1. Differentiate between common mode and differential mode coupling.

The concept of differential mode, common mode and antenna mode radiated field
coupling are fundamental to an understanding of EMC. They apply to coupling of both emissions
and incoming interference.
2. ExplainCapacitive coupling.
Effect of shield on capacitive coupling
3.Explain Inductive coupling.
4. Explaingroundloop coupling.
 5. Write short notes on Radiation coupling, Conduction coupling and Combination of
radiation and conduction coupling.

Radiation Coupling

Capacitive coupling
Combination of Conduction and Radiation
 6. Explain the concept of coupling via the supply network.

Propagation of interference from a source to a victim can take place via the mains distribution
network to which both are connected. This is not well characterized at high frequencies, since the
electrical loads connected can present virtually any RF impedance at their point of connection.
From Figure 2.8we can see that the RF impedance presented by the mains can approximate a
network of 50 in parallel with 50 H on the average. For short distances (such as that between
adjacent outlets on the same ring) coupling via the mains connection of two items of equipment
can be represented by the Figure 2.8.

Over longer distances, power cables are fairly low loss transmission lines having characteristic
impedance of about 150-200 up to about 10 MHz. However, in any local power distribution
system the disturbances and discontinuities introduced by load connections, cable junctions and
distribution components dominates the RF transmission characteristic, in turn these all tends to
increase the attenuation.
 7.Discuss on common mode and differential mode coupling with example.

The fundamental to an understanding of EMC are the concepts of differential mode, common
mode and antenna mode radiated field coupling. They apply to coupling of both emissions and
interference.
Differential mode
In most cases, the wanted signal is produced in differential mode. Consider two items of
equipment interconnected by a cable as shown in Figure 2.11. The cable carries signal currents in
differential mode (go and return) down the two wires in close proximity. A radiated field can
couple to this system and induce differential mode inteference between the two wires. Similarly,
the differential current will induce a radiated field of its own. The ground plane plays no role in
this coupling.
Common mode
The cable also carries currents in common mode, i.e., all flowing in the same direction of each
wire as shown in Figure 2.11. These currents very often have nothing at all to do with the signal
currents. They may be induced by an external field coupling to the loop formed by the cable, the
ground plane and the various impedances connecting the equipment to ground, then may cause
internal differential currents (to which the equipment is susceptible). Unconventionally, they
may be generated by internal noise voltages between the ground reference point and the cable
connection, and are responsible for radiated emissions. The stray capacitances and inductances
associated with the wiring and enclosure of each unit are an integral part of the common mode
coupling circuit and play a major role in determining the amplitude and spectral distribution of
the common mode currents. These stray impedances are incidental rather than designed in to the
equipment. They don't appear on any circuit diagram and are difficult to control or predict.
Antenna mode currents are carried in the same direction by the cable and the ground reference
plane as shown in Figure 2.11. They should not originate as a result of internally generated noise,
but they will flow when the whole system (including the ground plane) is exposed to an external
field. Example When an aircraft flies through the beam of a radar transmission, it carries the
same currents as the internal wiring. Antenna mode currents only become a puzzle for the
radiated field susceptibility of independent systems when they are converted into other modes
(i.e., differential or common mode) by varying impedances in the different current paths.
 Radiated emissions from PCB (differential mode)

In most equipment, the primary sources are currents flowing in circuits such as clocks,
oscillators, etc that are mounted on the PCB, some of the energy that is directly radiated from the
PCB is modeled as a small loop antenna carrying the interference current. Figure 2.12 describes
this situation. A small loop is that which has dimension smaller than a quarter wavelength (/4)
at the frequency of interest (typical example 1meter at 75 MHz). When the dimension of the
loop approach /4 the
currents at different points on the loop appear to be out of phase at a distance, so that the effect
is to reduce the field strength at any given point. The electric field strength varies with the square
of the frequency, and is directly proportional to the signal current and loop area.
E = 263 10-12 (f2 A Is) V/m ..(6)
2
where, A is loop area in cm ,
f (MHz) is the frequency of Is the source current in mA.
From equation 6, it is clear that the field strength increases with the loop area. The loop area is
the path traced by the signal current along with the return path. For the field strength to be as
small as possible, the loop area should be small, so one of the rules in PCB design and layout is
to keep the area covered by the signal current as small as possible (keep the loop areas small).
Keep the signal return path as simple and clear as possible. Avoid puzzling and persistent signal
paths as it may cover a large unintended area and that in turn results in increased field strength.

The loop antenna not only acts as a source of emission of unwanted noise but also can receive
unwanted noise and in turn is the victim of interference. This is one of the main reason of using
gridded grounds and ground planes, which ensures a defined return path for signal currents and
avoids any unintentional return paths.

Fig.Radiated emissions from PCB (differential mode)

Cable radiated emissions (common mode)

Differential mode radiations from small loops on PCBs are not the only contributor to radiated
emission; common mode currents flowing on the PCB and on attached cables can contribute
much more in comparison. The differential mode currents that are governed by Kirchoffs
current law can be easily predicted, in contrast with the common mode currents on the PCB are
not easy to predict. Figure 2.13shows the return path for common mode currents is via stray
capacitance (displacement current) to the other nearby objects.

Fig.Cable radiated emissions (Common mode)

The full prediction would therefore have to take into account the detailed structure (mechanical)
of the PCB and its case, its proximity to ground and to other equipment. The interference current
generated in common mode from ground noise developed across the PCB or elsewhere in the
equipment and may flow along the conductors or along the shield of the shielded cable. Here
even if the cables are longer than /20, it will act as an antenna. The common mode noise
generally couple through parasitic capacitances.
The equation of field strength in case of common mode is as follows:

E = 1.26 10-4 (f L ICM) V/m ..(7)

where, L is the cable length in meters,

ICM is the common mode current at f MHz in mA flowing in the cable.

Here if the length of the cable increases, the field strength increases proportionally. In PCB
design and layout, steps should be taken to reduce the common mode currents (minimize
common mode currents). Partitioning, filtering, grounding and using planes in PCB design can
achieve this.
8. Explain Transient sources with examples.

Transients and spikes are different from continuously generated EMI. The below are the likely
sources:

Electro static discharge (ESD)

Lightning
Switching
Power

Transients Lightning, Switching and ESD

Virtually all the transient waveforms can be classified as shown in Figure 2.16.

There is some variation in from where the second time period, i.e., T2 start. In Figure 2.16 it is
shown as being from almost the start of the rise of the wave. However, in most cases, both of
these times are specified as being 30%.
Transient frequency
The Figure 2.17 shows the result of a study carried out on the mains supply and the telecom lines
to record the number of amplitudes of the transient voltages. These figures obviously depend on
the lightning strike density in the various parts of the world, and the degree of heavy load
switching in the vicinity of the particular site. Particularly with lightning (but also with switching
surges) the mains connection density plays a part.
Electro static discharge (ESD)
The likely coupling paths are as follows:
Stray capacitance
Case bonding
Track or wiring inductance due to magnetic fields generated in the discharge

Table. Transient Frequency

9. Explain Automotive Transients.

Fast transients can be coupled (usually capacitively) onto signal cables in common mode,
especially if the cable passes close to or is routed alongside an impulsive interference source.
Although such transients are generally lower in amplitude as compared to the mains-borne ones,
they are coupled directly into the I/O ports of the circuit and will therefore flow in the circuit
ground traces, unless the cable is properly screened and terminated or the interface is properly
filtered.
Other sources of conducted transients are the automotive 12 V supply. The automotive
environment regularly experiences transients that are many times nominal supply range. The
most serious automotive transients as shown in Figure 2.18 are as follows:
 The load dump that occurs when the alternator load is suddenly disconnected during
heavy charging
Switching of inductive loads such as motors and solenoids, and
Alternator field decay that generates a negative voltage spike when the ignition switch is
turned OFF.

Fig. Automotive Transients

 10. Explain Conductive coupling, Common Impedance coupling and Combination of
Electric and Magnetic fieldcoupling.(or) Explain the various methods of noise coupling.

(i) Conductively Coupled Noise

(ii) Common Impedance Coupling
(iii) Electric and Magnetic field coupling