Summary of Major

Communication Theories : Reader

Course Name: Communication Theories

Instructor: Emrakeb Assefa

Definition of communication theory

It is a theory that deals with the technology of the transmission of information (as through the written
word or a computer) between people, people and machines, or machines and machines.

Imagine a world without communication! You have a brilliant idea with you but dont possess the
power of communication. You have a strong desire for something, but cannot express your desires. Life
would be dull, blank and the world would not be worth living. Such is the power of communication.

Communication is the essence of life. It is a necessity. To express themselves, human beings need to
communicate. An individual has to communicate to express his feelings, pass on information to the other
human beings and share his thoughts and feelings.

Do only Human Beings Communicate?

Let us go through the following examples:

Ted spotted a poor weak pup lying almost lifeless on the streets and crying meekly. He took no time in
taking the pup to a nearby vet and giving him the basic medical treatment the poor creature required. Have
you ever thought how did Ted come to know that the pup requires immediate attention? The pup couldnt
speak.

The answer to the above question is through communication.

Ted came to know about the condition of the pup through communication only. The crying of pup was
actually an indication that the creature needs to be immediately attended by the doctor. Through his crying
the pup tried to communicate Ted about his deteriorating condition and requirement of medical aid.

Another example:

A gardener waters the plants when the leaves start turning brown, become dry and start showing withering
signs. Turning brown, drying of leaves are actually ways the tree tries to communicate to the gardener that
it is dying and needs to be watered immediately.

All the above examples support the communication theory.

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Hence, Communication theory, as proposed by S. F. Scudder in the year 1980,
states that all living beings existing on the planet communicate although the way
of communication is different.
Plants communicate their need to be taken care of and watered immediately through visible changes in the
colour of the leaves, and the falling of leaves and flowers.

Animals communicate by sounds, several movements to indicate that they are hungry or unwell or need
medical attention.

A mother would never understand that her child is hungry unless and until the child cries. Crying is again
a form through which the child communicates that he is hungry and needs food. The same applies when he
is injured, where he uses crying again as a tool to communicate his pain and need of urgent medical
attention.

Thus the universal law of communication theory says that all living beings whether they are plants,
animals, human beings communicate through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures
or in the best possible way to make the others aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness or
any other information.

If a child scores less marks in examinations, parents would not speak to the child for sometime- again an
effort to communicate that the parents are angry over the childs performance and he needs to buck up for
his further examinations. Try to irritate a stray dog, he will surely bark on you - again an animals way to
communicate that he is angry and should not be irritated further.

Like human beings, animals also communicate among themselves through gestures and body movements.
Monkeys always carry their babies with them wherever they go, again a way through which the mother
tries to communicate that their babies are safe and the mother is there to take good care of them. During
the mating season of animals, communication through gestures plays a very important role in bringing
them close, the same way a peacock dances to attract its partner.

Another model of communication says that communication is simply the process of transferring
information from the sender to the recipient where the recipient decodes the information and acts
accordingly. Large number of people also support this model of communication.

Communication Theory Framework

Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following viewpoints:

Mechanistic - The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply the
transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The first party
being the sender and the second party being the receiver.

Psychological - According to the psychological view point, communication is simply

not the flow of information from the sender to the receiver but actually the thoughts,
feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the recipients. It also includes the
reactions, feelings of the receiver after he decodes the information.

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 Social - The social view point considers communication as a result of interaction
between the sender and the receiver. It simply says that communication is directly
dependent on the content of the speech. How one communicates is the basis of the
social view point.

Systemic - The systemic view point says that communication is actually a new and a
different message which is created when various individuals interpret it in their own
way and then reinterpret it and draw their own conclusion.

Critical - The critical view point says that communication is simply a way with the
help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among other
individuals.

To summarize the communication theory proposes that to survive, every living entity, needs to
communicate with others and also among themselves. Communication is a dire need of survival.

Theories of Communication
The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories: structural and
functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways that can be observed
objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist
theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually
understand their own experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in
society and the way communication perpetuates domination of one group over another .

The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in
their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the
sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a
prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a
particular political theory or economic scenario.

I) CLASSICAL THEORIES

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to follow its
bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought was jealously guarded
by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and were
worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process. Steps were taken to control the
freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous
obedience to a hierarchical superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the
censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the
State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.

This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the
State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British
academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be

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ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its
supreme right only under Authoritarianism.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and
democratic governments.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this
theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible to print several copies
of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major source of interference on the
rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will
(vox populi) was granted precedence over the power of State.

Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain
in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart Mill, an essayist ("On
Liberty"). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted
"let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote
"Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free
marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not
want to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public
opinion.

What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility.

Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their
book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and obsolete." They
advocated the need for its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have
been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission
found that the free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and
has not served the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the
need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some obligation on the part of the
media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and high professional standards
were imperative.

Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty to one"s conscience was
the primary basis of the right of free expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling classes are the
ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin
thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological
means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press.
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The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and
not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media
would be able to cater to its interests.

Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of the press" were not fully applicable to the non-
aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social and economic
development on their own terms. The two theories were:

Development Communication Theory

The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without
communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development
communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media
undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and
instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and cultural
needs. Hence the stress on "development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit
support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often
equated with government propaganda.

Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down non-participant
character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed. Bureaucratic control of media is
decried.

2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but knowledge about
mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet
or Hypodermic Needle Theory came into existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a
powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour.

Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects of mass media. His research findings are
as follows: "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effect,
but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render
mass-communication as a contributory agent in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions."

The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for the functions and effects of mass
communications are
- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves to those mass communications which are
in agreement with their attitudes and interests; and
- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to organize the meaning of mass
communication messages into accord with their already existing views.

Mass-media:
It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema, radio, television and internet, but also to
some extent, books magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media, and natural
communication methods such as rumours, education and preaching. It is so termed because its reach
extends to vast heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ technological means to

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communicate to the masses. They are founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe
defined mass media as those readily available to the general public.

Selective attention:
The media are full of competing messages. The process of screening vast amount of information in which
one has no interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for example, an adult will be more
tuned to listening to the news while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.

Selective perception:
This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in terms of ones existing attitudes. People of
distinct psychological character same media content in different ways. This depends on factors such as
age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective perception is influenced by social relationships.

Selective retention:
The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind while ignoring others is called selective
retention. This is influenced by various psychological and physiological factors such as choice, values,
culture, emotions etc.

Selective exposure:
Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages while some are not. This screening aspect
depends on many factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural acceptability, taboos, etc.

Opinion leaders/change agents:

The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion leaders". An individual
who is a member of a group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute
to the formation of "public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to
education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they receive and then give
their judgement on it.

Encoder:
In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred to as the encoder.

Decoder:
The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder.

Feedback:
Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry, response or experiment.
Feedback can be positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the
response is immediate) or delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particular message put
forth or situation that has taken place.

Noise:
In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a
message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the
receiver decodes it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates
the process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering the
communication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos
or values come into play to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding
of a particular message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese

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Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original message may be distorted by the
time it comes to the final player.

3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Goudet conducted an
American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships had played a
part in modifying the manner in which individuals selected content from the media campaign. The study
also indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers to opinion leaders and from them to
the less active sections of society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of influence on people
and mould the way they select media content and act on it.

Figure 2.1

Source: CIA Advertising at www.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)

4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate directly to the mass
audience without the message being filtered by opinion leaders.

5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the communication flow from a source to a
large audience.

6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media for gratification of
their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact that people
choose what they want to see or read and the different media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.

In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs such as food
and clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The fulfillment of each lower
level need leads to the individual looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches the
superior-most need of self-actualization.

Figure 2.2

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 Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University at chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by permission)

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As media
users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct our attention to the
audience. Lull's television research found that families used television for communication facilitation,
relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In general researchers have found four kinds of
gratifications:

1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This
would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behaviour. So, for
example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help us to decide what feel
about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the
circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the lives of
others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends.
4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time.

Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories from the media for
group games while individual children used media stories for fantasizing and daydreaming. The study thus
found that different people use the same messages from the media for different purposes.

Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what do people do with the
media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs:

Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding);

Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);
Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Tension release needs (escape and diversion)

McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs categories:

1) Diversion (emotional release)

2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)

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B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new technology" by examining VCR
use. They found the following motives for VCR use:
1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting
7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes

7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes opinions that are
mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being isolated.
Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think
themselves as being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change agents are unafraid to voice
different opinions, as they do not fear isolation.

Figure 2.3

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need for consistency in their
beliefs and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and
action people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they
shut out other communications.

9) McCOMBS AND SHAWS AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the public's mind.
The media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The
theory is consistent with a "use and gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-

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setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities.
The people most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation

10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on
media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems interact with
audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by
the number and centrality of information functions and social stability. Some questions that this theory
raised were:
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these?
"The media are our friends"??

11) STEPHENSONS PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the mass media in their
afterhours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism nor seducing the
masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if found useful and/or if they
are reinforced in the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior.

13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that are very difficult to
measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and the
Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite theories.

MEANING THEORY
Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue"
depict the real world of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are coming from a Meaning
Theory focus on media.

CULTIVATION THEORY
George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment they
lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it homogenized
different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful
of the world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are
absorbed as the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established.

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this theory traces the process
by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a
social system. The model describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the process
of adopting a new technology or idea.
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15) Social learning theory

Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-media messages give
audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate behavior, engage
emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the mass
media also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior.

Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad categories:
1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process information - for example,
uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and reception studies;
2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the media - for example,
information flow theory, diffusion theory, and
3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and society - for example,
cultural studies theory.

Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of
the media and the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. Harold Lasswell and Berelson
have succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in
what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds
of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some
kinds of effects." (1949).

Figure 2.5

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting
somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and
rerouting the great endless current of information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl
(1981)

16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular nature of communication.

The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

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 Figure 2.6

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.

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 Figure 2.7

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as the Shannon-
Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the
efficiency of various communication channels and codes. They propose that all communication must
include six elements:

Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver

This model is often referred to as an " information model" of communication. A drawback is that the
model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the addition of the feedback
loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being
transmitted

Figure 2.8

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 Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on the individual
characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the
receiver as an important variable in the communication process. The more highly developed the
communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and
decoded.

Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on
one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are
transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER
interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and
cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of feedback

Figure 2.9

Source: from the Internet

20. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs
and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid

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 feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs
to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision.

21. Communication Accommodation Theory

This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what
happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation
theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of
speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong
ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when
there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals.

22. Coordinated Management of Meaning

Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create
meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are told,
and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an
individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the
meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day.

23. Cultivation Analysis

This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how
people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get
much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus,
mediated sources can shape peoples sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to
violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing
cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.

24. Cultural Approach to Organizations

The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they
created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organizations culture is composed of shared
symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage
are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization.

25. Cultural Studies

Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in
a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is
necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are
concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists,
therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of
culture.

26. Dramatism
This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a
scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can
understand a speakers motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that

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 purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their
audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor.

27. Expectancy Violations Theory

Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory
advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either
favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator.
Violating anothers expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to anothers
expectations.

28. Face-Negotiation Theory

Face-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures
negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how
people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and
other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures.

29. Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that
may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members
frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others.
When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting
consequences.

30. Muted Group Theory

Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps
European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the
variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the
experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women
appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this
situation should change.

31. The Narrative Paradigm

This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a
narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good
reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang
together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm
allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and
persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.

32. Organizational Information Theory

This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of
equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through
enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that
they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.

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33. Relational Dialectics Theory
Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships
continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy
and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people
communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never
eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.

34. The Rhetoric

Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is
interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical,
emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism,
requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.

35. Social Exchange Theory

This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction
of both peoples self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily
a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views
interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually
enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous
to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their
expenditures.

36. Social Penetration Theory

This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable
fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial
relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate
relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.

37. Spiral of Silence Theory

Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the
mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work
simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of
isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear
being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view.

38. Standpoint Theory

This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different
places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular
vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social
whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole.
Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation
more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist
Standpoint Theory because of its application to how womens and mens standpoint differ.

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 39. Structuration Theory
Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create
structures, which can be interpreted as an organizations rules and resources. These structures, in
turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and
organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures.
Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations.

40. Symbolic Interaction Theory

This theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people,
things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and
in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in
community.

41. Uncertainly Reduction Theory

Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on
reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both
behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other
person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other
person thinks of them. Further, peoples uncertainty is both individual level and relational level.
People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this
theory.

42. Uses and Gratifications Theory

Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The
theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on their
audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and Gratifications
Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media?

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Baran, S.J. and Davis, D.K. (2000): Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future, 2nd
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Casmir, F. L. (Ed.). (1994): Building Communication Theories: A Socio/Cultural Approach. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Dahnke, G. L., & Clatterbuck, G. W. (1990): Human Communication: Theory and Research. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.

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Gerbner, G., Gross, L. Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986): Living With Television: The Dynamics of
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Gerbner, G. (1990): Advancing On The Path Of Righteousness (maybe). In N. Signorielli & M. Morgan
(Eds.), Cultivation Analysis: New Directions In Media Effects Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Gerbner, G. (1998): Cultivation Analysis: An Overview." Mass Communication & Society, Vol. 1, Mo 3/4,
Summer/Fall 1998

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Joseph T. Klapper, (1960): The Effects of Mass Communication, Macmillan

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Hills, California: Sage

Katz, Elihu, Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch.(1974) :Uses of Mass Communication by the
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Riley, M. W., & Riley, Jr., J. W. (1951). A Sociological Approach to Communications Research. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 15, 445 - 460

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Sibert F., Shram U., Piterson . , (1998): Four Theories of Press.

Schramm, Wilbur (1949): Mass Communications, Institute of Investigations in Communication of the

University of Illinois

Schramm, Wilbur (1971): The Nature of Communication Between Humans, in The Process and Effects
of Mass Communication, Revised ed., Wilbur Schramm and Donald F. Roberts, eds., Urbana, IL:
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Schramm, Wilbur (Ed.) (1954). The Process and Effects of Communication. Urbana, IL: The University of
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Schramm, Wilbur (1973a): Mass Communication, in Communication, Language, and Meaning

Psychological Perspectives, George A. Miller, ed., New York, NY: Basic Books, 219-230.

Schramm, Wilbur (1973b): Men, Messages, and Media: A Look at Human Communication, New York,
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.
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949): The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana IL:
University of Illinois Press.

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