Gandhi On Women

Gandhi on Women
Author(s): Madhu Kishwar

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 20, No. 40 (Oct. 5, 1985), pp. 1691-1702
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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SPECIAL ARTICLES
Gandhi on Women
Madhu Kishwar
This article reviews and analyses the role of Gandhi in drawing a large number of women into the mainstream
of the freedom movement. Gandhi's ideas about women and their role in public life was a departure from those
of the 19th century reformers. He saw women as a potential force in the struggle to build a new social or
consciously attempted to articulate connections between private and public life in order to bring women into
the struggle. However, he failed to come to terms with the fact that oppression is not a moral condition but a
social and historical experience relating to production relations. On the other hand even while insisting that a
woman's real sphere of activity was the home, he was instrumental in creating conditions which could help women
break the shackles of domesticity.
[The first two parts of the article which deal with Gandhi's views on the nature of women's oppression and the
influence his ideas had in drawing women into the freedom movement are published in this issue. The third part,
which reviews his personal relationships with women will appear next w-ek.]
"WHEN woman, whom we call abala cultural and emotional- environment in could bena even 'mighty Bhima himself to
becomes sabala, all those who are helpless which he grew up. Gandhi's responses to her imperious will'.5 From Sita, who was
will become powerful"' women are important for an understanding "gentleness incarnate ... a delicate flower",
This message of Gandhi to the All India of his general social views on women not to Draupadi, 'a giant oak' in her strength
Women's Conference in 1936 reflects the only because he more than any other leader and resoluteness, to Olive Doke (a young girl
crucial importance Gandhi gave to the issue tried to live his personal life as publicly as who had worked among the unclad primitive
of women's freedom and strength in the possible, but also because many of his ex- negro tribes of Africa), a symbol of absolute
struggle to build a humane and exploitation- periments which most people consider ec- fearlessness, courage and will to serve a
free society. Gandhi saw women not as ob- centricities and obsessions are inextricably cause Gandhi saw no contradiction in the
jects of reform and humanitarianism but as linked to his vision of new types of relation- transition.
self conscious subjects who could, if they ships between men and women. If women were to be 'free' they had to be
choose, become arbiters of their own destiny. 'fearless'. Gandhi rightly realised that it was
In this way, Gandhi represents a crucial I more a matter of psychological fear and
break from the attitude of many of the helplessness, culturally imposed upon
leaders of the reform movements of the late
Gandhi's Views on Nature of
women by society, than physical weakness
nineteenth century, who tended to see Women's Oppression
which kept women crippled. His constant
women as passive recipients of more humane "It is good to swim in the waters of tradi- message to them was that bravery and
treatment through the initiative of enlighten-tion, but to sink in them is suicide!'2 These courage were not the monopoly of men.
ed male effort. words of Gandhi, in a way, sum up his en- Even if all women could not become Ranis
Any approach to understanding Gandhi tire social, political philosophy and techni- of Jhansi they could emulate the still better
on women must include: (a) an evaluation que of mass action. It is nowhere more ap- example of Sita who even the mighty Ravana
of Gandhi's general understanding of the parent than in the use that he made of tradi- dared not touch. "Let no one dismiss the ex-
nature of women's oppression in India and tional Indian symbols to convey a contem- ample of Sita as legendary ... It was that
his views on the role of women in society; porary social-political hiessage. Sita, Da- higher type of valour which he wanted
(b) an evaluation of Gandhi's role in bring- myanti and Draupadi were the three ideals of Indian womanhood to cultivate ... women
ing a large number of women into the main- Indian womanhood that Gandhi repeatedly in our country was brought up to think that
stream of the national movement and of invoked as inspirations for the downtrodden she was well only with her husband or on
politics, and the quality of women's partici- women of India. But the Sita or Draupadi the funeral pyre. He would far rather see
pation under the leadership of Gandhi (This of Gandhi was not the commonly accepted India's women trained to wield arms ...
is the most important aspect because, more lifeless stereotype of subservience. They werethan that they should feel helpless."6 But
than anything else, this has had the most symbols versatile enough to incorporate the arms, for Gandhi, were a symbol of one's
lasting impact on the situation of women qualities that he chose to endow them with. weakness. The real strength of a woman was
even in free India); and (c) the place thal In fact, sometimes, he tended to overburden her consciousness of her 'purity' and 'chasti-
women found in his life, the experimental the symbols with meanings they were ill- ty'. This 'dazzling purity' could disarm even
nature of these relationships as embodi- equipped to carry. For example, Sita was the most beastly of men.7 Woman's virtue
ments of his attitudes towards women and used as a symbol of Swadeshi, to convey an was to be her defence. In any case, she
of his views of an ideal man-woman rela- anti-imperialist message. Sita only wore should prefer to give up her life rather than
tionship as these views themselves went "cloth made in India" or homespun, and her virtue. This equation of rape with loss
through an arduous process of change. thus kept her heart and body pure.3 Fur- of virtue reflects the age-old patriarchal
The three aspects-social, political and thermore, "Sita was no slave of Rama".4 bias. This was Gandhi's standard advice to
personal-are inextricably linked because She was portrayed as being able to say 'No' women for defence against male aggression.
it is only with Gandhi's emergence as a even to her husband if he approached her Even though he admitted that he was himself
political leader when he confronted the pro- carnally against her will. Gandhi's Sita was incapable of this kind of courage, he felt sure
blem of mass mobilisation, that he became no helpless creature. Even the great physical that a truly chaste and brave woman would
aware of women not only in terms of their might of Ravana dwindled when pitched not find it difficult to kill herself at the altar
problems but also as a powerful potential against her superior moral courage. This is of her chastity. Women should be as 'self
force in society, hitherto overlooked and keptthe ideal he presented for Indian women to reliant' as Draupadi was. "Who will call
suppressed. The image of the new woman emulate. They were not to consider them- Draupadi dependent, Draupadi who, when
that he wanted to help create was deeply selves abalas but rather to be like Draupadi, the Pandavas failed to protect her, saved
influenced and coloured by the kind of a symbol of 'robust indeDendence' who herself by an appeal to Lord Krishna-?"8
Economic and Political Weekly

Vol XX, No 40, October 5, 1985 1691
October 5, 1985 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY
Krishna here represents no physical man but and stunting their interests to petty things. ing Rama by physical charms". 23 He
as in the Bhagvad Gita the voice of one's At the various meetings where Gandhi ad- equated the purity and nobility of woman-
conscience and resolute will to follow one's dressed women, he felt that at times they hood with absolute sexlesstness-a negation
chosen path. created an unbearable din, and it was dif- of the sexuality of women.
It is significant that Gandhi repeatedly ficult to interest them in problems larger Gandhi insists on the inviolability of the
dismissed the more situationally relevant than their immediate lives, because "they personal dignity and autonomy of women.
Rani of Jhansi symbol in favour of a com- know nothing of them having been never She had the right to say 'No' even to her hus-
bination Sita-Draupadi symbol whereby allowed to breathe the fresh air of free- band. "I want woman to.learn the primary
answers were sought not primarily in a dom"."6 This kind of denial of freedom to right of resistance. She thinks now that she
woman's individual strength and the way to women leading to their infantilisation had has not got it".24 The women has the right
cultivate it but in the realm of women's to be, put an end to notwithstanding the to her own body which she does not sur-
spiritual and moral courage. His choice religious scriptures that legitimise such render for a lifetime with marriage. However,
of a certain kind of feminine courage in denial since they are "repugnant to the moral this view is intimately linked with his view
preference to other kinds of strength and sense". 17 In fact, according to Gandhi, of a noble woman as a sexless being and
heroism reflects his vision which was one of Hinduism's essential postulate was the ab- legitimate sex as only that which is meant
women acting primarily as the best ex- solute freedom of every individual, man or for the purpose of procreation.
emplars of a certain moral force in society. woman, to do whatever he or she liked for Despite his obsession with sexual chastity,
This vision stressed the superiority of the sake of self-realisation, for which alone in response. to an attempt to justify pre-
women's suffering and self sacrifice rather every human being was born. But then, this puberty marriages on the basis that the sex-
than aggressive assertion and forceful in- absolute freedom, even according to Gandhi, ual drive of women could lead them to in-
tervention to protect their interests and to functioned within relatively narrow para- dulgence and sexual malpractices before
gain political power. meters and well-defined boundaries. marriage, Gandhi indignantly retored:
Rules of social conduct had to be framed However, the main contribution of "And why is there all this morbid anxiety
by "mutual co-operation and consultation", Gandhi to the cause of women lay in his ab- about female purity? Have women any say
not forcibly imposed on women from out- solute and unequivocal insistence on their in the matter of male purity? ... Why
side. But men had reduced women somewhat personal dignity and autonomy in the family should men arrogate to themselves the right
to the position "of the slave of old who did and in society. Personal and social experi- to regulate female purity?"25
not know that he could or ever had to be ence had convinced him that hitherto "Man In Gandhi's view, one of the glaring
free".9 Since "legislation has been mostly has regarded woman as his tool. She has abuses of Indian womanhood was the
the handiwork of men ... man has not learnt to be his tool and in the end found custom of child marriage. He saw this evil
always been fair and discriminate in perfor- it easy and pleasurable to be such, because as intimately related to that of child widow-
ming that self-appointed task. '0 Therefore, when one drags another in his fall the des- hood. "It is irreligion, not religion, to give
if women were to get justice, scriptures cent is easy ."..,18 While he agreed religious sanction to a brutal custom" and
with
needed to be revised and all religious texts those who felt that "'there is no power of by countenancing them '"we recede from
biased against the rights and dignity of resistance left' in the women of India 'to God as well as Swaraj".26 Thus the question
women should be expurgated."l For this, fight against any evil whatever', " yet he em- of women's oppression was linked to social
Indian women had to prQduce from amongst phasised that women needed to take the task and national health. When the Sarada Act
themselves new Sitas, Draupadis and Da- of their upliftment into their own hands: sought to raise the age of consent to 14,
myantis 'pure, firm and self-controlled'. "No doubt man is primarily responsible for Gandhi felt it should have been raised to 16
Their "words will have the same authority this state of things. But many women always or even 18. He was perfectly willing to over-
as the Shastras" and command the same throw the blame on men and salve their con- look and disregard, in this matter, religious
respect as those of their 'prototypes of sciences? Do the enlightened among them texts of 'doubtful authority' which sanctified
yore'. 12 not owe it to their sex, as also to men whose an immoral practice which he believed to be
If most Indian women had lost "the spirit mothers they are, to take up the burden of ruinous for the health of the nation. Legisla-
of strength and courage, the power of in- reform? ... But where are the brave women tion alone would be a 'mere palliative' and
dependent thinking and initiative, which ac- who work among the girl-wives and girl- "may be good for bringing a minority to
tuated the women of ancient India, such as widows, and who would take no rest and book". 'A popular eveil' could be curbed
Maitreyi, Gargi and Savitri" this was "the leave none for men, till girl marriages only by 'enlightened public opinion'.27
result of social tyranny". The liberation of become an impossibility, and till every girl Parents who committed the sin of "'mar-
women, therefore, was set as a fundamen- feels in herself strength enough to refuse to rying' their daughters of tender age should
tal task before Congressmen: "Let Con- be married except when she is of full age and expiate for the sin by remarrying these
gressmen begin with their own homes".'3
to the person about whom she is given the daughters, should they become widowed
They should begin by imparting education final choice?"19 Though men owed it to while, they are yet in their teens".28 A
to their own wives, mothers and daughters. themselves to help in the cause of women, woman should have the same freedom to
If they believed that "freedom is the birth- "ultimately women will have to determine remarry 'without incurring any odium' as
right of every nation and individual" and with authority what she needs".20 men had.29 Gandhi felt that the presence of
if they were determined to achieve it, then But if women were to assert themselves thousands of such widows in any society was
they should "first liberate their women from in family life "wives should not be dolls and a serious menace. It was like "sitting on a
the evil customs and conventions that restrict objects of indulgence, but should be treated mine which may explode at any moment".30
their all-round healthy growth'"'" To thoseas honoured comrades in common ser- In the increasing number of child widows,
who argued that the political struggle ought vice".21 Women must protest againsthe being
saw a very destructive force, especially
to have primacy over everything else, he treated as sex objects: "If you want to play since, "men have ordained perpetual widow-
answered: "To postpone social reform, till your part in the world's affairs, you must hood for women and conferred on them-
after the attainment of Swaraj, is not to refuse to deck yourselves for pleasing man" selves the right to fix marriage with another
know the meaning of Swaraj'" 5 and revolt against "any pretension on the partner, on the cremation-ground itself".31
The fact that women had been for so long part of man that woman is born to be his But his advocacy of remarriage was not
"caged and confined in their houses and plaything".22 Again, the ever versatile imagebased on seeing ascetic widowhood as an in-
little courtyards" had had a ruinous effect of Sita is evoked for he could not imagine herent part of the patriarchal ideology for
gn their personality, narrowing their vision Sita ever "wasting a single moment on pleas- women's repression: Remarriage was ad-
1692
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY October 5, 1985
vocated more in the interest of social health. system is intimately connected with caste. So sure whether all of the Congressmen who
It is "better that [a widow] married openly long as the choice is restricted to a few hun- began to take up this cause with enthusiasm
than that she should sin secretly.32 Thus dred young men or young women of a par- were themselves inspired by the right
every sexual relationship outside of marriage ticular caste, the system will persist no mat-
motives, and were equipped to handle the
was seen as sinful. That is why while in the ter what is said against it. The girls or boys problem. Instead, he suggested that they
case of child widows, Gandhi was emphati- or their parents will have to break the bonds work among "the visitors to these houses of
cally in favour of remarriage, in the case of of caste if the evil is to be eradicated. Then ill fame", that is, the men who visited pro-
grown-up widows, the stand taken was equi- the age for marrying has also to be raised stitutes and brought shame on society.50
vocal. Enforced widowhood was seen as a and the girls have to dare to remain spinsters, The fight against prostitution and the
curse. Even a grown-up widow who "can- if need be, i e, if they do not get a suitable rehabilitation of 'our fallen sisters' was an
not restrain herself, ... should have the match.42 According to him, "the only integral part of the programme for national
freedom to remarry without incurring any honourable terms in marriage are mutual reconstruction and purification which
odium".33 love and mutual consent".43 Gandhi urged women to take up. He asked
However, Gandhi favoured a repressive The impact of Gandhi's message was felt them to "form a women's volunteer league
asceticism to a healthy assertion of life. He in the movement. Especially during high for the reclamation of the fallen women".51
saw 'voluntary enlightened widowhood' as points of the movement, Congress activists There are quite a few instances of prostitutes,
a great social asset and believed that "a real in different parts of the country began to young and old, having given up their call-
Hindu widow is a treasure. She is one of the propagate simple, ritual free weddings whicr ing and taken to charkha as a means of
gifts of Hinduism to humanity."34 This was came to be known as Gandhi lagan. This livelihood, in response to Gandhi's call. This
because a Hindu widow had "learnt to find type of wedding involved simply the ex- happened at Madaripur and Noakhali in
happiness in suffering, has accepted suffer- change of garlands by the bride and groom Bengal. But beyond khadi and charkha,
ing as sacred".35 "May chaste and virtuous while their friends and relatives blessed it by Gandhi's panacea for all evils, he had no
women ever cling to their suffering. Their clapping their hands. Many such marriages clear programme for these women and their
suffering is not suffering but is happi- are reported to have taken place even in rural rehabilitation nor did he put forth any ideas
ness'36 However, it is significant that how- India.' about how to combat the institution. There-
ever repressive this may seem, Gandhi Gandhi saw education as an essential fore, he could only ask the women to give
wanted men to emulate the same ideal: means for "enabling women to uphold up their 'unworthy profession' and become
"Hinduism will remain imperfect as long as [their] natural rights", to exercise them 'sannyasinis' of India.52 Most of his con-
men do not accept suffering", as some of wisely and to work for their expansion.45 cern, though genuine, remained at the level
these widows did, and, like them, "withdraw Yet much good and useful work could be of pleas to men to restrain and purify them-
their interest from the pleasures of this done 'without a knowledge of reading and selves, and cease to be beasts.
life",37 writing' and he insisted that "there is no On the other hand, Gandhi displayed an
Gandhi emphasised the potential of justification for men to deprive women or insufferable kind of self-righteousness, quite
widows as servants of the nation: "It is to deny them equal rights on the ground out of character, when he heard the form
worth considering carefully in what way the of their illiteracy".46 Moreover, "what is all and shape the movement for the reclama-
country can avail itself of the services of the education worth if on marriage they are tion of 'fallen sisters' was taking at Barisal.
hundreds of widows, young and old . .. " 38 to become mere dolls for their husbands and These women had been organised there
Likewise, Gandhi was convinced that most prematurely engaged in the task of rearing under the banner of Congress to undertake
Hindu divorced women would 'not want to would-be manikins?"47 social work like helping the poor, nursing
be remarried' after one bad experience. So the sick, spreading education among them-
GANDHI'S VIEWS ON PROSTITUTION
"friends, and relatives in such cases [should selves, promoting spinning and weaving, and
not] be satisfied with the mere negative result The evil of prostitution received some of helping other organisations involved in
of isolating the victim from the zone of his bitterest diatribes. "The beast in man has satyagraha. Gandhi lashed out at the organi-
tyranny. She should be induced to qualify made the detestable crime a lucrative pro- sation's documents as an 'obscene manifesto'
herself for public service. This kind of train- fession".48 In Gandhi's view, it degraded which "advised [these women] to do
ing would be more than enough compensa- men no less than it did women. "It is a mat- humanitarian work before reforming them-
tion for the doubtful privilege of a husband's ter of bitter shame and sorrow, of deep selves".53 Even though he admitted that
bed.39 humiliation, that a number of women have they were 'intelligent, modest and dignified'
He believed that a wife had the right to to sell their chastity for man's lust. Man, theand that their "determination was as firm
live separately, if a husband was unjust: "If law-giver, will have to pay a dreadful penalty as that of any satyagrahi", he declined to
divorce was the only alternative" he would for the degration he has imposed upon the accept them as Congress members or even
not "hesitate to accept it". It was better than so-called weaker sex ... It is an evil which to accept their donations unless they gave
interrupting one's 'moral progress'. However, cannot last a single day, if we men of India up being prostitutes. The prostitutes were
even while he agreed that "divorce should realise our own dignity. If many of the most told that "None could officiate at the altar
be granted within well-defined limits" he respectable among us were not steeped in the of Swaraj who did not approach it with pure
could "'never think of carrying on propa- vice, this kind of indulgence would be hands and a pure heart." He was alarmed
ganda in favour of it".40 regarded as, a greater crime than ... the that the 'corporate-activity' of these women
The oppressive custom of dowry too came picking of a pocket by a youngster who is was tending to make them 'unhealthily for-
under fire from Gandhi. He preferred girls in need of money ... Let me not be told that ward'. He declared: "We will not incorporate
to remain unmarried all their lives than to the public woman is party to the sale of her an association of known thieves for the pur-
be humiliated and dishonoured by marry- honour, but not the millionaire on the race- pose for which these women have formed
ing men who demanded dowry. If women course whose pocket is picked by a profes- their association'54 Yet he considered them
wanted to resist these evil customs some of sional pickpocket ... Does not man, by his even worse than thieves because while thieves
them "will have to begin by remaining subtle and unscrupulous ways, first rob stole material possessions, these women
maidens either for life, or at least for a woman of her noblest instinct and then 'steal virtue'.55 The comparison of these
number of years".41 He found dowry mar-
make her partner in the crime committed women with thieves gives an interesting
against her?"49 But he felt that "work
riages 'heartless'. " . . . the system has to go. psychological insight. It is significant that
Marriage must cease to be a matter of ar- among the unfortunate sisters must be left Gandhi never displayed this kind of self-
rangement made by parents for money. The everywhere to experts". because he was not righteousness vis-a-vis better known ex-
1693
ploiters of society. The doors of the Con- to remain unmarried for the nobler purpose creation, worked as a liberating idea for
gress were not closed to ever the most tyran-of serving society was a much more prefer- many women who were active in the move-
nical of landlords or the most corrupt of able ideal for self-realisation. HIe repeatedly ment. Many among them chose to remain
businessmen. lamented that "a vast majority of girls disap- unmarried and were able to enjoy as unusual
pear from public life as soon as they are amount of freedom and mobility, interacting
GANDHI'S IDEAL OF WOMANHOOD discharged from schools and colleges". He and working with men as co-servers of the
Gandhi's ideal of womanhood was Sita would rather they were inspired by better ex- cause.
but his message to Indian women was to riseamples: "Every Indian girl, is not born to Yet the numbers of women who were able
above wifehood and become 'sisters'. He feltmarry. I can show many girls who are to exercise this option remained very limited.
a wife could never become a sister in the full today dedicating themselves to service, in- The social and economic situation of women
sense of the word. "A sister is such to all thestead of servicing one man."59 However, in did not allow this to become a real option
world, while a wife hands herself Qver to one Gandhi's view, dispensing with marriage and for women on a large scale. But the few who
man. Wifehood is needed, but has not to be motherhood would necessarily involve exercised this option, did so in the at-
cultivated, as it includes the possibility of dispensing with sexual relations altogether. mosphere of social respect generated by the
satisfaction of passion" He lamented that On the one hand, Gandhi encouraged movement and left behind them a legacy
our women 'know how to be wives, not those who wanted to live a socially useful which is visible even today. It seems to me
life to stay unmarried. One strain in his
sisters'. It was possible to become the world's that there were a larger rnumber of women
sister only by making Brahmacharya 'a thinking emphasises that setting up one's who remained unmarried by choice amongst
natural condition' and being 'fired by the own home and family narrows down one's the national movement generation than there
spirit of service'.56 interests and channelises one's altruism are today.
Again, even though Gandhi's 'ideal of a towards a few select individuals rather than In terms of his general views on the need
wife is Sita' he was willing to concede that letting it flow freely to all humanity. On the to uplift women, there is not too much to
every husband was not likely to be an ideal other hand, however, he did not altogether distinguish Gandhi from the early nineteenth
man. Therefore, in response tQ a question reject the institution of marriage. Because century reformers. Often, his attempts to ex-
on how a wife could defy her husband to he realised that sexuality could not be plain the causes of women's inequality are
undertake national service, Gandhi denied eliminated, no matter how much he pro- not ony inadequate but also remain confined
that a wife need suppress herself or believe pagandised in favour of conquering it to some of the outward symptoms of the
in her husband's absolute claim over her. In altogether, he saw marriage as the only ex- problem. For instance, speaking on the oc-
this regard, he felt the famous sixteenth cen- isting, though inadequate, restraint on sex- casion of the passing of the Sarda Act,
tury saint-poet Mirabai had 'shown the way'. uali.y. He advocated a minimisation of sex- Gandhi described 'mutual lust' as the 'root
He saw her as one who had the courage to ual contact within marriage and a complete of the evil' of inequality between the
reject the confining role of wife and mother,repression of it outside marriage: "Marriage sexes.61 That this had "played an importan
and to remain undaunted by the persecution is a fence that protects religion. If the fence part in bringing about the disqualifications
which she had to suffer at the hands of her were to be destroyed, religion would go to of the fair sex hardly any demonstration".62
husband and his powerful family. By sheer pieces. The foundation of religion is restraint Likewise, the institution of parda was at-
dint of her moral courage and determina- and marriage is nothing but restrainC'. tributed to the "period of Hindu decline". 63
tion to continue on her chosen path in de- This dichotomy in his attitude towards The origin of the practice of Sati was found
fiance of all norms of social behaviour, she marriage overlooked the fact that restraint, in "superstitious ignorancee and the blind
was even able to convert her husband into to be meaningful, should be self-defined, egotism of man".6M If men molest women,
a devotee. Likewise, every wife "has a perfect whereas the restraint in marriage is socially Gandhi's 'diagnosis of the disease' is that
right to take her own course and meekly imposed and any violations of this restraint, "the modern girl loves to be Juliet to half
brave the consequences when she knows especially by women, are cruelly punished. a dozen Romeos. She loves adventure"65
herself to be in the right and when her It also overlooks the fact that marriage of Likewise, the evil of child marriage was at-
resistance is for a nobler purpose".57 the kind that exists institutionalises double tributed to the 'sheer lust' of man.66 His
He wanted. women to become 'sisters of standards that arise out of a situation of solutions, therefore, were sometimes equally
Mercy' by serving the poor and unfortunate. unequal power relations. Therefore, the in- off the mark. Women were advised to leave
Women were asked to relate the movement stitution restrains women in a very op- cities and go and work in villages where,
for their own emanicipation with that of allpressive way while allowing much greater Gandhi felt, they would not only be treated
the oppressed people and to make common freedom to men. much better but their virtue would also be
cause with them. Thus, by directly linking safer.
women's aspirations with national aspira- IMPACT OF GANDHI'S VIEWS ON Gandhi is one of the few leaders whose
tions, he gave the movement a wider perspec- INDIVIDUAL WOMEN practice was far more radical than the words
tive, and a greater legitimacy. However, Gandhi seems to have been very he used for describing it. However, where
Women were not to confine their concernsinfluential in moulding the personal aspira- Gandhi remains unsurpassed in terms of im-
only to what are normally seen as women'stions of many a woman, who came into the pact and influence even today is in the fact
issues but have a say in the rebuilding of thenational movement, away from marriage. that he helped women find a new dignity in
whole society. For that, he insisted that "theHis Sita obsession notwithstanding, the public life, a new place in the national
few educated women we have in India will message that emerges most forcefully from mainstream, a new confidence, a new self-
have to descend from their western heights his speeches, conversations and writings is view and a consciousness that they could
and come down to India's plains ... This that while marriage has to be tolerated as themselves act against oppression. From
question of liberation of women, liberation a social necessity, it is neither desirable nor passive objects, women could become active
of India, removal of untouchability, amelio- ennobling. He held up many of those women subjects or agents of reform not only of their
ration of the economic condition of the as role models who stepped out of the con- own predicamept but of the whole society.
masses and the like resolve themselves into fines of marriage, like Mirabai, to devote II
penetration, into the villages, reconstruction themselves to a higher cause. He evoked the
or rather reformation of the village life'58 idea of woman by and in herself, woman as Women's Role in the Struggle
In any case, he did not see marriage and sage and social regenerator. The idea that for Swaraj
motherhood as the only mission in life for singleness can be a more exalted form of ex-Gandhi's first encounter with woman-
every young woman. Any woman who chose istence than marriage, and celibacy than pro- power took place in Africa. There he realised
1694
how women could "become the leader in important social base for the movement. As lite with a neus political and moral signi-
with the other important groups such as the
satyagaha which does not require the learn- ficance. The choice of spin and wear khadi
ing that books give but does require the students and the peasantry, he told them at once the simplest, least dramatic of
stout heart that comes from suffering and they had to take the responsibility not just choices, calling for no obvious heroism. At
faith'.67 This was during the agitation for changing their own situation, but that the same time, it symbolised each indivi-
against the Black Act in 1913 when, instead of the society at large. "The economic and dual's conscious choice of a philosophy, a
of eliminating the disabilities already impos- the moral salvation of India thus rests way of life. To wear khadi came to mean
ed on Indians, a new Supreme Cc ruling. mainly with you'71 Because khadi was seen many things-opposition to colonial rule,
in a test case, declared all Hindu, Muslim as a symbol of self-reliance and regeneration, identification with the poor and the ex-
and Parsee marriages invalid. Gandhi "sud- it seemed to provide solutions to various pro- ploited, and an assertion of the spirit of self-
denly found himself heading, or rather swept blems. "I swear by this form of Swadeshi, reliance, of freedom.77 It is important to
along by, a cohort of furious and exalted because through it I can provide work to the remember that khadi could not really com-
maenads".0 The long-delayed entry of semi-starved, semi-employed women of pete with foreign mill cloth in terms of
women in the satyagraha gave the movement India. My idea is to get these women to spin durability, comfort and cheapness. That is
a new force. Women went to prison willing- yarn, and to clothe the people of India with why its use became a way of making a per-
ly, underwent hard labour, and were not khadi woven out of it'72 With the destruc- sonal statement that the person concerned
demoralised even when some of them lost tion of India's village crafts, especially the was willing to pay a personal price for
their children as a result of the privations textile industry, due to the impact of col- freedom and voluntarily chose discomfort
suffered in the struggle. Their impassioned onialism, millions of women lost their in order to contribute to the struggle for
appeals instantly brought out thousands of means of subsistence. They responded to freedom.
miners in a protest strike. The success of this
Gandhi's appeal: "Today, the Charkha The involvement of women in Swadeshi
satyagraha was in no small measure due to Sangha covers over one hundred thousand was necessary for certain pragmatic reasons
the new moral force that women's entry women against less than 10,000 men'73 too. Gandhi knew that "the Swadeshi vow,
brought into the movement. Gandhi was Addressing the Gujarat Hindu Stri Man- too, cannot be kept fully if women do not
quick to learn this lesson: "Many of our dal, Gandhi said that spinning and weaving help. Men alone will be able to do nothing
movements stop halfway.because of the con- were for women "the first lesson in the in the matter. They have no control over the
dition of our women. Much of our wo. k school of industry" 74 While for the middle children; that is the woman's sphere. To look
does not yield appropriate results; our lot class women the charkha would supplement after children, to dress them, is the mother's
is like that of the penny-wise and pound- the income of the family, for poor women duty and, therefore, it is necessary that
foolish trader who does not employ enough it was a means of livelihood. Further, "the women should be fired with the spirit of
capital in his business!'69 In India, Gandhi spinning-wheel should be, as it was, the Swadeshi. So long as that does not happen,
woul4 make this new investment pay rich widows' loving companion". But for the men will not be in a position to take the
dividends for the cause that he had educated, well-to-do women, Gandhi's ap- vow'78 Hence the realisation of the need to
undertaken. peal presented spinning "as a duty, as mobilise the household qr the family as a
In the first non-cooperation movement of dharma'" a means by which to relate their unit-the citadel of conservation-without
1921, Gandhi consciously involved women lives with those of their poor country- however throwing a challenge to the social
in an attempt to link their struggle with the women.75 conservative function that it was supposed
struggle for national independence. But the Khadi, therefore, became a common bond to fulfil. He knew that no movement could
programme for women was devised in a way uniting women from different walks of life. succeed if one half of the population re-
that they could remain at home and still con- While for the mass of women it meant spin- mained indifferent and passive.79
tribute to the movement. As a part of non- ning and weaving, the well-to-do women Another sphere in which the women seem-
cooperation, Congressmen were asked to were exhorted not only to give up their ed to have an important role to play was the
boycott government educational institutions, foreign finery but also to don khadi, which removal of untouchability. "If the Hindu
law courts and legislatures, and to defy the purified both the body and soul. Large bon- heart is to be cured -of the taint of un-
government and its unjust laws in a peaceful fires of foreign cloth took place during 1921. touchability, women must do the lion's share
manner. But the constructive programme of Sarla Devi Chaudharani became a trend- of the work'80 It was the greatest move-
Swadeshi hinged around boycott of British setter by going even to parties in her khadi ment for "self-purification" in which women
goods, and the spinning and wearing of sari., She toured many parts of North India with their superior capacity for "renuncia-
khadi. Both these were eminently suited to enlisting support for khadi.76 She and tion and penance" were asked to rise to the
the limitations imposed upon the contribu- many such others became the symbols of occasion. Gandhi addressed women on 'Our
tion of women by their roles in the house- modern womanhood that Gandhi held up Duty Towards the Depressed Classes' dur-
hold with which Gandhi had no serious as models-self-sacrificing, resolute and ing his harijan tour. After this, various
quarrel. His programme for women in fact Willing to throw themselves heart and soul women's organisations on their own initia-
complemented their household role and yet into the movement. tive took up the issue. Again, the appeal
seemed to give them a sense of mission Gandhi's relentless propaganda in favour made was one that related at once to their
within their prosaic existence. "The restora-
of charkha spinning and wearing of khadi personal lives: "If you consider harijans un-
tion of spinning to its central place in was designed to bring the spirit of nationa- touchables because they perform sanitary
India's peaceful campaign for deliverance lism and freedom into every home, even in service, what mother has not performed
from the imperial yoke gives her women a the remotest village. In this way, abstract such service for her children?"'8'
special status. In spinning they have a political ideas, such as struggle against col- Gandhi knew from the experience of his
natural advantage over men ... Spinning is onial rule assumed concrete form for or- personal household that as long as the
essentially a slow and comparatively silent dinary people. This was a very remarkable womenfolk resisted, not much of a break-
process. Woman is the embodiment of way of reaching out to women and bridg- through could be made in removing un-
sacrifice and therefore, non-violence. Her ingoc-
the gap between their private lives and touchability. His autobiography makes it
cupations must therefore be, as they are, the economic-political life of the country. _lear that he had to face a great deal of
more conducive to peace than wa?'70 The decision of what to wear or not to wear resistance from his wife on the question of
It was with a remarkable insight that is one of the decisions likely to be more in untouchability. Kasturba fought a silent but
Gandhi, without challenging their tradi- the control of a woman and Gandhi was able long-drawnout battle before she finally came
tional role in society, could make women an to imbue this seemingly mundane sphere of to accept the presence of untouchables hv-
1695
ing as part of the family in the ashram.82 woman buys and uses as a matter of routine, were demanding a more active political role.
almost without thought.
Onjhis harijan tour, in 1933, and on other Gandhi saw this impatience as 'healthy sign'
occasions when he addressed meetings of In the past, people could pan their own but refused to allow them to join the salt
women, there are many touching scenes nar- salt or pick it up out of natural deposits. The march on the plea that they had a 'greater'
rated about how Gandhi would make sim- Britishers tried to acquire a monopoly over role to play than merely breaking salt laws.
ple appeals to women to give him "most, if this item of everyday consumption. The only Although women were not permitted to join
not all, of the jewellery they wear". Little legal salt was government salt from guarded the march, it was clear that every man and
girls and young and old women would walk depots. The price had a built-in levy. Thus woman was expected to break the salt laws
up to him and offer their gold and silver for the government was able to tax everyone, all over the country.
the cause of the harijans and Swadeshi. even the poorest of the poor. However, according to Gandhi, the job
Gandhi's invariable condition was that "on To manufacture salt in defiance of British even more suited to women's genius was the
no account should the jewellery donated be laws prohibiting such manufacture, became picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
replaced".83 This was indeed a remarkable a way of declaring one's independence in "Who can make a more effective appeal to
way of ensuring their personal involvement one's own daily life and-also of revolutionis- the heart than women?" He chose women
as individuals because, as Gandhi remarked, ing one's perception of the kitchen as linked for this job because of their 'inherent'
"a woman in India has rarely any cash which to the nation, the personal as linked to the capacity for non-violence. He felt that the
she can call her own. But the jewellery she political. This was another campaign in non-cooperation movement of 1921 had par-
wears does belong to her, though even that which women in large numbers were galva- tially failed because men had been entrusted
she will not, dare give away, without the con- nised into action, precisely because the ac- with picketing and violence had crept in.
sent of her lord and master. It ennobles her tion, though simple, appealed to the im- "Drink and drugs sap the moral well-being
to part with, for a good cause, something agination. Its symbolic value was such as tc of those who are given to the habit. Foreign
she calls her own!'" The real ornaments touch the everyday life of women. cloth undermines the economic foundations
for any woman were her virtues. These gold On the famous Dandi march through the of the nation and throws millions out of
and silver ornaments only "enslaved" villages of Gujarat, Gandhi originally employment. The distress in each case is felt
womanhood. Moreover, "In this country of started off with 79 satyagrahis. People from in the home and therefore by the women!'91
semi-starvation of millions and insufficient the villages on route and around spontane- Again, their personal lives and problems
nutrition of practically eighty per cent of the ously joined the march. When the proces- were shown to them as being linked with the
people, the wearing of jewellery is an offence sion neared Dandi, there were thousands of national cause. Moreover, this agitation of
to the eye .. . a distinct loss of the country. people walking wit-h Gandhi. Among them picketing was to be "initiated and controlled
It is so- much capital locked up or, worse still, were many women. Some of them were exclusively by women. They may take and
allowed to wear away.'85 The giving up of wealthy women from cities but a majority should get as much assistance as they need
jewellery would not only liberate women were ordinary village women. from men, but,the men should be in strict
from their shackles but also help the poorest Kasturba initiated women's participation subordination to them"92
of the country. by leading 37 women volunteers from the Gandhi was not very wrong when he said
Women had an important role to play in ashram at Sabarmati to offer satyagraha andthat if women would "take up these two
combating communalism and in helping the to demand abolition of the salt tax. Sarojiniactivities, specialise in them; they would con-
process of national integration by making Naidu, with Manilal Gandhi, led the raid on tribute more than man to natiQnal freedom.
every household the battlefield of individual Dharasana Salt Works in the course of They would have an access of power and
Satyagraha. "If you-are convinced that the which the police force went berserk trying self-confidence tQ which they have hitherto
Hindu-Muslim unity is a sine qua non, I ask to crush the non-violent satyagrahis.89 been strangers'93 Nor could the govern-
you to use against your own countrymen the Kamaladevi led a procession of 15,000 to ment "long remain supine to an agitation
same weapon of satyagraha that you used 'raid' the Wadala Salt Works.90 Women's so peaceful and so resistless".' This was an
so effectively against the government'86 He associations played an active role in violatingagitation likely to hit is much the Indian
asked women not to co-operate with tlheir the salt laws. Women volunteers carried lotas traders and merchants who dealt in foreign
menfolk. They should refuse to cook for of water from the Chowpatty beach to make goods. The use of women as pickets would
them and should starve themselves in' pro- salt at home, and many others went out onto help prevent uncalled-for provocation from
test so long as their men "do not wash their the streets selling this contraband salt at both sides. It was a brilliant tactical move
hands of these dirty communal squab- fancy prices. on the part of Gandhi inasmuch as it
bles".87 Gandhi was thus seeking to extendWhile the salt satyagraha and the civil prevented the blatant hostility of this trading
the power of women as wives and mothers. disobedience movement encouraged and class from splitting the ranks of Indians. In
"If Kaikeyi could obtain all that she wanted brought about greater participation of fact, there is hardly any evidence of their
from Dashrath by dint of duragraha, what women, they also clearly brought out the having resisted women pickets.
could they not achieve with the help of fact that Gandhi, for the time being, could Further, the merit of the movement lay in
satyagraha?"88 This new weapon of Gandhi only envisage a supportive role for women the fact that "In this agitation thousands of
was thus effective even for the isolated battle in the movement. By now, some women were women, literate and illiterate, can take part".
of every woman in the household. getting impatient of playing an auxiliary Highly educated women had an "opportuni-
role, and they urged Gandhi to let them join ty of actively identifying themselves with the
WOMEN IN THE VANGUARD
the famous Dandi march, as volunteers in masses and helping them both morally and
The salt satyagraha marked a new high the core group that was selected to accom- materially.' The job was no less an 'adven-
watermark of women's participation in the pany Gandhi all the way. They wanted to ture' for being non-violent, Gandhi warned
movement. Gandhi's choice of salt as a sym- fight for freedom like men, and not extend them. "They might even find themselves in
bol of protest had amused many. The British the traditional division of labour between prison ... be insulted and even injured
had laughed while the Congress intellectuals men and women to the movement as well. bodily" but "to suffer such insult and in-
were bewildered by the strange idea. This, Upto this point, women had been mainly jury would be their pride'"91
once again, proved Gandhi's genius for seiz- assigned tasks which they could do while This programme of picketing did manage
ing'the significance of the seemingly trivial remaining at home such as .practising to fire the imagination of women partici-
but essential details of daily living which are Swadeshi and spinning, and men were pants for some time, at least. Hansa Mehta
relegated to the woman's sphere. Salt is one primarily responsible for political organis- saw it as an effort towards 'Purna Swaraj'.
of the cheapest of commodities which every ing and public protest actions. Now they From mere spinning to picketing marked a
1696
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY October 5. 1985
definite transition. The market now became the idea of equal political rights for women. as they tend to do when movements en-
the sphere of women's activity. For instance, But within a few years of Gandhi's entry courage the use of violence. The program-
the Provincial Committee for Prevention of into politics and his attempts to integrate mes of action undertaken as part of non-
Liquor Consumption issued an appeal for women's issues into the movement, there had violent satyagraha were such that women
2,500 volunteers in Bombay. Women dressed developed an unusual kind of sympathetic would not feel limited or unequal to men,
in orange khadi saris picketed shops. Hun- awareness within large sections of the Con- as they inevitably do when sheer muscle
dreds went to prison. " . . and always more gress towards the idea of equal rights for power or capacity for inflicting violence are
women emerged from seclusion to take their women. Thus, beginning with the Madras to determine the outcome of a struggle. Thus
places"%' legislature, between 1921 and 1928, each women's
one traditional qualities, such as their
Though this movement too petered out in of the legislatures voted to make it possible lesser capacity for organised violence, were
the wake of the general disenchantment with for women to be representecO in them. not downgraded but were held up as models
the civil disobedience movement, what The sudden and massive entry of women of superior courage. When used consciously
Gandhi had done was to liberate the minds into salt satyagraha in 1930 opened up for and collectively, this form of non-violence
of Indian men and women, give them a women further opportunities which could could put the mightiest weapons to shame.
backbone and teach them how to look not be denied again. Participation in public Women's entry into the movement was
straight in the eyes of their oppressors. and political life brought with it a new seen as a life preserving and humanising
Women from extremely traditional and con- prestige and status vis-a-vis their male force which would prevent the movement
servative families, who had never been out counterparts. This was a major reason why from getting dissipated by senseless and self
of parda, "faced the barefacedness of walk- as early as 1931, the Congress party passed destructive violence. Since in Gandhi's view,
ing unveiled in public processions and all a resolution at' its Karachi annual session the aim of the movement was not just to gain
that was afterwards involved in prison committing itself to the political equality of political independence, but to restructure
life".97 They gave up their religious and women, regardless of their status and quali- society in a way that no place would be left
caste prejudices in the process. "The cause of fications. It is significant that at that time, for coercion and violence, "in the war
Swaraj swept all taboos and old customs women iii most European countries had not against war women of the world will and
before it'98 They willingly accepted food yet won the right to vote, despite a much should lead. It is their special vocation and
from untouchables in the prison. Ms Cousins longer history of struggle on this issue. privilege" 104
cites an instance when even orthodox However, as independence drew nearer, It is significant that Gandhi admitted to
Brahmin women prisoners gave absolutely Gandhi kept emphasising with more vigour: having learnt the technique of non-violent
comradely treatment to a devdasi who had "Women must have votes afid an equal legal passive resistance from women, especially
come to prison in response to Gandhi's call status. But the problem does not end there. from his wife and his mother. He tells us that
for civil disobedience.99 Another case is It only commences at the point where even when he managed to bulldoze his way
cited of a family in which the grandmother women begin to affect the political delibera- with Kasturba, her passive resistance to what
was in prison at the same time as her three tions of the nation'102 she saw as his unreasonable actions and at-
teenaged granddaughters. 00 In all, about titudes, compelled him to change his bear-
3,000 women served prison sentences. As NON-VIOLENCE AND WOMEN'S ing from that of a dominating husband to
Brailsford observes, the movement would LEADERSHIP that of a person who believed in the spirit
have been worthwhile even "if it had done The participation of women in the move- of equality and acted on the principle of
nothing more than emancipating ment should not be seen as one of the mutual consideration.
women".'01 It gave women a new sensegains
peripheral of of the movement. Gandhi Moreover, time and again, he cited Mira-
power, a new self-view. From this had point on, his strategy and chosen his par-
designed bai as a symbol of successful passive resis-
there was no going back. ticular forms of struggle very consciously tance or satyagraha. In a letter to Esther
Gandhi succeeded in galvanising the tradi-and deliberately so as to encourage this: "My Falring in 1917, Gandhi wrote: "For me truth
tional housebound woman as a powerful in- contribution to the great problem [of and love are interchangeable terms. You may
strument of political action. The incidental women's role in society] lies in my presen- not know that the Gujarati for passive
impact of this phenomenon was no less ting for acceptance of truth and ahimsa in resistance is truth-force. I have variously
significant for not being immediately visi- every walk of life, whether for individuals or defined it as truth-force, love-force or soul-
ble. By opening the gates to women's poli- nations. I have hugged the hope that in this force ... What one has to do is to live a life
tical participation, Gandhi facilitated the woman will be the unquestioned leader and, of love in the midst of the hate we see every-
acceptance of the women's cause by the having thus found her place in human evolu- where ... A great queen named Mirabai
Nationalists. tion, will shed her inferiority complex"'103 lived two or three hundred years ago. She
Sarojini Naidu was Gandhi's choice for This was undoubtedly a remarkable in- forsook her husband and everything and
Congress presidentship in 1925, much before sight because in any social situation where lived a life of absolute love. Her husband at
the emergence of a women's lobby within violence
the and brute force reign supreme or last became her devotee. We often sing in the
party. Even more significant was the way when social conflicts are sought to be resolv- Ashram some fine hymns composed by
women came to be represented in legislaturesed through the use of weapons, women tend her" 105
i>; the 1920s. When Montague and Chelms- to be pushed into more and more peripheral
WOMEN IN THE FREEDOM MOVEMENT:
LLid came to India in 1917 to work out some roles, and all the positive qualities of women
SOME CONTRADICTIONS
reforms towards self-government, Sarojini tend to be looked upon with contempt. Thus
Naidu and Annie Besant led a small delega- women are compelled to prove themselves "Hitherto all struggles of the people of the
tion of women to demand that the same 'as good as men' in the use of force instead earth have been so moulded that the women
rights of representation in legislatures be of exploring their own strengths, which only have only agonised over the death and
granted to women as well. The British a few individual women can do. By and destruction of their fathers and husbands
government tried to evade the issue by large, sug- women end up as victims of violence. and sons and brothers far from the plains
gesting that the new legislatures they were Gandhi's insistence on non-violence as of slaughter. Mahatma Gandhi, with the
creating, which included Indian represen- a revolutionary weapon contributed to help of the ancient land, is creating today
tatives, should be allowed to decide for creating favourable conditions for mass par- new values for all mankind ... let women
themselves on this issue. This was said on ticipation of people, especially women. More of all countries and above all our sisters in
the assumption that Indians, being more and more people felt encouraged to come India realise that this one act of a mind that
'backward', would never be able to accept out of their homes, instead of hiding in fear, scales the steeps of air has liberated all
1697
womankind for equal service to humanity Rangamma and Ratna, who are the most ac- the middle-class women could not have
side by side with men'"06 tive women because they have fewer house- taken such a step forward in defiance of the
These are the words in which women of hold responsibilities, are more mobile and wishes of their families. A major cause for
the Rashtriya Stree Sabha chose to pay are also literate, come to lead the other this inability was that women were not likely
tribute to Gandhi. This kind of exaggerated villagers only when the front rank male to have independent means of their own,
eulogisation states as much of the truth as leaders are arrested and put in prison. Before either by way of jobs or property. The small
it tries to overlook. The participation of that, these women's diffidence and deeply handful of women, like Kamaladevi, whc
women in the freedom movement was ingrained habit of deference and devotion made efforts to'live and work in villages, re-
limited, both quantitatively and qualitative- to men prevents them from coming to the mained individual exceptions, so their efforts
ly. Active and consistent participation was foie. yielded limited results. Apart from this
confined to a small number of urban, mid- Wheii the male leaders are imprisoned, paucity of urban women activists going to
dle class women. Rural women joined pro- these two widows begin to take more active work in rural areas, there was also a dearth
test activity during certain phases, and their initiative and assume the leadership rolea The of rural women who could develop into full
participation brought a new vigour and social status of women, especially of these time workers. Many rural young men who
militancy into the movement. Raja Rao's widows, improves perceptibly, as a result of went to nearby towns to study, would get ex-
novel, "Kanthapura", written in the 1930s, their involvement in the movement. Towards posed to, and drawn into nationalist activity,
presents a very perspective picture of how the end of the novel, when the villagers and would then return to their villages,
such mobilising of women took place, and refuse to pay. land revenue, government motivated to spread the message there. Rural
also indicates its limitations. repression uproots them from their village, women had relatively much less access to
In this novel, Moorthy, a young man from and they are scattered far and wide. Moor- education, much less mobility and contact
Kanthapura, a village in Karnataka, is sent thy switches his allegiance from Gandhi to with urban areas. Thus, existing differences
by his mother to study in the city. There, he the socialist wing within the Congress whichin the social possibilities open to men and
comes into contact with the growing free- is headed by Nehru. With this switch, he to women inevitably led by a chain reaction
dom struggle. After he hears Gandhi speak gives up working in villages. Even though to the development of fewer women activists
at a public meeting, he decides to dedicate the local women leaders declare their abiding and consequently, lesser mobilisation of
himself to the cause. At Gandhi's behest, he faith in Gandhi, yet they, and the other women.
gives up wearing foreign cloth, stops his villagers, are left as though in a vacuum, Even for the mass of middle class women
university studies and goes back to his with only, memories and faith to sustain in cities, participation remained at a very
village, to devote all his time and energy to them. As the narrator, a woman, poignantly rudimentary level such as picketing during
political organisational work. remarks, the reader is not likely to 'have certain phases, distributing nationalist
Gradually, the villagers come to see him heard of Kanthapura'. The heroic contribu- literature, attempting meetings and occa-
as their Gandhi. He makes a special effort tion and sacrifices of such village women sionally joining demonstrations. The activity
to organise harijans and women, especially are, by and large, left unrecorded by history. of women was'even, more sporadic and fit-
widows, because of the emphasis Gandhi "Kanthapura" is one of the very few at- ful than the movement as a whole. Active
laid on the special oppression of these two tempts made to show us what the movement involvement in Congress activities was con-
groups, and the need to organise them. Thus looked like and meant to ordinary rural fined to a few outstanding women such as
the initiative to organise women of the women. As a very sensitive and insightful Sarojini Naidu, Kamaladevi and Hansa
village is taken by a man, but soon, the account by a contemporary of the situation Mehta. The debates within the National
women, in spite of family opposition, in his own region, the novel suggests why Congress and the different points of view of
become increasingly active. They form a rural women did not come to acquire leader- different groups were not reflected in the
women's volunteer squad and take to regular ship of the kind that could have influenced discussions of the women's associations. The
spinning and collective physical exercising. the direction of the movement. policy programme of the All India Women's
They play a prominent role in picketing Gandhi continually emphasised that if Conference for the 1930s spells out this
toddy booths and demonstrating against Swaraj was to be more meaningful than a policy of maintaining a certain apolitical
owners of toddy groves. They face police mere transfer of power, Congress members stance. "The All India Women's Conference
lathis, molestation and many other hard- must go and work for a radical reconstruc- shall not belong to any political organisa-
ships. However, Raja Rao shows how the tion of the economy and polity in villages. tion nor take an active part in party politics,
enormous burden of domestic and field He laid particular stress on the duty of but shall be free to discuss and contribute
work, coupled with restrictions on their educated urban women to work with their to all questions and matters that affect the
mobility prevent most women from acquiring rural sisters. While he himself travelled wide- welfare of the people of India, with par-
leadership roles. Most of the women are il- ly in rural areas, establishing independent ticular'reference to women and children"'107
literate and have less than limited contact and direct communication with the people, Women's activity and discussion focused
with the outside world. It is almost impossi- not enough Congressmen followed his ex- on spinning, hawking khadi, fund raising,
ble for them to establish independent ample. Few dedicated themselves to consis- enrolling new members, picketing, and fit-
political contacts with the outside world. tent work in villages. Of these few, very fewfully working for removal of untouchability
Thus they are dependent on men to provide were women. and for promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
a link with the larger movement. Several Most of the urban women activists and The role of the women in the national move-
women also encounter active hostility and leaders came to be involved through the in- ment thus remained auxiliary and suppor-
violence from men of their families who volvement of their male relatives. When a tive. They did not come out for direct ac-
think that women's involvement in the move- household was mobilised, the extent of tion as women had in .South Africa. This
ment will lead to neglect of household women's involvement was likely to be decid- despite the fact that Gandhi thought satya-
duties. The leaders intervene to reassure ed theby that of the men. And the fervour of graha, as a new weapon of agitation, was
men that this will not happen and to instruct even leading nationalist leaders did not go eminently suited to the non-violent tempera-
the women that political activity is not to so far as to encourage wives, mothers, ment of women. Gandhi's tribute to 'a
be undertaken to the detriment of domestic daughters to abandon hearth and home, and woman's, sacrifice' puts forward clearly the
activity. In addition, women's lack of con- go off to work in villages. To respond to role that women came to play, which had
fidence, lack of experience and of exposure Gandhi's call could well mean a break with much in common with the role played by
to public collective activity of any kind acts ones family, and a very few women did make women in many other movements. Gandhi
as a hurdle. Even the two childless widows, that break. But the large majority of even quotes the letter of a young Congressman
1698
who had been staying for a while in the creating a general climate of sympathetic women's position without either transform-
home of a woman whose son, also a Con- awareness of women's situation. Though he ing their relation to the outer world of pro-
gress worker, had just been imprisoned: had a personal predilection for idealising duction or the inner world of family, sex-
'During the great awakening that took place certain roles played by women, yet he did uality and reproduction.
last year amongst women there were heroines not shrink from accepting the logical con- For Gandhi, equality of the sexes didJ not
whose mute work the nation will never sequences of his insistence on absolute mean equality of occupations nor (lid it
know. How and then however one gets inequality between men and women. For in- mean equality in the realm of work: and
formation of such village work. Here is one stance, when someone suggested that if power. He was in favour of maintaining.a
such sample ... when our Congress camp womern were given equal property rights, it 'harmonious' division of labour between
was declared illegal and locked up by the would lead to 'immor4lity' amongst them, men and women which had been operative
police we shifted to the hut of a poor Gandhi's reply was categorically in favour since the time of Adam and persists to the
Mahishya woman-Habu's mother of of women having such rights: "Has not in- present day. "Adam wove and Eve span'""ll
Baradongal. We have read of Gorki's dependence of man and his holding property He did not believe in women working for
mother. We saw her incarnate in Habu's led to the spread of immorality among men? wages or undertaking commercial enter-
mother" 18 Night and day, she used to cook If you answer 'Yes', then let it be so also with prises. Gandhi did not envisage any fun-
for them, nurse the sick among them, and women. And when women have rights of damental change in the traditional role-
look after all of them out of her meagre ownership and the rest like men, it would relationship of women. Whilst both men and
resources with great sacrifice and devotion. be found that the enjoyment of such rights women were seen as fundamentally one, at
Here was the ideal 'mother' in the service is not responsible for their vices or theii vir- some point there was a vital difference bet-
of the motherland. But unlike Gorki's tues. Morality which depends upon the ween the two. Hence the vocations of the two
mother, women, by and large, could not helplessnpss of a man or woman has not must also be different. Gandhi could go on
emerge as important political leaders in the much to recommend it''110 dogmatically asserting this in spite of the
movement. They continued to play a sup- However, the necessity for independent fact that in several other contexts, he
portive and nurturant role for the men in the control over economic resources was not in- challenged the idea of a rigid division of
movement. tegrated into the struggle for womens rights.labour between the sexes. For instance, in
Women and harijans were rightly seen by Gandhi did advocate spinning of khadi as reply to a professor's charge that he was
Gandhi as the two most depressed groups a means of livelihood for women and a way wasting the energies of the nation by ask-
in Indian society since their disabilities had of combating the declining employment of ing "able-bodied men to sit for spinning like
certain specificities which needed special at- women, especially in rural areas where such women" instead of letting them fight for
tention. Yet neither women as a body nor decline followed the destruction of tradi- freedom with 'manlier weapons', Gandhi put
the mass of harijans have lost their dis- tional crafts and occupations. However, forward in defence of his spinning pro-
abilities. Neither group had won an equal spinning on the charkha could not, at that gramme the following arguments: "It is con-
place in the national mainstream. What juncture, become a viable means of liveli- trary to experience to say that any vocation
Gandhi ensured for both these groups by the hood for most women. Khadi was not and is exclusively reserved for one sex only . . .
manner in which he took up their cause was could not be a real alternative to mill made Whilst women tiaturally (emphasis mine)
a two-fold achievement. First, he contributed cloth for the mass of people, because khadi cook for the household, organised cooking
greatly to loosening the traditional biases to works out to be more expensive and far less on a large scale is universally done by men
such an extent that the rare exceptions durable than most mill made cloth. The throughout the world. Fighting is predomi-
among these groups could indeed stand on disappearance of British textiles from the nantly men's occupation, but Arab women
an equal footing vis-a-vis the rest of societyIndian market did not mean a victory for fought like heroines side-by-side with their
and could reach high positions. Sarojini khadi but a victory for Indian owned tex- husbands in the early struggles of Islam ...
Naidu, Gandhi's choice for Congress tile mills. And today in Europe we find women shin-
presidentship, in 1925 is a case in point. Thus Gandhi cannot be said to have evolv- ing as lawyers, doctors and adminis-
Speaking after the resolution on fundamen- ed a concrete programme to tackle one of trators" 112
tal rights and economic policy, drafted by the basic causes of women's powerless- Even the fact that in rural India, women
Nehru in consultation with Gandhi in 1931, among the agricultural labourers and small
ness-their total economic dependence and
had been passed, Gandhi said: "Then there peasants are equally, if not more, involved
lack of control over the resources of the
is the abolition of all disabilities attaching
family. In the absence of a programme for in the actual production process could not
to the women, in regard to the public the economic empowerment of women or shake Gandhi's belief that the woman might
employment, office of power or honour, theetc.
material betterment of their condition, 'supplement the meagre resources of the
The moment this is done, many of the dis- the moral concern for them soon degene- family, but man remains the main bread-
abilities to which the women are subjected rated in the post-Gandhian era into the pay-winner'. This he saw as 'the most natural
will cease. So far as the Congress is concern- ment of lip service to the cause of women division of spheres of work'."13 The duty of
ed, we have admitted no such disability. We on public platforms and in party manifestos,motherhood was seen as requiring qualities
have had Mrs Annie Besant and Sarojini while the life condition of most women con- which men need not possess. "She is passive,
Devi as our presidents, and in the future freetinued to deteriorate unchecked, and every- he is active. She i6 essentially mistress of the
state of India it will open to us to have the day attitudes towards women remain obscu- house. He is the bread winner, he is the
women presidents" 09 However, Gandhi rantist and insulting. keeper and distributor of the bread""'4 In
realised that this kind of advanced legisla- One of the limitations of Gandhi's think- his opinion, it was "degrading both for men
tion could benefit only the exceptional ing, then, was that he sought to change not and woman that women should be called
woman who had the means to make use of so much the material condition of women upon or induced to foresake the hearth and
these opportunities. as their 'moral' condition. He sought a shoulder the rifle for the protection of that
Second, even though Gandhi failed to similar direction of change for harijans too. hearth. It is a reversion to barbarity""'5
evolve a concrete programme for materially He failed to put an economic content into Thus he saw male and female in terms of
altering the socio-economic condition of the
his concept for emanicipation. Gandhi failed the 'active-passive' complimentary which has
mass of women, he succeeded in raising the to realise that, among other things, oppres- been an important ideological device for
question of their depressed condition as a sion is not an abstract moral condition, but denying women any chance to acquire power
moral question for society to reckon with. a social and historical experience related to and decision-making ability in the family
He made a major contribution towards production relations. He tried changing and in society. The unjust domination of
1699
October 5. 1985 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY
woman by man that Gandhi thought he op- in perfect peace and are queens in thier own confinement and subordination of woman.
posed is something inherent in the very role homes. They exercise an authority over their While he could be critical of women who
relationship that he envisaged for her-that husbands which any woman would envy'125"delight in being ladies this and what not,
of being a 'complement' to man. He felt that He could ensivage women being 'free' even simply for the fact of being the wives of par-
since man is supreme in the outward life, while playing a socially subordinate role. ticular lords" 127 servilely cling to the
therefore, it is appropriate that he should This contradiction is related to the entire privileges bestowed on them by their hus-
have a greater knowledge of that world. On Gandhian world-view and his concept of band's status, he could not go on to see that
the other hand, home life is entirely the 'trusteeship' insociety, which represents histhe very divisiop of labour he upheld madc
sphere of woman and, therefore, in doemstic dual attitude of simultaneous acquiescence a vicarious existence inevitable for women.
affairs women ought to have more control. in and revolt against authority. As a good The dichotomy does not end here. HE
"True they are equals in life, but their func- patriarch, the maximum he could bring laments that "a vast majority of girls dis-
tions differe'116 himself to do was to rationalise authority, appear from public life" as soon as they leave
Furthermore, "as Nature has made men make it 'just' and 'humane'. He would not school and college because they are married
and women different, it is necessary to main- acknowledge the inherent interconnection off. 128 Therefore, "it is high time that Hin-
tain a difference between the education of between most forms of authority and in- du girls produce or reproduce , . . a glorified
the two"."17 So, he concluded, "it is a justice, or between the enslavement of edition, of Parvati and Sita".'29 In other
woman's right to rule the home. Man is women and the denial of economic indepen- words, though he might insist that every girl
master outside- it"''8 In his view, "The dence tQ them by keeping them confined to born to marry', the symbols put for-
'is not
woman who knows and fulfils her duty the household as their main sphere of ac- ward to draw them into ptiblic life are those
tivity. He advocated 'harmony', not 'tyranny'
realises her dignified status. She is the queen, of ideal wives whose chief qualification was
not the slave, of the household over which in the social division of labour.'26 Coex- that they spent their lives in selfless service
she presides"''9 isting with this thinking was a complex vi-of and unending devotion to husbands.
Gandhi could not envisage "the wife, as sion of a society based on anarchist prin- These women had followed their husbands
a rule, following an avocation independently ciples of local self-determination and the to the end of the world, and helped them
of her husband. The care of the children and freedom of the people in their own com- to fulfil 'their' duty.
the upkeep of the household are quite munities to determine their own destinies
enough to fully engage all her dnergy" 120 the interference of any hierarchicalCREATING A FAVOURABLE ATMOSPHERE
without
He felt that "In a well-ordered society the authority. The essence of self-rule or Swaraj, Gandhi helped ensure the entry of women
additional burden of maintaining the familyaccording to Gandhi, was the realisation by into public life without their having to
ought not to fall on her. The man should each individual, that unjust laws should andassume a competitive posture vis-a-vis men.
look to the maintenance of the family, must be disobeyed. The refusal to be tyran- The way of their participation in these in-
the woman to household management; the- nised would mean the end of tyranny. itial years was patronised by Gandhi set a
two thus supplementing and complementing Gandhi's dual attitude of obedience to trend for sponsored, patronised participa-
each other's labours" 121 "In trying to ride and rebellion against authority is evident intion of urban, middle class women in the
the horse that man rides, she brings herself every single movement or campaign he led,political life of the country. It is due partly
and him down" 122 In the new order of Gan- and in the very philosophy of non-violent to the Gandhian legacy that every political
dhi's imagination, "all will work according satyagraha. The attempt of the satyagrahi party tends to reserve a few seats for women
to their capacity for an adequate return for was not only to try to transform and win in each election without women having to
their labour". But where women's capacity over the oppressor into being more 'just', butorganise themselves as a pressure group to
is concerned, he has already arbitrarily also meticulously to accept the general make such a demand. Thus women's entry
drawn the limit: "Women in the new order jurisdiction of the authority and its laws, into social and political life came not only
will be, part-time workers, their primary even while protesting against the 'unjust' without sufficient pressure from below, but
function being to look after the home" 123aspect of those laws. The line was each time was also characterised by the marked
When Gandhi was asked whether the arbitrarily drawn by Gandhi. Therefore, it absence of the kind of hostility from men
wheel was to be a revolutionary weapon in was not only the women's movement that he that women's movements in some other
the hands of women as he said it was in the tried to.contain and fit into a supplementaryparts of the world had to face. This perhaps
hands of a Jawarharlal, he said: "How could role vis-a-vis the national movement. He did accounts for the lack. oi- sufficient militancy
it be such in the hands of an ignorant likewise with the independent self-activity ofin the women's movement on women's own
woman? But if every woman in India span, all other oppressed groups-the poor issues in India, and the fact that the move-
then a silent revolution would certainly be peasants, the landless labourers, the in- ment constantly tried to accommodate its
created of which a Jawaharlal could make dustrial workers, and the harijans. It was demands within a male dominated power
full use."24 partly a matter of political farsightedness instructure. The same pattern characterises
What Gandhi opposed was the 'excessive anticipating the threat of movements parallelmost of the movement tocday.
subordination of the wife to the husband', or rival to the national movement. It was Gandhi realised that even if Congressmen
not the fact of women generally playing a also partly due to his deep-rooted, never suc-manifested no blatant hostility, they tended
subordinate role. For instance, Gandhi cessfully implemented conception that to shelve this issue, so he kept reminding
always dismissed as 'hysterical exaggeration'
authority could be made to act in benevolent' them: "It is the privilege of Congressmen
any outright attack on the institution of 'tru?t'
the whether it was the authority of hus- to give the women of India a lifting hand"
family. From many instances, I quote one. band over wife or that of mill owner overbecause "women are in the position some-
In response to an angry letter from a young labour. what of the slave of old, who did not know
man, narrating the pathetic plight of his While Gandhi could see that the self-view that he could or ever had to be free. And
sister who was married to a pervert and a imposed on women with regard to their in- when freedom came, for the moment, he felt
debauch, and describing her helplessness as feriority was part of the 'self-interested helpless . . . It is upto Congressmen to see
"one of the most shameful aspects of teaching of man' and the age-old 'subordina- that they enable the women to realise their
Hinduism, where woman is left entirely atof women', he failed to revise his con- full status and play their part as equals of
tion
the mercy of man", Gandhi insisted thatcept thisof the 'natural division of labour' bet- men!" 0
kind of rabid condemnation was "based ween on the sexes, nor could he see this divi- This attitude helped create an atmosphere
a hysterical generalisation from an isolated
sion as part Of the same 'self-interested of benevolent patronage which has left a
instance. For millions of Hindu wives live teaching of man' which had. resulted in the deep mark on the political climate of India.
1700
The testimony of Margaret dependence, they cry out for women's rights
Cousins, an
mission.Irish
They will fail and will be severely
feminist who played .... Women workers shouldrole
a major enrol women
inas women's
disappointed if they approach it in a selfish
organisations in India as well as in Britain, voters, impart or have imparted to them spirit. If the cultured women of India will
brings out this feature very well: "Perhaps practical education, teach them to think in- make common cause with the villagers, and
only women like myself who had suffered dependently, release them from the chains that too through their children, they will pro-
from the cruelties, the injustices of the men of caste that bind them so as to bring about duce a silent and grand revolution in the
politicians, the man-controlled Press, the a change in them which will compel men to village life of India. 141 In other words, the
man in the street, in England and Ireland realise women's strength and capacity for role of the educated, middle class woman
while we waged our militant campaign for sacrifice and give her places of honour. If in public life was to be an extension of her
eight years there after all peaceful and con- they will do this, they will purify the present domestic role of selfless service. Women were
stitutional means had been tried for fifty unclean atmosphere"'35 to enter public life as 'sisters' and 'mothers'
previous years, could fully appreciate the Women are advised to focus their work in the same garb of pseudo-veneration which
wisdom, tobility and the passing of fun- in villages. "Where better can you find had hitherto masked their exploitation in the
damental tests in self-government of these yourselves than by being true to the highest family where their relation to social and
Indian legislators ... between the Madras traditions of Indian women, by serving your public life was strictly mediated through
Legislature Council in 1921 and Bihar Coun- unhappy sisters today?"'36 They were to men. Gandhi's very vocabulary, in its exag-
cil in 1929 all the legislative areas of India work for ensuring basic health services and gerated idealisation of women as 'sisters of
had conferred the symbol and instrument of to take up the task of providing sanitation mercy' and 'mothers of entire humanity'
equal citizenship with men on women who and hygiene. Speaking to women workers of reveals the bias of a benevolent patriarch.
possessed equal qualifications- a certain Kasturba Memorial lTust in 1946 at Uruli, Gandhi wanted women to act as moral
amount of literacy, property, age, payment he placed before them "the good example guardians of society, as social workers and
of taxes, length of residence."131 of Kanu Gandhi who had said that in his do-gooders without competing with men in
However, Gandhi constantly warned camp ... it would be his aim to teach the the sphere of power and politics because that
women against depending on patronage. For students how to battle against famine by till- would be a 'reversion to barbarity.'142 Was
example, he did not favour reservations for ing the ground, scavenging, cooking, bring- this a wilful attempt to put the clock back?
women of the kind that dalits were begin- ing their own expenses with them, so that Or was it that even though actively patronis-
ning to demand. "Merit should be the only they need not be a liability on anyone. ing such leading women politicians and
test ... It would be a dangerous thing to Women have to work in famine areas with professionals as Sarojini Naidu, Sucheta
insist on membership on the ground merely this ideal"'37 Kripalani and Sushila Nayyar, Gandhi could
of sex. Women and for that matter any Gandhi saw "woman [as] the embodiment not thoroughly reconstruct and renovate his
group should disdain patronage. They of sacrifice and suffering" and felt that "her ideas? He is one of those few leaders whose
should seek justice, never favours." 32 Yet advent to public life should therefore result practice was at times far ahead of his theory
even while he thought women's primary in purifying it, in restraining unbridled am- and his stated ideas. Just as in his early years
work ought to be care of the home, he bition and accumulation of property".'38 It he kept insisting that he was a loyal citizen
vigorously asserted the need to give a special was given to women to "teach the art of of the British Empire even while objectively
weightage to women: "Seeing however that peace to the warring world thirsting for that cutting at the roots of British imperialism, so
it has been the custom to decry women, the nectar". 139 But politics and professions also he could keep in harping on women's
contrary custom should be to prefer women, were to bE, by and large, exclusively male do- real sphere of activity being the home even
merit being equal, to men even if the mains: "And'you sisters, what would you do while actively creating conditions. which
preference should result in men being entire- by going to Parliament? Do you aspire after could help her break the shackles of
ly displaced by women'"133 the collectorships, commissionerships or domesticity.
Gandhi envisioned women entering public even the viceroyalty? ... I know that you
(To be concluded)
life as selfless, devoted social workers. Aswouldhe not care to, for the Viceroy has got
began to see more and more clearly that to order executiQns and hangings, a thing
many Congressmen inclined towards self- that you would heartily detest!"40 Gandhi's Notes
seeking and power-grabbing, he saw in long suffering, selfless and self-effacing
1 "The Collected Works of Mahatma
women the potential force that would self- woman was the product of a culture. The
Gandhi", Volume LXIV, 1936-37, page
lessly undertake the task of social reconstru- capacity for silent suffering which Gandhi 165. Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1982.
ction that was to be hallmark of Swaraj. idealised was the fact one of the key symp- Message to the All India Women's Con-
"The work before them was to make women toms of her subordination. But Gandhi ference, sent before December 23, 1936.
fit to take their. place in society'"134 made of some of these symptoms of subor- 2 Navajivan, June 28, 1925. C. W Vol
In 1946, a woman wrote to Gandhi com- dination a glorified cult of eternal XXVII, page 308.
plaining that Congress did not put up womanhood. 3 C W Vol XXVII, page 126. Speech at
enough women as candidates for elections The kind of activity the Kasturba women's meeting, Mymensingh, May 19,
nor did they select enough women for of- Memorial Trust was involved in was 1925.
ficial posts. She asked how the interests of Gandhi's ideal of women in public life. 4 Young
His India' October 21, 1926, C W Vol
women would be safeguarded in a situation XXXI, p 511.
comments, at the time of the Educational
5 Young India, March 24, 1927, cited in "To
where considerations of caste, community Conference in 1937, on Basic Education,
the Women", Gandhi Series, Voa II (ed) A
and province outweighed those of merit. throw further light on this: "Here is, no
Hingorani, Karachi, 2nd ed, 1943, p 24.
Gandhi replied: "So long as considerations doubt, an opportunity for patriotic women
6 Harijan, October 27, 1946. Speech
of caste and community continue to weigh with leisure to offer their services to a cause
reported by Pyarelal. Harijan Vol X, p 375.
with us and rule our choice, women will be which ranks amongst the noblest of all 7 Harijan, March 1, 1942, C W Vol LXXV,
well-advised to remain aloof and thereby causes. But, if they come forward, they will p 338.
build up their prestige. The question is as have to go through a sound preliminary 8 C W Vol XXVII, page 99. Reply to
to how best this can be done. Today few training. Needy women in search of a liv- women's address in Noakhali, May 14,
women take part in politics and most -of ing will serve no useful purpose by think- 1925.
these do not do independent thinking. They ing of joining the movement as a career. If 9 M K Gandhi, "The Role of Women", ed
are content to carry out their parents' or they approach the scheme, they should do Anand Hingorani, Bharatiya Vidya
their husband's behests. Realising their so in a spirit of pure service and make it a life Bhawan, Bombay, 1964, p 1.
1701
10 "To the Women"' op cit, p 19. 49 Young India, April 16, 1925. 'Our Un- 92 Ibid, p 220.
11 "Woman in the Smritis", C W Vol LXIV, fortunate Sisters', cited in "To the Women", 93 Ibid, p 220.
1936-37, pp 84-85. op cit, pp 166-167. 94 Ibid, p 220.
12 "The Role of Women", op cit, p 3. 50 Ibid, p 167.
95 Young India, April 10, 1930. C W Vol
13 Cited in D G Tendulkar, "Mahatma", 51 Tendulkar, op cit, Vol II, p 187. XLIII, pp 220-21.
Publications Division, Vol 6, p 24. 52 Navajivan, September 11. 1921. C W Vol 96 Geoffrey Ashe, op cit, p 295.
14 C W Vol XL, pp 416-417, May 23, 1929. XXI, p 94. 97 Margaret E Cousins, "Indian Womanhood
15 Young India, June 28, 1928, cited in "To 53 C W Vol XXVII, pp 290-91, June 25, 1925. Today", Kitabistan, Series No 5, 1937,
the Women", op cit, p 217. 54 Ibid, p 291. Allahabad, p 64.
16 February 3, 1927, cited in "To the Women", 55 Ibid, p 291. 98 Ibid, p 63.
op cit, pp 213-14. 56 "The Role of Women", op cit, pp 65-66. 99 Ibid, p 65.
17 Ibid, pp 7-8. 57 Young India, October 21, 1926. C W Vol 100 Ibid, p 64.
18 Harijan, January 25, 1936, C W Vol LXII, XXXI, p 512.
101 Geoffrey Ashe, op cit, p 298.
p 157.
58 Young India, May 23, 1929. C W Vol XL,
102 Young India, July 21, 1921. C W Vol XX,
19 Young India, October 7, 1926. C W Vol pp 417-18. p 410.
XXXI, 1926, p 480. 59 'Advice to Girl Students', November 29,103 Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
20 Harijan, February 24, 1940, C W Vol 1927, cited in "To the Women", op cit, LXXI, p 208.
LXXI, p 207. p 120.
104 Harijan, August 4, 1940. C W Vol LXXII,
21 Cited in "The Role of Women", op cit,60 p 1.
M K Gandhi, "To the Women"', op cit, p 326.
22 "Gandhiji in Ceylon", cited in "To the p 153.
105 June 11, 1917. C W VQI XIII, p 442.
Women", op cit, p 195. 61 Young India, October 17, 1929. C W Vol 106 Bombay Chronicle, Mlarch 28, 1930,
23 Cited in "To the Women", op cit, p 17. XLII, p 5. Rashtriya Stree Sabha Appeal.
Young India, July 21, 1921. 62 Ibid, p 5.
107 Cited in Margaret E Cousins, op cit,
24 Harijan, January 25, 1936. C W Vol LXII, 63 Young India, March 24, 1927, cited in "The pp 41-2.
p 158. Role of Women", op cit, p 37. 108 Young India, May 21, 1931. C W Vol XLVI,
25 Young India, November 25, 1926. C W Vol 64 Young India, May 21, 1931. C W Vol XLVI, p 189.
XXXII, pp 89-90. p 75.
109 Cited in Tendulkar, op cit, Vol III, p 89.
26 Young India, August 26, 1926. C W Vol
65 Harijan, December 31, 1938. C W Vol 110 C W Vol LXXII, p 137.
XXXI, pp 329-30. LXVIII.
111 C W Vol LXX, p 381, Hanijan, December 2,
27 Ibid, p 330. 66 February 20, 1.918, in "Women and 1939.
28 Young India, October 14, 1926. C W Vol Social Injustice", p 7, Navjivan Press, 112 Young India, June 11, 1925. C W Vol
XXXI, p 493. Ahmedabad. XXVII, pp 219-20.
29 Young India, September 23, 1926. C W 67
Vol-
Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol 113 Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
XXXI, p 443. LXXI, p 209. LXXI, p 208.
30 Young India, August 5, 1926. C W Vol 68 Geoffrey Ashe, "Gandhi: A Study in 114 Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
XXXI, p 264. Revolution", Asia Publishing House, 1968, LXXI, p 207.
31 Navajivan, June 28, 1925. C W Vol p 122. 115 Ibid, pp 207-208.
XXVII, p 309. 69 February 20, 1918, in "To the Women",116 C W Vol XIV, p 31.
32 Young India, September 23, 1926. C W Volop cit, p 20.
117 October 20, 1917. C W Vol XIV, p 31.
XXXI, p 443. 70 Harijan, December 2, 1939. C W Vol 118 Ibid, p 31.
33 Young India, September 23, 1926. C W VolLXX, p 381. 119 C W Vol LIX, p 147.
XXXI, p 443. 71 Young India, August 11, 1921. C W Vol
120 Harijan, October 12, 1934. C W Vol LIX,
34 Young India, August 19, 1926. C W Vol XX, p 497. p 147.
XXXI, p 314. 72 M K Gandhi, "Autobiography", p 413. 121 Ibid, p 147.
35 Navajivan, June 28, 1925. C W Vol 73 "To the Women", op cit, p 37. 122 Hcrijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
XXVII, p 307. 74 C W Vol XIV, p 87, message to Gujarati LXXI, p 208.
36 C W Vol XXVII, p 309. Hindu Stree Mandal, November 14, 1917.123 Harijan, March 16, 1940. C W Vol LXXI,
37 Ibid, p 309. 75 Young India, August 11, 1921. C W Vol p 324.
38 C W Vol XIV, p 87. Message to Gujarati XX, pp 496-97.
124 Cited in Tendulkar, op citb Vol VII, p 87.
Hindu Stree Mandal on or before Novem- 76 Tendulkar, op cit, Vol I, p 292.
125 Young India, October 3, 1929. C W Vol
ber 14, 1917. 77 Bombay Chronicle, March 27, 1925. XLI, pp 493-4.
39 Young India, October 3, 1929. C W Vol C W Vol XXVI, pp 419-20. 126 Geoffrey Ashe, op cit, p 242.
XLI, p 495. 78 C W Vol XV, p 291. Speech at women's127 C W Vol LXII, p 5.
40 Cited in "The Role of Women". op cit,meeting, Bombay, May 8, 1919. 128 C W Vol XXXV, p 346.
p 63, from "The Diary of Mahadev Desai",
79 C W Vol XV, p 189. Speech at meeting of
129 Ibid, p 346.
p 172. ladies at China Baug, April 6, 1919. 130 Cited in Tendulkar, op cit, Vol VI, p 24.
41 'Advice to Girl Students'. cited in "To the 80 Harijan, March 9, 1934, cited in "The Role
131 Margaret E Cousins, op cit, pp 32.33.
Women"' op cit, p 120, November 29, 1927. of Women", op cit, p 76. 132 Harijan, Vol X, No 9, April 7; 1946, p 67.
42 Harijan,, May 23, 1936. C W Vol LXII, 81 C W Vol LVI, p 332, Speech at women's 133 Ibid, p 67.
pp 435-36. rneeting while on Harijan tour. 134 C W Vol LXXXIII, pp 331-332.
43 Young India, December 27, 1928, in "The82 Geoffrey Ashe, op cit, p 90.
135 Harijan, April 21, 1946, "What About
Role of Women", op cit, p 48. 83 Harijan, December 22, 1933. C W Vol LVI, Women?", C W Vol LXXXIII, p 398.
44 Interview with Indumati Patankar, a p 369.
136 Tendulkar, op cit, Vol VII, p 87.
freedom fighter from Maharashtra, in
Manushi, issue No 20, 1984, p 2-8.
84 December 22, 1933. C W Vol LVI, p 368.137 C W Vol, LXXXIII, p 332.
85 Ibid, pp 368-369. 138 Young India, October 17, 1929. C W Vol
45 February 20, 1918, "To the Women", op cit, XLII, p 5.
p 20. 86 Cited in Tendulkar, op cit, Vol III, p 60.
87 Ibid, p 60. 139 Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
46 Ibid, p 20.
88 Cited in Tendulkar, Vol II, p 347. LXXI, p 209.
47 "Women and Social Injustice", p 39, cited89 Geoffrey Ashe, op cit, pp 290 92. 140 Cited in Tondulkar, op cit, Vol III, p 61.
from Young India, October 7, 1926. 90 Ibid, p 292., 141 Tendulkar, op cit, Vol IV, p 200.
48 Young India, August 18, 1927, cited in 91 Young India, April 10, 1930. C W Vol 142 Harijan, February 24, 1940. C W Vol
"The Role of Women", op cit, p 103. XLIII, p 220. LXXI, pp 207-8.
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Author(s): Madhu Kishwar

Economic and Political Weekly

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