use. Since the welder will be required to
weld and joint failure. Minor allowances may be permitted determine if the acceptance criteria have been met, he or
if the work is not critical. Little tolerance is permitted in she will require tools to measure the weld size and joint
critical or code work because high strength is necessary geometry. Figure 4-50 shows some tools usable for weld-
due to load conditions of heat, pressure, or stress. ing inspection. Kits such as the one shown in Fig. 4-50
The criticality of a discontinuity is one way of assess- are available from sources such as the American Welding
ing the importance of classifying it as a defect. The actual Society. For a welder doing fillet welds perhaps all that is
repair of a discontinuity may create more problems and in- required is the appropriate fillet weld gauge. Figure 4-51
crease residual stresses than if the defect were left alone. Is shows the proper use of fillet gauges.
the discontinuity linear (cracklike) or nonlinear (spherical
porosity, or tungsten inclusion)? Is the end condition sharp Handheld Scanner Technology Includes the PalmTM
(cracklike), or does it have a radius (undercut)? Does the Organizer Visual inspection methods and tools have not
discontinuity break the surface or is it subsurface? Higher changed much over the last 50 years. However, there is a
stresses will be localized on surface opening discontinui- dramatic change occurring in the equipment that is now
ties. Is the discontinuity longitudinal to the load or trans- available to assist the person inspecting welds. Generically
verse to the load? Will the loading be fatigue or impact or speaking, these devices are known as handheld weld scan-
simply a static load? What is the ambient temperature of ners. By simply aiming the scanner at a joint preparation or
the weldments? The engineer will take all these issues into finished weld and activating it, the operator quickly obtains
consideration when determining the design of the weld- a multitude of measurements and validates their geometry
ments, materials, welding procedures, the acceptance cri- against preset thresholds.
teria, and which code or specification to follow. The handheld scanner then supplies data via visual dis-
If the welder expects to be recognized as a professional, plays, computer-saved records, and strip chart printouts.
he or she will always strive to do work that is sound and of Typical features measured on the prepared joint include

132Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 Fig. 4-50 Visual inspection tools. American Welding Society. Welding Inspection Technology,
5th ed., p. 104, fig. 10.2; 2008

Fig. 4-51 Measuring fillet weld

size. On the left, a concave fillet
weld; on the right, a convex fillet
weld. American Welding Society.
Welding Inspection Technology, 5th ed.,
p. 1012, fig. 10.14; 2008

root opening, groove angle, material thickness, and root

face size. (See Fig. 4-52 for an example of a typical dis-
play.) For the finished weld, features such as leg length,
weld length, skips, toe angle, concavity/convexity, and
undercut can be measured directly. In addition, for both
preweld joints and finished welds, other information can
be calculated including actual joint volume to be filled,
throat size (theoretical), off seam amount, and percent
over welding. These handheld devices can determine
whether a weld is good or bad as well as or better than
conventional gauges. However, their real value is that they
can turn the produced data into useful information that
can improve the effectiveness of welding operations.
Visual inspection (VI) by the welder can be a very ef-
fective tool in controlling overall weld quality. Although
VI is limited to the visible surface of the welds, it is un-
Red Laser
derstood that the external surfaces of weldments see the Scan Light
highest stresses in service. Discontinuities opening to the
surface are considered to be critical to the overall weld- Fig. 4-52 Portable handheld scanner for weld inspection.
ment fitness for the intended purpose. VI is a cost-effective Servo-Robot Corp.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4133

inspection method, and when performed by trained and occur instead of after the joint has been completed, when
qualified people, VI can uncover the vast majority of there will be the expense of removing and then replacing
those defects that would otherwise be discovered later by a great deal of weld metal. It is easy to see the importance
more expensive nondestructive test methods. This method and efficiency of discovering and correcting a defect as
allows for the discovery and repair of defects as they may early in the welding operation as possible.

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW

Multiple Choice
8. Which type of weld is stronger? (Obj. 4-2)
Choose the letter of the correct answer. a. PJP
1. Which of the following is a type of weld joint? b. CJP
(Obj. 4-1) c. Both a and b have equal strength
a. Butt d. This does not have anything to do with strength
b. Lap 9. If the weld face of a fillet weld is 516 inch, what is
c. Corner, edge the maximum convexity allowed? (Obj. 4-2)
d. All of these a. 116 inch
2. Which of the following is a type of weld? (Obj.4-1) b. 18 inch
a. Fillet c. 316 inch
b. Groove d. Both a and c
c. Bead or surface 10. A 3G weld is what type and position? (Obj. 4-3)
d. All of these a. Flat position groove
3. The purpose of a seal weld is ______. (Obj. 4-1) b. Vertical position groove weld
a. To prevent moisture or other fluids from entering c. Horizontal position groove weld
or exiting the joint d. More information is needed to determine the type
b. To provide rigidity and position
c. To provide strength 11. A 5G position weld is made on ______. (Obj. 4-3)
d. To be a pivot a. Sheet metal
4. Which of the following is a weld profile? (Obj.4-2) b. I-beams
a. Convex c. H-beams
b. Flat d. Pipe
c. Isotope 12. All welding should be done in this position if
d. Both a and b possible. (Obj. 4-3)
5. The size of a weld determines its ______. (Obj. 4-2) a. 1
a. Load-carrying capacity b. 2
b. Surface appearance c. 3
c. Defects and inclusions d. None of these
d. Upward or downward position 13. The strength of a welded joint depends upon which
6. A CJP weld is a ______. (Obj. 4-2) of the following? (Obj. 4-4)
a. Can just penetrate weld a. Strength of the weld metal
b. Complete joules preparation weld b. Type of joint preparation and type of weld
c. Complete joint penetration weld c. Type of load condition and location of joint in
d. None of these relation to load
7. A PJP weld is a ______. (Obj. 4-2) d. All of these
a. Present joint process weld
b. Procedure just produced weld
c. Partial just provided weld
d. Partial joint penetration weld

134Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds

 14. On a boxing weld where flexibility is required, the 22. Name the four fundamental types of welds.
length of the boxing weld should be how long com- (Obj.4-1)
pared to the weld size? (Obj. 4-4) 23. How are groove welds measured? Fillet welds?
a. Twice (Obj. 4-2)
b. Four times 24. A fillet weld may take on three face characteristics.
c. Five times Name them and describe each type. (Obj.4-2)
d. None of these
25. What are the factors that determine whether a joint
15. An imperfection in a weld that exceeds the accep- is to have open or closed roots? (Obj. 4-3)
tance criteria is called a ______. (Obj. 4-5)
26. Draw a simple sketch of a groove weld in a single-
a. Discontinuity
bevel butt joint and name all of its parts. (Obj. 4-3)
b. Defect
c. Both a and b 27. Draw a simple sketch of a fillet weld in a T-joint and
d. None of these list the names of all its parts. (Obj. 4-3)
16. Undercut is allowable if ______. (Obj. 4-5) 28. Name three defects that may be found in fillet
a. It is not too deep or too long in relation to the welds. (Obj. 4-5)
thickness and size of the weldments 29. Name three defects that may be found in groove
b. It is twice the size of the weldment welds. (Obj. 4-5)
c. The joint is a crucial one 30. List four reasons visual inspection is a very effective
d. Undercut is never allowable inspection tool. (Obj. 4-6)
17. On a groove weld the buildup is referred to 31. Match the appropriate callout letter on the drawing
as ______, and on a fillet weld the buildup is (Fig. 4-53) with the most appropriate weld terminol-
referred to as ______. (Obj. 4-5) ogy number. (Obj. 4-2)
a. Convexity; reinforcement C
b. Reinforcement; convexity A-Throat
D and E
c. Convexity; convexity F
d. Reinforcement; reinforcement G D and
18. In some cases porosity is allowable if the B-Throat F E
cavities are not large in diameter and if ______. J
(Obj. 4-5)
H-Throat
a. They dont exceed a combined dimension in a
Convex Fillet Weld
certain length of weld
A
b. It is a groove weld with transverse loading
c. It is a groove weld with tensile loading
D
d. Both b and c E
19. Who is in the best position to observe every inch of A-Throat
K F
G
weld being deposited? (Obj. 4-6) and E D
B-Throat
a. Welder
J F
b. Supervisor
c. AWS certified welding inspector H-Throat
d. Boss Concave Fillet Weld
20. A critical discontinuity would ______. (Obj. 4-6) B
a. Be linear (cracklike)
M G
b. Have a sharp end condition F F

c. Be in a fatigue and/or impact loading condition

d. All of these P and Q
N

Review Questions
CJP Groove Weld
Write the answers in your own words. C
21. Write a brief definition of (a) continuous welds,
(b) intermittent welds, and (c) seal welds. (Obj.4-1) Fig. 4-53 For Question 31.

Basic Joints and Welds Chapter 4135

Letter Callouts Weld Terminology Number
A. H. 1. Root 9. Reinforcement
B. J. 3. Face reinforcement 10.
Concavity
C. K. 2. Root reinforcement 11.
Actual
D. M.
4. Toe 12.
Effective
E. N.
F. P. or 5. Face 13.
Theoretical
G. Q. or 6. Leg 14.
Elbow
7. Size 15.
Joint penetration
8. Convexity 16.
Groove weld size

INTERNET ACTIVITIES

Internet Activity A
Edge is the publication (now online) of the Gas and Welding Distributor Association
(GAWDA). This group provides many member services. Find its Web site to name
the services GAWDA provides.
Internet Activity B
Use a favorite search engine to find out what is new in fillet welding.

136Chapter 4Basic Joints and Welds