TUGAS

KOMUNIKASI DATA

SPREADING SPECTRUM

Shidqi Praniti S (4315030027)

JURUSAN TEKNIK ELEKTRO

signal (e.g., an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is

deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These

techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications,

increasing resistance to natural interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit

power flux density (e.g., in satellite downlinks).

This is a technique in which a telecommunication signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably

larger than the frequency content of the original information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation

technique used in spread spectrum signal transmission.

Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence,

frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple

functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving

privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the

normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The

receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were

two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide

the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept

(LPI).

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping

spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms

of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences created

using pseudorandom number generators to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal
across the allocated bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that

accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless standard IEEE

802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.

Techniques known since the 1940s and used in military communication systems since the 1950s

"spread" a radio signal over a wide frequency range several magnitudes higher than minimum

requirement. The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the

name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at

the same data rate.

Resistance to jamming (interference). DS (direct sequence) is good at resisting continuous-time

narrowband jamming, while FH (frequency hopping) is better at resisting pulse jamming. In DS

systems, narrowband jamming affects detection performance about as much as if the amount of

jamming power is spread over the whole signal bandwidth, when it will often not be much stronger

than background noise. By contrast, in narrowband systems where the signal bandwidth is low, the

received signal quality will be severely lowered if the jamming power happens to be concentrated on

the signal bandwidth.

Resistance to eavesdropping. The spreading code (in DS systems) or the frequency-hopping pattern (in

FH systems) is often unknown by anyone for whom the signal is unintended, in which case it obscures

the signal and reduces the chance of an adversary's making sense of it. Moreover, for a given noise

power spectral density (PSD), spread-spectrum systems require the same amount of energy per bit

before spreading as narrowband systems and therefore the same amount of power if the bitrate before

spreading is the same, but since the signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the signal PSD is

much lower often significantly lower than the noise PSD so that the adversary may be unable to

determine whether the signal exists at all. However, for mission-critical applications, particularly those
employing commercially available radios, spread-spectrum radios do not intrinsically provide adequate

security; "...just using spread-spectrum radio itself is not sufficient for communications security".[1]

Resistance to fading. The high bandwidth occupied by spread-spectrum signals offer some frequency

diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the signal will encounter severe multipath fading over its whole

bandwidth, and in other cases the signal can be detected using e.g. a Rake receiver.

Multiple access capability, known as code-division multiple access (CDMA) or code-division

multiplexing (CDM). Multiple users can transmit simultaneously in the same frequency band as long as

they use different spreading codes

Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially

those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference

(EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal

and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect

clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency)

and its harmonics. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of

narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that,

at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of

the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).

Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to

reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations.

equipment modification. It is even more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock

speeds and increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays into ever smaller devices. Since

these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, traditional passive, electronic measures

to reduce EMI, such as capacitors or metal shielding, are not viable. Active EMI reduction techniques

such as spread-spectrum clocking are needed in these cases.

However, spread-spectrum clocking, like other kinds of dynamic frequency change, can also create

challenges for designers. Principal among these is clock/data misalignment, or clock skew.

Note that this method does not reduce total radiated energy, and therefore systems are not necessarily

less likely to cause interference. Spreading energy over a larger bandwidth effectively reduces

electrical and magnetic readings within narrow bandwidths. Typical measuring receivers used by EMC

testing laboratories divide the electromagnetic spectrum into frequency bands approximately 120 kHz

wide.[6] If the system under test were to radiate all its energy in a narrow bandwidth, it would register

a large peak. Distributing this same energy into a larger bandwidth prevents systems from putting

enough energy into any one narrowband to exceed the statutory limits. The usefulness of this method as

a means to reduce real-life interference problems is often debated, since it is perceived that spread-

spectrum clocking hides rather than resolves higher radiated energy issues by simple exploitation of

loopholes in EMC legislation or certification procedures. This situation results in electronic equipment

sensitive to narrow bandwidth(s) experiencing much less interference, while those with broadband

sensitivity, or even operated at other higher frequencies (such as a radio receiver tuned to a different

station), will experience more interference.

reduce the measured emissions to within acceptable legal limits. However, the spread-spectrum

functionality may be disabled by the user in some cases. As an example, in the area of personal

computers, some BIOS writers include the ability to disable spread-spectrum clock generation as a user

setting, thereby defeating the object of the EMI regulations. This might be considered a loophole, but is

generally overlooked as long as spread-spectrum is enabled by default.

An ability to disable spread-spectrum clocking in computer systems is considered useful for

overclocking, as spread spectrum can lower maximum clock speed achievable due to clock skew.

A conventional wireless signal has a frequency, usually specified in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz

gigahertz), that does not change with time (except for small, rapid fluctuations that occur as a result of

modulation). When you listen to a signal at 103.1 MHz on an FM stereo receiver, for example, the

signal stays at 103.1 MHz. It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 99.1 MHz. The digits on the

radio's frequency dial stay the same at all times. The frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept

as constant as the state of the art will permit, so the bandwidth can be kept within certain limits, and so

the signal can be easily located by someone who wants to retrieve the information.

There are at least two problems with conventional wireless communications that can occur under

certain circumstances. First, a signal whose frequency is constant is subject to catastrophic interference.

This occurs when another signal is transmitted on, or very near, the frequency of the desired signal.

Catastrophic interference can be accidental (as in amateur-radio communications) or it can be

deliberate (as in wartime). Second, a constant-frequency signal is easy to intercept, and is therefore not
well suited to applications in which information must be kept confidential between the source

(transmitting party) and destination (receiving party).

To minimize troubles that can arise from the above mentioned vulnerabilities of conventional

communications circuits, the frequency of the transmitted signal can be deliberately varied over a

comparatively large segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. This variation is done

according to a specific, but complicated mathematical function. In order to intercept the signal, a

receiver must be tuned to frequencies that vary precisely according to this function. The receiver must

"know" the frequency-versus-time function employed by the transmitter, and must also "know" the

starting-time point at which the function begins. If someone wants to jam a spread-spectrum signal,

that person must have a transmitter that "knows" the function and its starting-time point. The spread-

spectrum function must be kept out of the hands of unauthorized people or entities.

Most spread-spectrum signals use a digital scheme called frequency hopping. The transmitter

frequency changes abruptly, many times each second. Between "hops," the transmitter frequency is

stable. The length of time that the transmitter remains on a given frequency between "hops" is known

as the dwell time. A few spread-spectrum circuits employ continuous frequency variation, which is an

analog scheme.

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