V

Valves (see Control Systems)

Vanes (see Metallurgy)

Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications*

Applications are easier to discuss with specific reference to certain models. (See
Figs. V-1 through V-6.)

Types of Vaporizers
 Vertical vaporizer (vertical bayonet): It is widely used for chlorine, ammonia,
propane, methanol, sulfur dioxide, etc. Sizes range from 50,000 to 15,000,000 Btu/h
(12,500 to 3,750,000 kcal/h). Very compact, high productivity, easily combined
with built-in superheater with common control. Many heating media can be
used, including steam, hot water, and heat transfer fluids such as Dowtherm,
Therminol, etc. Electric heated vaporizers also available. Small footprint. (See
Fig. V-7.)
 Indirect fluid heater: Very useful for high-pressure or corrosive fluids where
special metallurgy (i.e., corrosion-resistant metals) can be used in smaller, less
costly containment than traditional shellside boiling. Heating medium (steam/
dowtherm/electric, etc.) heats an intermediate bath of water/NH3/Therminol or
similar heat-transfer fluid that then heats a second coil at much lower cost than
shellside heating or boiling. (See Fig. V-8.)
 Tubular low-temperature vaporizers/superheaters: Combination large flow rate
liquid heatup and subsequent boiling or superheating of mixed fluids with diverse
boiling points. Needs special stress analysis and mechanical design. Can preheat,
boil, and superheat in same vessel. (See Fig. V-9.)
 Impedance electric heaters: Electric heater for process fluids. Lowest cost
heater for life of equipment. Easily cleanable, very safe, very long life, simple
maintenance, good for high temperature boiling/heat to 2000F (1093C), very
useful for remote locations of corrosive fluids or gases. Electric current flows
through the containment tube and generates heat that is transferred to the fluid.
(See Fig. V-10.)
 Electric resistance vaporizers: Classic reboilers or submerged resistance heating
elements in normal shells for pool boiling duty. Useful for low to medium capacity
loads and more common metals of construction. Can have combined superheat coils
in the same containment vessel. (See Fig. V-11.)
 Vaporizers with controls: Indirect fluid electric vaporizer with controls mounted.
Very high-pressure heater of corrosive fluid. Fluid side 3175 psi (223 kg/cm2 or
216 ATM) design pressure. (See Fig. V-12.)

* Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates, USA. Adapted with permission.

V-1
V-2 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-1 Very large low-temperature vaporizer/superheater, steam heated. Unit size 132 in
(3353 mm) in diameter by 42 ft (13 cm) long. Duty to boil and superheat very low-temperature
organic liquid. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-2 One of six all-stainless-steel vertical vaporizers for vertical location above tower in
Mideastern refinery. Unit size 59 in (1500 mm) in diameter by 20 ft (6100 mm) high. (Source:
Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-3 Indirect fluid electric heater insulated and mounted on skid with all controls in place. One
of several at the same site in South America, vaporizing organic fluids. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-3

FIG. V-4 Large-sized ethylene vaporizer (steam in shell) with entering temperature of ethylene
-67F (-55C) installed in India. Steam-heated steel shell with stainless steel heat-transfer surface.
(Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-5 Seven large hydrocarbon fluid vaporizers for chemical plant in Middle East. Unit size 36 in
(914 mm) in diameter, overall height 135 in (3430 mm). (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-6 In-tube cryogenic vaporizer/superheater with steam in shell and mixed hydrocarbons on
tubeside. Steel shell with balance stainless steel for U.S. installation. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)
V-4 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-7 Vertical bayonet. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-8 Indirect fluid heaters. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-9 Tubular low-temperature vaporizers/superheaters. (Source: Armstrong Engineering

Associates.)
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-5

FIG. V-10 Impedance (electric) heaters. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-11 Electric resistance vaporizers. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

 Electrical radiant furnaces: Radiant furnaces for high-temperature boiling levels

of corrosive fluids or heating up to very high exit temperatures above fluid heating
media capability [i.e., 2000F (1093C)]. Also for very high-pressure or corrosive
fluids. Sizes from 12 to 50 ft (3.6 to 15.3 m) high. Can be very high capacity [some
about 15,000 kW (12,900,000 kcal/h)] near nuclear site. (See Fig. V-13.)
 Cryogenic vaporizer: For boiling very low temperatures [-327F (-200C)]. Flare
drum duty, to meet a few second startup emergency. Heating medium in shell and
boiling fluid inside the tubes. Must be able to cope with thermal expansion and
adjustments in a few seconds without damaging stresses. Also must avoid
metallurgical problems including fatigue (cycling) for duties at high pressure such
as ethylene, etc. Avoid freeze-up problems and heat up the fluid to required exit
temperatures with no accompanying freezeup problems. Also, used to heat
subzero fluids being distributed on service grids to multiple users and cold fluids
V-6 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-12 Vaporizers with controls or on skids with controls mounted. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-13 Electrical radiant furnaces. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

from ships or rail cars needing heatup to avoid fracture of steel or other nonductile
piping systems of user. Sizes can be up to 12 ft (3.6 m) in diameter and 40 ft
(12 m) long. Shells often steel with tubes of stainless steels 304/316, etc. (See
Fig. V-14.)

Vaporizer Specifications and Process Parameters

See Tables V-1 and V-2.
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-7

FIG. V-14 Extremely low temperature. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

TABLE V-1 Useful Conversion Factors

Multiplier to Convert
U.S. or SI and
British Metric SI/Metric British to
Units Units to British SI/Metric

Heat duty Btu/h Watts 3.4144 0.29288

Btu/h kcal/h 3.9683 0.2520
Pressure psi kg/cm2 14.223 0.0703
psi Bars 14.504 0.0689
psi Pa 1.4504(10)-4 6.8948(10)3
Velocity ft/sec m/s 3.2808 0.3048
Volumetric flow rate gal/min (US) m3/s 1.585(10)4 6.309(10)-5
Mass flow rate lb/hr kg/s 7.936(10)3 1.260(10)-4
Density lb/ft3 kg/m3 0.06242 16.018
Heat capacity Btu/lbF J/kgK 2.3901(10)-4 4.1840(10)3
Enthalpy Btu/lb J/kg 4.302(10)-4 2.324(10)3
Btu/lb kcal/kg 1.8000 0.55556
Viscosity lbm/hrft cp 2.419 0.4134
Thermal conductivity Btu/hftF W/mK 0.57818 1.7296
Btu/hftF kcal/hmC 0.67197 1.4882
Heat flux Btu/hft2 W/m2 0.3172 3.1525
Btu/hft2 kcal/hm2 0.3686 2.7125
Heat-transfer coefficient Btu/hft2F kcal/hm2C 0.2048 4.8824
Btu/hft2F W/m2K 0.17623 5.6745

Terminology: cm = centimeter, C = degrees Celsius, cp = centipoise, F = degrees Fahrenheit, ft = feet, gal =

U.S. gallons, h = hour, J = joules, K = degrees Kelvin, kcal = kilocalories, kg = kilograms, m = meter, min =
minute, Pa = pascals, s = seconds, W = watts.
Example: To convert heat duty in Btu/h to kcal/h, multiply Btu/h 0.252, e.g., 15,000,000 Btu/h 0.252 =
3,780,000 kcal/h. To convert velocity in ft/s to m/s, multiply by 0.3048: Velocity of 5 ft/s 0.3048 = 1.524 m/s.

Vertical bayonet vaporizers

See Fig. V-15 and Table V-3.

Specifications

Shell. Ruggedly fabricated welded steel. Shells 24 in (610 mm) and below are
made of SA-106 Gr.B pipe. Larger shells are welded of steel plate of SA-516 Gr.70
normally. Tubesheets are normally of SA-516 Gr.70 material, but are also available
in stainlesses, nickel alloys, Hastelloy, etc.
Tube bundle. Removable on all sizes if required. Standard design of size A and
B units may not have a removable tube bundle. Tubes are normally 1 in (25.4 mm)
V-8 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-15 Vertical bayonet vaporizer dimensions. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

TABLE V-2 Comparison of American, British, German, and Japanese Material

Specifications

American German British Japanese

Material (ASME/ASTM) (DIN) (BS) (JIS)

Plates SA 516 Gr 6070 A St 4552 DIN 17135 BS 1501-224-490 JIS G 3118 SGV 49
SA 515 Gr 60 H II DIN 17155 BS 1501-161-430 JIS G 3103 SB 42
Pipes SA 53 Gr B ST 45 DIN 1629 BS 3601 HFS-430 STPG42-G3454
(seamless) SA 106 Gr A ST 35.8 DIN 17175 BS 3602 HPS-360 STPT 38-G3456
SA 106 Gr B ST 45.8 DIN 17175 BS 3602 HFS-430 STPT42-G3456
Tubes SA 214 ST 37.2 DIN 1626 BS 3059 ERW-320 STB 35E-G3461
SA 179 ST 35.8 DIN 17175 BS 3059 CDS-320 STB 30S-G3461
Forgings SA 105 C22.8Vd TUEV 350/3 BS 1503-221-490 S25C-G4051
Studs SA 193 GR B7 21CrMoV57 DIN 17240 BS 4882 Gr B7 SNB7-G4107
Nuts SA 194 GR 2H 24CrMo5 DIN 17240 BS 4882 Gr 2H S45C-G4051

O.D., 0.083 in (2.1 mm) Bwg. but can be changed to meet customer specifications.
Top ends of tubes are securely welded shut on all units. Tubes on sizes A and B
normally have external longitudinal fins in contact with liquid being vaporized,
multiplying the external surface about eight times, but can also be supplied with
bare internal heating tubes.
Tubes are welded to the tubesheet and then rolled and expanded for additional
holding power. Rolled joints alone are not sufficient for extended periods of service.
For special services, these tubes can be of steel, stainless steel, or other materials.
Bayonet tubes are roller expanded into lower tube plate.
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-9

TABLE V-3 Approximate Dimensions* (for Steam-Heated Vessels) (Dimensions Are in Millimeters)

Base Shell Overall Outlet Height of Cond. Inlet Outlet

Plate O.D. Height Projection Outlet Height Height Height Steam Cond. Liquid Vapor Float &
Size Dia. A B C D E G H Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Safety

A N/A 89 1867 152 1715 64 165 n/a 19 13 25 38 38

B N/A 114 1981 152 1880 127 229 n/a 13 13 38 38 38
BT 203 114 1930 152 1753 191 127 343 25 25 38 38 38
C 305 168 2134 152 1930 337 270 378 38 38 51 51 51
D 305 219 2134 152 1930 356 270 378 38 38 51 51 51
E 413 273 2134 152 1930 356 270 378 51 51 64 64 51
F 413 324 2159 152 1930 330 229 419 76 76 76 76 51
G 508 406 2134 152 1930 311 203 479 102 51 102 102 51
H 660 508 2337 152 2070 368 270 498 102 51 102 102 51
I 762 610 2337 152 2057 368 270 537 102 51 102 102 51
J 889 762 2946 203 2578 648 508 737 152 76 102 152 51
K 1041 914 3200 203 2718 737 559 864 203 102 102 203 51
L 1194 1067 3404 203 2832 889 660 826 254 102 152 254 51
M 1346 1219 3556 203 2972 914 660 864 305 152 152 305 51

* Dimensions and outlet sizes may be varied to suit individual job conditions. Gauge connection is 3/4 in. All nozzles 21/2 in and over are
flanged.
NOTE: Outlets with screwed connections also available upon request (at lower cost).

TABLE V-4 Approximate Steam Consumption

U.S. units: Metric units:

One Pound of Steam One kg/h Steam
per Hour Will Vaporize Will Vaporize

1.0 U.S. gallon/h Propane 8.4 L/h

Butane
2 lb/h Ammonia 2 kg/h
8 lb/h Chlorine 8 kg/h
6 lb/h Sulfur dioxide 6 kg/h

Design working pressure. On the process side, normally 250 psi (17.6 kg/cm2). In
steam or hot water space, 100 psi (7 kg/cm2) (higher pressures available if needed).
All vaporizers built in the U.S. are designed, inspected, and National Board
stamped in accordance with the ASME Code. Vaporizers built outside the U.S. may
be supplied per ASME, TUV, Stoomwezen or other local codes as required.
When operating pressure goes below 25 psi on propane or butane, check with the
factory to avoid difficulty from pressure drop through nozzles. (See Table V-4.)
The 1-in-O.D. (25.4 mm) 0.083 in (2.1 mm) wall tubes, seal-welded and rolled,
give more clearance for condensate and steam. Thicker tube used in design adds to
the life of the bundle. The seal-welding, and rolling gives strength needed against
the fairly rapid variations in pressure and temperature encountered under some
conditions. To avoid a loss of process fluid through leakage (and the peril of a
potential explosion), the OEM seal-welds the tubes to the tubesheet.
See Figs. V-16 through V-18.

Design features

The tubes are free to expand or contract. Since the tubes are only secured at the bottom
end, there is no tendency for the tubes to flex or twist from temperature stress. This
is a marked advantage over units with tubesheets at both ends, where repeated
temperature stress may cause failure at the tube end.
V-10 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-16 16-in-diameter (406-mm) chlorine vaporizer. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-17 Four typical vertical vaporizers for large Mideastern refiner. Note the inlet belts on three
of the vaporizers, often used to improve shell side distribution for improved boiling and excessive
tube impingement. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

Bottom steam feed protects against freezeup. The condensate is constantly warmed by
incoming hot steam or hot water (if that is the heating medium). Even though
the vaporizing temperature in the shell falls below freezing temperature, the
condensate does not run the risk of freezing with consequent bursting of a tube.
For boiling below 25F (-4C), consult the information source.
The tube bundle is removable and can be replaced in the field. It is no longer necessary to
remove the whole unit in the event that the tubes begin to corrode out. A
replacement bundle can be bought and installed in the field with a minimum
amount of downtime.

How the vaporizer worksunlimited built-in turndown

1. The vaporizer takes its feed from a storage tank or process plant output and the
boiling liquid rises in the shell until the vapor outlet generated by the load is
matched by the heat transfer to the submerged surface level at the time. At that
point, it stabilizes and continues to boil at that level until the load changes. If
the load rises, the level of the fluid goes up to give the added output needed. If
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-11

FIG. V-18 Vaporizer in process flow. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

the load drops, the fluid level in the vaporizer drops until the output matches
demand. This automatic turndown applies to any operating level in the vertical
vaporizer. No special turndown control is needed.
2. It is easy to include a superheat section by adding height to the bundle (added
surface) sufficient to achieve the desired superheat. This is impossible in either
jacketed shell or reboiler-type vaporizers without the addition of a separate
superheating element at substantial added cost.
3. These units protect against freezeup when boiling near the freezing point of the
steam of other heating medium. The vaporizer can operate with boiling
temperatures somewhat below the freezing point. The bottom steam feed
protects the tubes against freezing so that the vaporizer can operate at boiling
temperatures below the freezing point of the heating medium condensate.
Consult factory for specific design figures in such cases.
4. The hold-up volume of process fluid is well below that in other types of
vaporizers.
5. The footprint of the vaporizer is less than any horizontal unit. It is also normally
lower than any other type of vertical in-tube or jacketed unit because of the
greater output of the vaporizer.
6. The vaporizer is a standardized design and preliminary layout drawings are
available early to enable plant layout to proceed quickly.
7. The tube bundle is removable and can easily be replaced or changed in the field.
V-12 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

8. The tubes are secured only at one end and are free to expand or contract so there
is no thermal stress originating due to temperature variations in the bundle.
9. Code approval is normally easy since almost all code supervision agencies in the
world have experienced submissions of vaporizers in past years.

Freeze-up protection with bayonet-type vaporizers

Controls and recommendations. During normal operation, the vertical bayonet

design is excellent for vaporizing fluids at temperatures of 32F (0C) or several
degrees lower. The leaving condensate is constantly warmed by incoming hot steam.
The following recommendations are based on operating experience of vaporizers for
propane, ammonia, chlorine, etc.

Precautions against freezing of steam condensate

Steam failure. The steam controls should be arranged such that the steam cannot
be shut off at any time when cold process liquid can be in the shell at or below 32F
(0C) and the operating instructions to personnel should stress this fact.
As an example, if a thermostatic steam valve or similar control is used in the
inlet steam line, it should be limited in such a way that it cannot shut off completely
when the process fluid in the shell is below 32F (0C). A hand valve in the steam
line as a bypass around the control valve may be used to provide a positive steam
supply.
Startup procedure would be to first establish steam supply to the unit before
permitting cold process liquid to enter the shell, and shutdown procedure would be
to first stop the process fluid flow before stopping the steam. If there is a failure of
the steam supply, some precaution is desirable to stop the process fluid flow and to
immediately remove the cold process fluid from the shell.
Suggestions would include a temperature control switch in the condensate line
to sound an alarm and/or stop process fluid flow. A control indicating steam pressure
failure may also be used.
Condensate backup. The steam and condensate lines must be free draining. In the
case of a condensate return line to the boiler, care must be taken that the steam
pressure is high enough to avoid a static head in the condensate line, which may
result in backing up of condensate into the steam space of the vaporizer. This
condensate may then freeze if cold process fluid is present in the shell.
Steam trap. The steam trap must be adequately sized to avoid backup. Also, a trap
with minimum holdup of condensate is preferable. If the steam fails, condensate
will re-evaporate and return to the tubes, so an absolute minimum condensate
volume in the trap is desirable. Thermostatic traps have proven satisfactory for
many applications.
Separate trap on steam chamber. A separate trap is recommended to carry away
condensate that forms in the steam feed line and in the steam chamber.
Trap not too high. The trap on the main condensate outlet should be installed
enough below the vaporizer condensate outlet connection to avoid backing up of
condensate inside the vaporizer due to equalizing loads.
Strainers on traps. The traps should be equipped with strainers to ensure foreign
materials will not plug the trap.
Positive steam pressure. The steam should be operated at a high enough pressure
to overcome any pressure loss in lines, valves, fittings, etc., and to ensure operation
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-13

of the steam trap. Typically a pressure of 5 to 15 psig (0.35 to 1.05 kg/cm2) is used
as a minimum.
Steam trap stoppage is, arguably, the single most prevalent cause of freeze-up in
vaporizers. For critical installations, duplicate traps may be installed in parallel.

Superheating outlet vapor methods and reasons

Basic design of vaporizers includes:
 Sensible heat to warm up the liquid from storage temperature to the boiling
temperature in the vaporizer.
 Latent heat to boil the liquid at vaporizer temperature and pressure.
 Superheat required to heat vapor from saturation temperature to some desired
gas outlet temperature.

The vaporizer usually has enough surface, figured to operate below the liquid level,
to preheat the liquid and boil it.
Any surface required to superheat must be above the boiling area.
Three basic approaches to superheat are used:

1. Extension of tube bundle above liquid boiling level to add superheating surface.
2. A completely separate external superheater can be used.
3. For many fluids, reducing the pressure of discharged saturated vapor will
produce some superheat. This method may invite surging. Consult factory.
Extension of the tube bundle. This usually requires more surface than #2 (above) as
the vapor velocity is lower. Control of the gas outlet temperature is somewhat
difficult since there is only one steam supply. However, by maintaining the boiling
in the vaporizer at a fixed pressure, and setting a steam control to a fixed gas outlet
temperature, control is possible.
This method is often somewhat more compact and also less costly if the amount
of superheat is not too great.
Reasons for superheating
 Superheat may be required where outlet vapor lines are long, uninsulated, or
exposed to low temperatures, so that recondensation could take place. Initial
superheat allows for line temperature losses and the vapor can be delivered intact
at the pipeline outlet end.
 Some controls contain elements subject to freeze-up or damage at temperatures
below 32F (0C). Superheat of the vapor will avoid this danger.
 Controlled superheat may often be required for process reasons.
Separate external superheater. This is most desirable in cases where a large amount
of superheat is needed. Superheaters are often made with finned tubes, which give
a less costly heat exchanger than one with bare tubes for this duty.
Control is simple.
See Figs. V-19 and V-20.
V-14 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-19 Typical electric superheater. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-20 The above control hookup shows a typical external superheater. The advantage of the
separate superheater is twofold. First, by having a separate steam feed on the superheater
controlled by gas outlet temperature, definite temperature control can be gained. Second, the
superheating surface is much cheaper as finned tubing than it would be in adding bare tube
surface to the vaporizer bundle for boiling. Every installation using this system has been quite
successful, although there are a number of jobs on which superheat was obtained merely by
incomplete immersion of the bundle. This does take quite a bit more surface; however, each job
should be individually calculated. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-15

Some vaporizer applications

Liquid Vaporized End Product Typical Process

Acetaldehyde N-Butyl Alcohol Acetaldehyde based
Acetic acid Acetic anhydride Acetylene
Acetaldehyde Acetic acid based
Vinyl acetate Acetylene based
Ammonia Acryonitrile Sohio
Ethanolamines Ethylene oxide based
Fertilizers Various
Nitric Acid Ammonia based
Benzene Maleic anhydride Various
Butadiene 1,4-Dichloro-2-Butylene Butadiene based
Butane Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid Oxidation of butane
Acetone
Formaldehyde
MEK, Methanol
Propanol
Butylene Isoprene rubber Prins
Chlorine Aldrin, dieldrin
Endrin, isodrin Shell
Carbon tetrachloride
Perchloroethylene Propane chlorination
Chlorine dioxide Various
Chlorobenzenes Various
Chloromethanes Methane based
1,4-Dichloro-2-Butylene Butadiene based
Ethyl chloride Ethane, ethylene based
Ethylene dichloride Ethylene based
Ethylene oxide Epichlorohydrin
Glycerine Propylene based
Phosgene Carbon monoxide based
Propylene oxide Epichlorohydrin
Titanium dioxide Various
Vinylidene chloride Acetylene based
Ethanol Acetaldehyde Ethanol based
Ethylene dighloride Vinyl chloride Ethylene dichloride based
Ethylene oxide Ethanolamines Ethylene oxide based
Formaldehyde Isoprene rubber Prins
Hydrogen chloride Bisphenol Various
Ethyl chloride Ethylene based
Methyl chloride Methanol based
Neoprene Acetylene based
Trichloroethylene
Perchloroethylene Acetylene based
Vinyl chloride Wulff
Hydrogen cyanide Acrylonitrile Acetylene based
Acrylonitrile Ethylene oxide based
Methanol Dimethyl terephthalate Hercules-Witten
Formaldehyde Methanol based
Methyl chloride Methanol based
Phosgene 2,4-Toluene diisocyanate Toluene diamine
V-16 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

Propane Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone Oxidation of propane
Formaldehyde
MEK, Methanol
Propanol
Carbon tetrachloride Propane chlorination
Perchloroethylene Propane chlorination
Nitromethane
Nitroethane Propane nitration
Propylene Acetone Wacker
Acrolein Propylene based
Acrylonitrile Sohio
Glycerine Propylene based
Polypropylene Various
Propylene oxide Glycerine Propylene oxide based
Sulfur trioxide Alkyl benzene sulfonates Various
Vinyl chloride Vinylidene chloride Acetylene based

Other fluids vaporized in vaporizers

Butanol Methyl chloride
1-Butene Methylene chloride
Butylamine Nitrogen
Bromine Oxygen
Carbon dioxide Paracymene
Diethyl ether Pyridine
Dimethyl ether Refrigerant 11
Ethane Refrigerant 12
Ethylene Refrigerant 13
Hydrogen bromide Refrigerant 13
Hydrogen fluoride Refrigerant 223
Hydrogen sulfide Sulfur dioxide
Isobutylene Sulfur hexafluoride
LPG mixtures Turbine fuels
Methylamine Vinylidene chloride
Design criteria for various fluids. Capacity ratings and flow paths of vaporizers are
based upon extensive field measurements of plant scale installations and also on
much in-house testing of miscellaneous fluids over a long period of years.
Chlorine. Vertical vaporizers, often with built-in superheat capability, are used.
Special instrumentation is required, specifically designed for chlorine service. Base
designs are carbon steel. However, if during steamout or cleaning, etc., water is left
in the chlorine space, acid is formed that will cause extremely rapid corrosion
(hours), often resulting in failure. For this reason, tubes or tubesheets may be used
in nickel alloys such as Monel, Inconel 600, and Incoloy 800.
Pamphlet 9 of the Chlorine Institute gives very useful recommendations for
application of chlorine vaporizers including some references such as autoignition
(rapid corrosion of steel at high temperatures when chlorine encounters a
hydrocarbon at the steel surface). Consult the information source about possible
difficulties due to concentration of nitrogen trichloride over a long period of time.
Ammonia. Vertical vaporizers, often with built-in superheat capability. Normally
steel, but sometimes with stainless steel tubes or tubesheets, particularly if the feed
material may have trace elements of a corrosive nature.
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-17

TABLE V-5 Atmospheric Boiling Temperatures of Typical

Liquids Handled in Information Sources Vaporizers

Fluid F C

Ammonia -28.0 -33.3

Chorine -30.1 -34.5
Hydrogen chloride -121.0 -85.0
Hydrogen sulfide -75.3 -59.6
Sulfur dioxide 14.0 -10.0
Methane -258.7 -161.5
Ethane -127.8 -88.8
Propane -43.7 -42.1
N-Butane 31.1 -0.5
Ethylene -154.7 -103.7
Propylene -53.9 -47.7

Miscellaneous liquids. Methanol, sulfur dioxide, refrigerants, random hydrocarbon

mixtures, etc. Mostly handled in vertical vaporizers, often with built-in superheat
capability. Metals as required to suit individual needs. Typical metals include
Hastelloy, various stainless steels, Carpenter 20, Incoloy 800, Monel, Inconel 600,
and various nickel alloys. Low temperature nickel steels are seldom used because
of unavailability of small quantities of metal on short notice, plus costly fabricating
practices.
Liquified petroleum (propane, butane). Normally in vertical units, sometimes in
indirect water bath vaporizers. Normally all steel equipment.
Lethal fluids. Such as hydrogen sulfide, phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, xylol
bromide, etc. Normally in vertical units, can be all welded (no gaskets anywhere)
if preferred. Usually 100 percent radiographically inspected and heat treated after
fabrication. Also available as heavy duty shell design with removable bundles.
Ethylene. Usually fed at low temperature to horizontal shell and coil type
vaporizers at very low temperatures (-155F or -104C) so stainless steel or other
high impact value material is normally used. Typical designs include steel shells
with stainless steel vaporizing bundle designed to avoid surging and withstand
thermal shock conditions.
Liquefied natural gas. Usually substantially methane, handled like ethylene.
Sometimes vertical installations are required for shipboard application, involving
approval for such codes as ABS, United States Coast Guard, Lloyds, Veritas, etc.
Cryogenics. Nitrogen, oxygen, low boiling hydrocarbons, etc. Similar to ethylene
except sometimes temperatures for direct steam heating may be as low as -325F
(-198C). Most materials are stainlesses. Special cleaning may be required for
oxygen processes.
Freezeup protection. For details, see discussion later in this section. (See Table V-
5 for atmospheric boiling temperatures of some typical liquids.)

Cryogenic vaporizers (direct steam heated)

Uses of cryogenic vaporizers. These are used on vaporizing process upset fluids such
as ethylene, propylene, etc., on flare systems, where quantities exceed normal
capacity of flare drums, or to vaporize ethylene, nitrogen, etc., for consumption out
of atmospheric storage systems. They all also used on LNG tankers to vaporize
nitrogen, for padding, for loading or transfer of cargo, or in areas between tanks to
reduce explosion hazard.
See Figs. V-21 and V-22.
V-18 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-21 Large mixed hydrocarbon vaporizer for feed temperature approximately -150F (-101C)
for installation in Eastern Gulf refinery. Unit size 132 in (3353 mm) in diameter 23 ft (7000 mm)
long. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-22 Vertical vaporizer/superheater with internal helical coil. Shell is steel with internals of
stainless steel. 1412-kW (1,215,000-kcal/h) unit installed on LNG tanker to heat product and assist
pump transfer from hold. Vertical format reduces footprint when necessary. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-19

Ultra-low
Direct steam heated vaporizers for fluids boiling as low as -327F (-200C).
temperature vaporizers are designed to avoid freezeup of steam condensate since
the steam is on the shellside and condensate is always in contact with the steam.
Indirect systems often require relatively larger equipment and much more costly
instrumentation plus the maintenance and supervision that goes with that
instrumentation. Direct heated vaporizers require simpler controls than indirect
heaters plus avoid any danger of condensate freezeup except if the steam trap gets
blocked and traps condensate inside the shell. Desuperheaters can be added to give
maximum flexibility to exit vapor control temperature.
Direct heated cryogenic vaporizers have a long history of successful field
experience, using direct steam as a heating medium to boil and superheat fluids
from as low as -327F (-200C). None of these many direct-heated vaporizers, which
are in a variety of fluid duties, has ever failed from freezeup of steam condensate
to our knowledge.
Vaporizers have considerable antifatigue designs built in for grid loadout duties
where the vaporizer may operate on highly fluctuating/cyclic flow rates.
The design and method is thoroughly proven from a great many field installations
of sizes up to 40,000,000 Btu/h (10,000,000 kcal/h) per individual vaporizer.

Transfer heaters for very cold liquids antifreeze designs

Typical duties
1. Heating of liquid ammonia, ethylene, LPG, etc., for transfer from ship or other
low-temperature storage to ordinary steel pipelines or shipping tanks.
2. Defrosting of fluid circulating systems.
3. Vaporizing oxygen, nitrogen, etc., at temperatures down to -327F (-200C) and
pressures up to 6000 psi (422 kg/cm2) using steam or hot water as a heating
medium.
4. Heating of very corrosive fluids in separate tube bundles of metal such as Monel,
Nickel 200, Inconel 600, Incoloy 800, silicon bronze, etc.
5. Very high-pressure liquid flow can be up to 10,000 psi (703 kg/cm2 or
680 atm).

Often it is convenient to use a combined two bundle unit in a single shell, or two
separate shells using steam to vaporize an intermediate fluid, for example
methanol. The vaporized methanol then rises to the top bundle, heating up the fluid
passing through the tubes. Since methanol is not subject to freezing, and the boiling
temperature of the methanol is kept above 32F (0C), there is no freezeup hazard.
See Figs. V-23 and V-24.

Small electric indirectly heated vaporizers

Electrically indirect heated vaporizers are suitable for boiling of ammonia and a
number of other fluids. Shells are usually of steel, and the heating elements are
often copper, although many other metals, such as stainless steels, Monel, Inconel,
Hastelloy, and Incoloy can be supplied when requested.
These vaporizers can be supplied with or without controls. They offer a solution
to vaporization in outlying areas where steam is not available.
Typical duties include vaporizing HF, H2S, bromine, CO2, SO2, CH3Cl, Cl2, HCl,
NH3, LPG, C3H8, C4H10, etc.
See Figs. V-25 through V-28.
V-20 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-23 Intermediate fluid transfer antifreeze heater. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-24 Direct heated transfer heater. Horizontal antifreeze heater for cold ammonia, entering
temperature -28F (-33C) (or below if necessary). Steam heated. Steel and stainless steel
construction. Removable bundle. Can also be electric heated. (Source: Armstrong Engineering
Associates.)

Combination electric indirect vaporizers

In working with highly inflammable or explosive fluids, it may not be safe to
put the electric element directly in contact with the fluid. Therefore, the information
source supplies a combination unit consisting of a vaporizer, an electric water
heater, and a pump, with controls.
The electrically heated water is circulated into the vaporizer to furnish the heat
required for boiling. This same arrangement may be used for chlorine, or for any
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-21

FIG. V-25 Typical arrangement for electric water heater skid mounted unit to vaporize whatever
fluid desired. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-26 Electric indirect heated (glycol bath) vaporizer, for boiling of propane, LPG, HCl, SO2, etc.
(Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-27 Line of 36 in (914 mm) 8 in (2438 mm) indirect heated LPG vaporizers showing
insulation and controls. Installed in large apartment complex in Hong Kong. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)
V-22 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-28 Electric heated vaporizer: Circulating pumped water bath. System includes electric
immersion water heater, pump, piping, controls, and expansion tank, all factory piped up and
delivered on skid ready to operate. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

fluid that might offer severe corrosive attack to the sheath metal of the electric
heater. This typed unit is often used for C3H8, Cl2, C4H10, SO2, Freons, etc.
See Figs. V-29 and V-30.

Pressurizing storage tanks

Where the outdoor storage temperature is very low, the saturation pressure of the
stored liquid may get so low there is not sufficient pressure to deliver the liquid or
vapor past the piping and valve resistances required. In such cases, a vaporizer
may be used to furnish the heat required to keep the stored liquid at a desired
temperature and corresponding pressure, even though the outdoor ambient
temperature may be quite low. See Fig. V-31.
The most prevalent type of vaporizer for this purpose is the vertical bayonet. The
main point to consider is whether there is a likelihood of damming or stoppage of
the condensate inside the tube at a time when surrounding liquid is below 32F
(0C). In that event, freezing is a danger and in such times, the antifreeze aspect
of the vertical bayonet vaporizer becomes desirable.
The internal condensing capacity of the storage tank, even with only a fraction
of the surface not covered by liquid, is tremendous, and would require both a very
large vaporizer and also a very much larger boiler or heat source. Therefore, the
only practicable way to approach this problem is to figure on boiling the liquid at
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-23

FIG. V-29 Electric indirect vaporizer in process and flow. (Source: Armstrong Engineering
Associates.)

FIG. V-30 Direct electrically heated ammonia vaporizer. (Source: Armstrong Engineering
Associates.)
V-24 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-31 The above vaporizer hookup shows an arrangement that is often used for ammonia and
other gases in addition to propane. The liquid level is important to make sure the liquid will flow by
gravity or otherwise into the vaporizer. The pipelines must be large enough to overcome any
hydraulic loss in the flow system, to make sure that the vaporizer tube bundle will be covered.
Otherwise, at low levels, the vaporizer will not have full capacity. The pressure-actuated valve may
not be absolutely necessary, but is desirable in many cases. Since it is usually better to keep the
steam on at all times, this avoids excess boiling at times when the tank may already have
adequate pressure. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

the beginning of operation at the low temperature; get the whole body of the tank
and its stored liquid up to the operating temperature, say 70F (21C), and then
furnish enough heat to overcome the convection heat loss from the outside surface
of the tank to the ambient air. Also, sufficient capacity is needed to heat the fresh
incoming liquid as it arrives by tank car, assuming that it also has cooled down to
the outdoor temperature.
To illustrate the application, take an example of a 30,000 U.S. gallon uninsulated
storage tank, 9 ft in diameter by 63 ft long, to be filled with 10,000 U.S. gallons
of liquid anhydrous ammonia in a 10-h day, assuming 70F required tank
temperature, and with an ambient outdoor temperature of -30F. The outside
surface area of the tank is 1827 ft2. The convection heat loss can be taken
conservatively as 5 Btu/h/ft2/F at a wind speed of 20 mph.
Ambient heat loss is then

1827 5 [70 - (-30)] = 915,000 Btu/h

Incoming fresh liquid (loading the tank):

1000 gph 5.6 lb/U.S. gal (120.5 - 10.7) = 615,000 Btu/h

Note: 120.5 is enthalpy of liquid at 70F (21C); 10.7 is enthalpy of liquid at -30F
(-34C).
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-25

Ambient heat load 913,500 Btu/h

Fresh liquid heatup 615,000 Btu/h
Total 1,528,500 Btu/h

To illustrate another application, we take an example of a 114-m3 uninsulated

storage tank, 2.74 m in diameter by 19.2 m long, to be filled with 38 m3 of liquid
anhydrous ammonia in a 10-h day, assuming 21C required tank temperature
(8.0 kg/cm2G required pressure), and with an ambient temperature of -34C. The
outside surface area of the tank is 170 m2. The convection heat loss can be taken
conservatively as 24.4 kcal/h/m2/C at a wind speed of 8.9 m/s. Ambient heat loss is
then

(170) (24.4) [(21) - (-34)] = 228,140 kcal/h

Incoming fresh liquid (loading the tank in 10 h):

3.8 m3 683.17 kg/m3 (66.94 - 5.94) = 158,360 kcal/h

Note: 66.94 kcal/kg is enthalpy of liquid ammonia at 21C; 5.94 kcal/kg is enthalpy
of liquid ammonia at -34C.

Ambient heat load 228,140 kcal/h

Fresh liquid heatup 158,360 kcal/h
Total 386,500 kcal/h

This duty is added to the amount of vapor withdrawn from the tank to process, if
any.

Vaporizers with controls

Setting of float valves on vaporizers. The fluid that is boiling inside the vaporizer is
not entirely liquid, but a mixture of liquid and vapor. As a result, its density is
usually appreciably lower than the density of the liquid column, which acts upon
the float in the float chamber, which is not subject to such vigorous boiling. See
Figs. V-32 through V-39.
Therefore, the height at which the operating center of gravity of the float should
be set should be lower than the actual boiling level in the vaporizer by an amount
equal to the ratios of the densities of the liquids in the vaporizer to that in the float
column. A good practice is to start at about 2/3 the height of the vaporizer level
above its bottom, and then adjust the float level in the field to give best performance.
Note that on vertical vaporizers, the float acts only as a limit to capacity. When the
vaporizer is operating at less than its capacity, it automatically operates with a
liquid level lower than the top of the tubes.
On all installations, if the propane or other liquid in the shell should get down
to temperatures below 32F (0C), it is very important not to have a steam fallure.
In this case, the vapor can condense and freeze and possibly burst a tube.
This is important to consider in any control that will shut the steam off and also
on any system where the steam may fail for external reasons.
When desirable, vaporizers can be supplied with the controls mounted. We
caution the prospective buyer in this case:

1. Since there is wide variety in preferences as to method, make, and type of control,
it often takes several times as long to work up quotations on units with controls
as it does to quote bare vaporizers.
V-26 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-32 Float setting. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-33 Process vaporizer with controls factory mounted. Note float and float-operated valve,
liquid level gauge, thermostatic steam valve, condensate traps, bursting disc relief valves, and
miscellaneous hand valves, including bypasses and strainers. (Source: Armstrong Engineering
Associates.)
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-27

FIG. V-34 Typical control hookup for routine fluid vaporizing. Note presence of shellside float
valve. This operates to stop liquid feed when flow level gets too high due to excessive draw of
fluid from the vaporizer. The valve shuts down flow of the liquid feed to the vaporizer to avoid
carryover of liquid into the exit line. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-35 Typical control setup when specific superheated temperature is required. For normal
chlorine vaporizing see separate diagram. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)
V-28 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-36 Conductivitytemperature for various fluids. (Source: Armstrong Engineering

Associates.)

2. It usually takes several weeks longer to supply vaporizers with controls than it
does to complete a bare vaporizer.

Liquid to vaporizervapor direct to load (vapor does not return to storage tank). Figure
V-34 shows the most common dependable hookup for automatic operation. Liquid
from the tank enters either by gravity, differential pressure, or may be fed by liquid
pump when necessary to ensure adequate pressure to go through the reducing
valves. This liquid enters the three lines and may go alternatively through the valve
under normal operation, or through the hand bypass if the pilot valve is out. The
pilot valve is controlled by a float on the shell that limits the level to which the
liquid can rise above the tubesheet face.
There may or may not be a pressure-reducing valve between the storage tank
and the controls shown in the figure, and depending on the duty, there may be a
further vapor pressure-reducing valve after the outlet, before the load.
In most cases, the steam is fed by hand feed only, and is left on all the time. A
trap may be used to drain the regular condensate outlet, and another one to also
drain the condensate that forms in the steam chamber.
 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications V-29

FIG. V-37 Viscosity temperature for various fluids. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

If the unit is operating normally and the vapor outlet line is suddenly closed due
to load variations, the steam being on, the pressure would normally build up rapidly
with the liquid being confined in the vaporizer. This might cause the relief valve to
blow and lose fluid. To avoid this, the center bypass check is installedcalled a
blowback. When the vaporizer pressure exceeds the feed pressure, the flow will
reverse, allowing the liquid to leave the vaporizer and return to the tank. Obviously,
this blowback line must take into consideration the particular design of pump and
pressure relief valves, if either are present, and must be arranged to bypass them
if they will not permit reverse flow.

Constant vapor outlet temperature. The hookup illustrated in Fig. V-35 shows an
alternate arrangement that is sometimes used to give a fairly constant vapor outlet
temperature. It may be combined with a constant pressure arrangement through
use of pumps and reducing valves if the pressure must also be controlled to obtain
constant gas density for the requirements of mixing valves.
This sketch also shows an alternate arrangement sometimes used to get a
constant gas density for an air-gas mixing valve. The thermostatic valve will
maintain a constant gas-off temperature and a constant propane pressure in the
vaporizer.
V-30 Vaporizers; Vaporizer Applications

FIG. V-38 Latent heattemperature for various fluids. (Source: Armstrong Engineering Associates.)

FIG. V-39 Heat capacityspecific heattemperature for various fluids. (Source: Armstrong
Engineering Associates.)
 Vibration Measurement V-31

Vaporizers will furnish superheat if operated at lower ratings than those shown.
The amount of superheat available by operating at reduced liquid level and using
the upper part of the bundle for superheating, however, is limited. If a large amount
of superheat is required, then a separate superheater may be advisable from a cost
standpoint, as it often takes a great deal more surface to superheat the gas than
to vaporize the liquid.

Vents and Flame Arrestors

Vents are provided on a storage tank so that the tank can breathe. Inhale
happens if a temperature drop causes a liquid volume reduction. It also can occur
if liquid is withdrawn from the tank. Exhale happens in the reverse
circumstances. Required thermal venting capacity is determined from tank capacity
and fluid flashpoint. A tank supplier will ask what fluid your tanks will hold and
the steady temperature and pressure at which the fluid is to be held. Vent capacity
can then be determined. Conservation vent valves have just a slightly different
design to minimize evaporative losses.
Flame arrestors are provided on tanks storing fluids with a flashpoint of less than
110F. Flame arrestors should also be provided on storage tanks for liquids with a
flashpoint above 110F, where a combustible environment exists or other potentially
hazardous condition, such as the heating of heavy oils.

Vibration Measurement (see Condition Monitoring)