Computer Networks

R. Anderson
 What is a Network?

A connection of two or more computers so that they can share resources.

A group of stations (computers, telephones, or other devices) connected by

communications facilities for exchanging information.
Connection can be permanent, via cable, or temporary, through telephone or
other communications links. The transmission medium can be physical (ie fiber
optic cable) or wireless (ie satellite).
Sources:
www.starrsites.com/glossary.htm, www.ohsu.edu/vcs/glossary/
 Benefits of Networks

Shared Resources
Disks
 A disk is made accessible to users even though it is not
resident on their computer. This allows several users to
share files without having to physically move them around.

Printers/Scanners
 Many users in an office can send their documents to be
printed to a single printer
 Applications
 Many organizations today have a main system that runs
their software and makes it accessible from each computer
within a organization
 Eg. Banks make account management system accessible from each bank-
tellers computer
Data
 Many organizations have data relevant to clients that they
need on a day-to-day basis. Networks allow the storing of
information on a single network resource that is accessible
to all employees.
 benefits II

Remote Access
Networks allow you to access electronic data from geographically remote
locations.
 Eg. If connected to the internet, you can access files stored on a computer in
any part of the world that is also connected to the internet.

Improvements in communication
Information can be sent and retrieved much faster compared to manual
processes.

Reduced Paper & Printing Costs
A document can be made accessible on a network resource instead of
printing and handing it out to each person for which it is intended.
 Categories of Networks

Local Area Network [LAN]
Usually covers a relatively small geographic area
 eg. Home/office/Plaza
Ideal for sharing resources such as printers & Disks

Metropolitan Area Network [MAN]
Usually covers a city or a defined metropolitan region of a country
Usually provides data exchange or shared data

Wide Area Network [WAN]
Usually covers a relatively large geographic area
Made up by many smaller networks [LAN]
Usually provides data exchange or shared data
Network Topologies

A network topology defines how
devices/nodes on a network are linked to
the physical media.
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Ring Topology
Bus Topology

Linear Transmission Medium terminated at both ends

Nodes attached directly to the bus
[ a Bus is a path for data transmission]

Normally used for small temporary transmission

Break in the bus link makes the entire network
inoperable

Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network
shuts down.

Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a
large building.
Bus Topology Diagram
Ring Topology

Provides closed loop

transmission medium

Repeaters at each node
repeat signals

If a segment of the
network fails the entire
network goes down
 Star Topology

Used in most modern networks

Devices are connected to a central location
[hub]

Normally requires more cabling than bus/ring
topologies

If central host goes down the network is down

Breakdown in parts of the network [excluding
central hub] will not affect the rest of the
network
Star Topology Diagram
 The Open Systems Interconnection [OSI] Model

Seven Layer international standard that defines a

common set of guidelines to facilitate
communications between distinct information
system components.

Each Layer performs a different function in the
exchange of data between different systems.

Includes the rules for communication between
agents.
 Benefits of the OSI Model

Provides a mechanism to establish a common
set of protocols [rules that govern
communication] to support different
communicating devices.

Common communications framework that
facilitates network compatibility.
 OSI: Physical Layer

Defines how data is transmitted across the
physical media [eg. Wires]

Defines the mechanical and electrical
characteristics of cables and/or connectors that
link the network components

Defines data encoding and bit synchronization.
 Physical Layer Media

Wired Transmission
Fibre Optic Cables:Transmits data as light pulses
Coaxial Cables
Twisted Pair Cables
 Category 3 [telephone]
 Category 5
 Category 6
 Physical Layer Media II

Wireless Transmission
Microwave Transmission
 Waves travel in a straight Line
 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately
aligned [Satellite Dish TV]
Radio Transmission
 Omni directional
 Penetrate Buildings
 Travel long distances
 OSI: Data Link Layer

Defines how devices attached to the network gain access to the various
resources available.

The layer packages data in frames that are sent over the network

Error checking and retransmission is done in this layer

Responsible for providing error free transfer to the physical layer.

There are two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC): provides software controls to manage multiple
protocols that are simultaneously accessing the network.
Media Access Control (MAC): defines how devices control access to the
network. This controls the supported access methods & media type.
 OSI: Network Layer

Responsible for assigning a unique network
address to each device
Eg. TCP/IP [IPv4 32-bit, IPv6 128-bit ]

Managing the Transport of Network Packets
[encoded segment of data] between networks

It manages the re-assembling of data send in
different packets over the network
 OSI: Transport Layer

Responsible for accuracy of data transmission

Maintain overall management and Control of
Network performance

Controls the reliability of a given link through
flow control
Congestion Control/Flow Control
OSI: Session Layer

Responsible for managing the integrity of the logical connection of a software
session

It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote application.
It provides for either duplex or half-duplex operation and establishes checkpointing,
adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.
 Duplex:Two way transmission simultaneously
 Half Duplex : Two way transmission, but not simultaneous (only one direction at any given time).

Manages the interaction of software and application data between network devices

Provides synchronization between user tasks by placing checkpoints in data the data
stream
i.e Ensuring that the data between processes on separate network devices is in sync
according to the specification of a particular application.
OSI: Presentation Layer

Responsible for translation of data to the appropriate
transmission format;
Examples: converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-
coded file

Facilitates the use of different local data formats in

communication;
Formatting functions include:
 Compression of Data
 Encryption of Data
OSI: Application Layer

provides a means for the user to access information on the
network through an application. This layer is the main interface for
the user(s) to interact with the application and therefore the
network

This layer provides a series of system management functions such

as software for:
File Transfers
Database Access
Electronic Mail

Network services software for performance management is a part
of this layer.
OSI Model Summary
Diagram
Transmission Media

Twisted Pair

Coaxial Cable

Optical Fiber
Twisted Pair
[RJ45 Connectors]

Made of insulated copper wire twisted around each other to form wire
pairs.

Limited to couple hundred meters due to ATTENUATION

Susceptible to crosstalk
Crosstalk occurs when pairs of wires carrying signals interfere with each other.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
No sheathing around wires
Telephone, LAN
10/100/1000 Mbps

Shielded Twisted Pair
Sheathing around copper wire to cut down interference from electromagnetic
radiation
16/155/500 Mbps
Coaxial Cable

Two Conductors
Centre cable insulated by plastic foam
Second conductor, foil wrap
Protective cladding & outer Sheath

The inner and outer conductors must have a terminator
at each end for electrical signals to flow through the
cable i.e for data communication to be possible

Moderate to low ATTENUATION [with repeaters can
extend to thousands of meters]

10/100 Mbps
Fiber Optic

Light Conducting Glass in a plastic fibers
and protective cladding with a outer
Sheath

Does not carry electricity;
Ideal for high voltage areas

Transmission Supported for long
distances due to low ATTENNUATION
[kilometres]

Up to 4000 Mbps
Network Hardware

Network Interface Card [NIC]

Repeaters

Bridges

Routers

Switches
 Network Interface Cards
[Network Adapters]

A network interface card (NIC) is a computer

circuit board or card that is installed in a
computer so that it can be connected to a
network.

Personal computers and workstations on a local
area network (LAN) typically contain a network
interface card specifically designed for the LAN
transmission technology, such as Ethernet or
Token Ring.

Network interface cards provide a dedicated, full-
time connection to a network.
Repeaters

Extends the physical length

of the LAN
Boost the electronic signal
from one media [cable]
segment and passes it to
another.
These operate at the
physical layer of the OSI
model
Bridges

A bridge amplifies and

regenerates network signals

Filters traffic based on
network addresses
Used to improve security by
blocking desired packets

Flow Control and Routing

Operates at the Data Link
Layer of the OSI Model
Switches

Modern bridges

Same basic functionality
as described for bridge

More advanced filtering
features for performance
optimization
What is Routing?

Selecting paths in a computer network along which to send data.

Routing directs the passing of logically addressed packets from their source
network, toward their ultimate destination through intermediary nodes;
typically using hardware devices called routers.
The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables
which maintain a record of the best routes to various network destinations.

Routing differs from bridging in its assumption that address-structures
imply the proximity of similar addresses within the network, thus allowing
a single routing-table entry to represent the route to a group of addresses.

Routing outperforms bridging in large networks, and it has become the
dominant form of path-discovery on the Internet.
Routers

A router acts as a junction between two or more networks to transfer data packets
among them.

Routers connect networks together the way that on-ramps or major intersections
connect streets to both highways and freeways, etc. The street signs at the
intersection (routing table) show which way the packets need to flow.

So for example, a router at home connects the Internet service provider's (ISP)
network (usually on an Internet address) together with the LAN in the home
(typically using a range of private IP addresses) and a single broadcast domain.

In order to route packets, a router communicates with other routers using routing
protocols and using this information creates and maintains a routing table. The
routing table stores the best routes to certain network destinations, the "routing
metrics" associated with those routes, and the path to the next hop router.
Network Protocol

Protocol is the set of standard rules for data representation, signalling,
authentication, and error detection required to send information over a
communications channel.

NIC Protocols:
Token Ring
 all computers are connected in a ring or star topology and a bit- or token-passing
scheme is used in order to prevent the collision of data between two computers that
want to send messages at the same time.
Ethernet LAN
 typically uses coaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires.
 Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs.
 The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T and provide
transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps.
 Devices are connected to the cable and compete for access using a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD ) protocol.
Network Protocol Examples
- Physical Layer

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a circuit-
switched telephone network system, designed to allow digital
transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper
wires, resulting in better quality and higher speeds than that
available with the PSTN system. More broadly, ISDN is a set of
protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched
connections, and for advanced call features for the user.

Synchronous optical networking, is a method for
communicating digital information using lasers or light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) over optical fiber. The method was developed to
replace the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for
transporting large amounts of telephone and data traffic and to
allow for interoperability between equipment from different
vendors.
Protocol Examples
- Data Link Layer

Ethernet is a large, diverse family of frame-based
computer networking technologies for local area
networks (LANs).

Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is commonly used

to establish a direct connection between two nodes.
can connect computers using serial cable, phone line, trunk line,
cellular telephone, specialized radio links, or fiber optic links.
Protocol Examples
- Network Layer

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
chiefly used by networked computers' operating systems to send error
messagesindicating, for instance, that a requested service is not
available or that a host or router could not be reached.
the ping tool, sends ICMP Echo Request messages (and receives Echo
Response messages) to determine whether a host is reachable and how
long packets take to get to and from that host.

IPv4
dominant network layer protocol on the internet and apart from IPv6 it
is the only protocol used on the internet.
The entire purpose of IP is to provide unique global computer
addressing to ensure that two computers communicating over the
internet can uniquely identify one another.
Protocol Examples
- Transport Layer

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
a virtual circuit protocol that is one of the core protocols of the Internet
protocol suite, often simply referred to as TCP/IP.
applications on networked hosts can create connections to one another, over
which they can exchange streams of data.
The protocol guarantees reliable and in-order delivery of data from sender to
receiver.

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite.
Using UDP, programs on networked computers can send short messages
sometimes known as datagrams to one another.
UDP does not provide the reliability and ordering guarantees that TCP does.
Datagrams may arrive out of order or go missing without notice.
Without the overhead of checking if every packet actually arrived, UDP is faster
and more efficient for many lightweight or time-sensitive purposes.
Protocol Examples
- Session Layer

NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)
It is usually associated with the NetWare operating system
Used to access file, print, directory, clock synchronization,
messaging, remote command execution and other network
service functions.

Network File System (NFS)
allows a user on a client computer to access files over a
network as easily as if attached to its local disks.
Protocol Examples
- Application Layer

Internet Message Access Protocol
an application layer Internet protocol that allows a local client to access e-mail on a remote server.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the de facto standard for e-mail transmissions across the Internet.

FTP or file transfer protocol

used to connect two computers over the Internet so that the user of one computer can transfer files and perform file commands
on the other computer.
Specifically, FTP is a commonly used protocol for exchanging files over any network that supports the TCP/IP protocol (such as
the Internet or an intranet).
There are two computers involved in an FTP transfer: a server and a client. The FTP server, running FTP server software,
listens on the network for connection requests from other computers.
The client computer, running FTP client software, initiates a connection to the server. Once connected, the client can do a
number of file manipulation operations such as uploading files to the server, download files from the server, rename or delete
files on the server and so on.

Jabber (also referred to as XMPP)

primarily built to provide instant messaging service and presence information (aka buddy lists).
The protocol is built to be extensible and other features such as Voice over IP and file transfers have been added.
Other Protocols

HTTPS

VOIP
Wireless Protocols

IEEE 802.11a/b

IEEE 802.11g
Access Methods for Mobile
Networks

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

TDMA Time Division Multiple Access

GSM Global Standard for Mobile
Telecommunications

GPRS -
Network Security

Firewalls
Network Configuration

Multi-user

Client Server

Peer-to-peer

Centralized vs. Distributed
Network Diagrams