Photon beam characteristics & basic

concepts of treatment planning

Dr. KJ Maria Das

Additional Professor (Medical Physics)

Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences
Lucknow
 Learning Objectives

Understanding basic properties of clinical photon beams

Understanding the parameters that influence the beam

profile characteristics

Influence of beam modifiers

Dose distribution

Basic concepts of treatment planning

 Photons atoms interactions
What happen when photons interact with human tissue?

Absorbed X
completely removed from beam
ceases to exist
Scattered
change in direction
no useful information carried
source of noise
Nothing
Photon passes unmolested
 Interaction depends on

Photon energy E = h, 1 eV = 1.602 0-19 J

Atom atomic number Z
Electron density e
 Photon Interaction Probabilities

Basic Interactions:

Coherent Scattering
Compton Scattering
Photoelectric Effect
Pair Production
Photodisintegration
 Beam Characteristics

Quantity
number of photons in beam

1, 2, 3, ...
~
~
~ ~
~
 Beam Characteristics
Quality
energy distribution of photons in beam

1 @ 27 keV, 2 @ 32 Energy Spectrum

keV, 2 at 39 keV, ...

~ ~ 10 20 30 40 50
Energy
60 70 80

~ ~
~
~ ~
~
 Beam Characteristics

Intensity
weighted product of number and energy of
photons
depends on 324 mR
quantity
~
quality
~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
 Beam Intensity

Can be measured in terms of # of ions

created in air by beam
Valid for monochromatic or for
polychromatic beam
324 mR

-
~
+
 Attenuation Coefficient

Parameter indicating fraction of radiation

attenuated by a given absorber thickness
Attenuation Coefficient is function of
absorber
photon energy

Monochromatic radiation beam

 Linear Attenuation Coef.

Monochromatic radiation beam

 Linear Attenuation Coef.
Larger Coefficient = More Attenuation
Units:
1 / cm ( or 1 / distance) -x
Properties N = N o e
reciprocal of absorber thickness that reduces beam intensity
by e (~2.718)
~63% reduction
37% of original intensity remaining
as photon beam energy increases
penetration increases / attenuation decreases
attenuating distance increases
linear attenuation coefficient decreases
Note: Same equation as used for radioactive decay
Monochromatic radiation beam
 Polychromatic Radiation
X-Ray beam contains spectrum of photon energies
highest energy = peak kilovoltage applied to tube
mean energy 1/3 - 1/2 of peak
depends on filtration

kVp
(as set on
generator)
 X-Ray Beam Attenuation

reduction in beam intensity by Lower Higher

Energy
Energy
absorption (photoelectric)
deflection (scattering)
Attenuation alters beam
quantity
quality
higher fraction of low energy
photons removed
Beam Hardening
 Half Value Layer (HVL)
N = No e -x
 absorber thickness that reduces beam intensity
by exactly half
 Units of thickness
 value of x which makes N equal to No / 2

Indication of beam quality HVL = .693 /

Valid concept for all beam types
Mono-energetic
Poly-energetic

Higher HVL means
more penetrating beam
lower attenuation coefficient
Factors Affecting Attenuation

Energy of radiation / beam quality

higher energy
more penetration
less attenuation
Matter
density
atomic number
electrons per gram
higher density, atomic number, or electrons
per gram increases attenuation
 Polychromatic Attenuation
Yields curved line on semi-log graph
line straightens with increasing attenuation
slope approaches that of monochromatic beam at
the peak energy
mean energy increases with attenuation
beam hardening
1

Fraction .1
Transmitted Polychromatic
.01

Monochromatic
.001

Attenuator Thickness
 Photoelectric vs. Compton

Fractional contribution of each determined by

photon energy
atomic number of absorber
Equation
= coherent + PE + Compton

Small
 Photoelectric vs. Compton
= coherent + PE + Compton
As photon energy
As atomic # increases
increases
Fraction of that is PE increases
Both PE & Fraction of that is Compton
Compton decrease decreases
Interaction
PE decreases faster Probability
Fraction of that
is Compton
increases
Fraction of that Compton
is PE decreases

Photoelectric

Photon Energy
Sources of radiation that determine dosimetric
characteristics of clinical photon beams
 Inverse Square Law & Field Divergence

Photon beam sources are

assumed to be point
sources

Beams produced are

divergent
b = a(fb/fa)
 Passage Through a Medium
Zmax = depth of dose
maximum (dm)

Dmax = Dose maximum

Zex = depth at exit

surface (dex)

Dex = Exit dose

Ds = Surface dose

BUR
 Dose buildup
Buildup of dose increases with
increase in energy of the beam.
The region between the surface
and the point of maximum dose
is called the dose buildup-
buildup-
region.

Kerma-- (1) kinetic energy released in the medium; (2) the energy
transferred from photons to directly ionizing electron; (3) maximum at the
surface and decreases with depth due to decreased in the photon energy
fluence; (4) the production of electrons also decreases with depth

Absorbed dose: (1) depends on the electron fluence;

(2) high-speed electrons are ejected from the surface and subsequent
layers;(3) theses electrons deposit their energy a significant distance
away from their site of origin
 Depth of dose maximum (dm) and Dex
dm depends on
Beam energy, and Beam dm (cm)
Field size Co-60 0.5
dependence on beam energy
4 MV 1.0
6 MV 1.5
Dex 10 MV 2.5
Dose at exit surface
Depends on beam energy 15 MV 3.0
18 MV 3.5
 Percentage depth dose (PDD)
Percentage depth dose is defined as the quotient, expressed as a percentage, of
the absorbed dose at any depth d to the abosrbed dose at a fixed reference
depth d0 along the central axis of the beam
Dd
Orthovoltage (400kVp) d0 = Surface
P= ------ x 100 Higher energies d0 = dm
Dd0

Dd
Dmax = ------ x100
P
PDD depends on
beam energy
depth
field size d0
x Dd0
distance from source d
beam collimator system x Dd
 PDD dependence on SSD Mayneord F Factor
2 2
 Photon fluence from a point source
f 2 + d m f1 + d
varies inversely as a square of the
F =
f1 + d m f 2 + d
distance from the source. (SSD> 80 80cm)
cm)
 PDD increase with SSD
Dd
P = 100
D max
F1+dm

F2+dm

F1+d F2+d
Normalized Depth Dose Data
Energy Dependence
Percentage Depth Dose
Characteristics
Percentage Depth Dose
Field Size Dependence
Percentage Depth Dose
Wedge/Open Comparison
Normalized Depth Dose Data
Wedge/Open Comparison
 Effect of field size and shape

 Geometrical field size

 Dosimetric (Physical) field size

 Field size increases the scatter increases. Scattered dose is greater at larger
depth than at the depth of Dmax. PDD increases with increasing field size.

 The increase in PDD by increase in field size depends on beam quality.

 Field size dependence of PDD is less for higher energy than for lower energy
beams

 PDD for rectangular field is calculated by area by perimeter approximation

Equivalent square
 TMR and TPR
Dd For TPR, t0 = d10
TMR (d , rd ) =
Dt 0 For TMR, t0 = dm
S S

d t0

rd Dd rd Dt0
 Properties of TMR
TMR is independent of SSD, increases with energy and field size.

TAR (d , rd )
TMR(d , rd ) =
BSF (rd )
TMR

3030
TMR(d ,0) = e ( d t0 )
1010
00
Is caused entirely by
the primary beam

Depth in water
TMR data for 10 MV x-ray beams
 Collimator Scatter Factor (Sc)

The beam output measured in air depends on the
field size
Field size ; output ; collimator scatter
Output factor

Definition
Mini phantom
The ratio of the output in air for a given field to that
for a reference field (10 x 10 cm)

Direct measurement
Sc = D(r)/ D(10)
 Phantom Scatter Factor (Sp)

The change in scatter radiation originating in the phantom
reference depth as the field side is changed

Definition
The ratio of the dose rate for a given field at a reference depth (e.g.
depth of Dmax) to the dose rate at the same depth of the reference
field size (10 x 10 cm), with the same collimator opening

Related to the change in the volume of the phantom irradiated
 Photon Beam Penumbra
The penumbra region
The dose rate decreases rapidly as a function of lateral
distance from the beam axis.
The width of geometric penumbra depends on source size,
distance from the source, and source-to-diaphragm
distance.

10

Penumbra (mm), P80/20

9
8
7
6
5 MLC(leaf end), 6 MV, 10 cm
JC(lower), 6 MV, 10 cm
4
5 10 15 20 25 30
Side of square field (cm)
 Flatness and Symmetry
Flatness
within 3%. over
80% of the field

Symmetry
within 2% over
80% of the field
 Profile characteristics
15 MV Photon Beam, Field size of 15x15cm2, Depth 2.5, 5.0, 10, 15, 20 cm

The field flatness changes with depth. This is attributed to an increase in scatter to primary
dose ratio with increasing depth and decreasing incident photon energy off axis
 Cross Beam Profile
6 MV Photon Beam, Depth of 5.0 cm, Field size of 4x4, 10.4x10.4, and 21x21cm2

The flatness of photon beams is extremely sensitive to change in energy of the incident beam.
A small change in the penetrative quality of a photon beam results in very large change in
beam flatness.
Effect of Electron Steering
Beam Flatness
 Beam Quality
The depth of a given isodose curve increases with beam quality.
Greater lateral scatter associated with lower-energy beams
For megavoltage beams, the scatter outside the field is
minimized as a result of forward scattering and becomes more a
function of collimation than energy.

200 kVp,
SSD=50 cm
60Co, SSD=80 cm 4 MV, SSD=100 cm 10 MV, SSD=100 cm
 Isodose distribution
Co-60, 6 & 15 MV Photon Beam, Field size of 10x10cm2

The field flatness changes with depth. This is attributed to an increase in scatter to primary
dose ratio with increasing depth and decreasing incident photon energy off axis
 Isodose distribution
Co-60, 6 & 15 MV Photon Beam, Field size of 10x10cm2

The field flatness changes with depth. This is attributed to an increase in scatter to primary
dose ratio with increasing depth and decreasing incident photon energy off axis
 Isodose distribution
Field size of 20x20cm2

Note contaminant electrons contribute to dose outside the field at shallow depths.
The magnitude and extent of dose outside the geometric edge of a field at shallow
depths increases with beam energy.
 Cross section isodose distribution
Co-60, 6 & 15 MV Photon Beam, Field size of 10x10cm2

The field flatness changes with depth. This is attributed to an increase in scatter to primary
dose ratio with increasing depth and decreasing incident photon energy off axis
 Problem in beam modification
Radiation reaching any point, is made
up of primary and scattered photons.

Any introduction of the modification

devices results in alteration of dose
distribution, due to these two
phenomena.

The phenomena scattering results in

an blurring of the effect of the beam
modification.

Scattering is more in kilovoltage

radiation than in megavoltage
radiation therapy.
 Beam flattening filter
Isodose curve for a 10 MV x-ray
beam without (Left) and with
(right) beam-flattening filter in
place.

Lateral horns of the curves are

apparent near the surface with
the beam-flattening filter.

For IMRT purposes we explore

using FFF beam
 Wedge Filter
Wedge shaped absorber which causes a
progressive decrease in the intensity across the
beam, resulting in a tilt of the isodose curves
from their normal position.
Made of dense material : Lead, copper or steel
Wedge transmission factor, < 1

Individualized wedge system

A separate wedge for each beam width

to minimize the loss of beam output

To align the thin end of the wedge with the

border of the light field

Used in
60Co

Universal wedge system

A single wedge for all beam widths

Fixed centrally in the beam

Used in Linac
Wedge profile at 5cm depth (45 degree)
 Wedge angle
The wedge isodose angle () is the
complement of the angle through
which the isodose curve is tilted
with respect to the central ray of
the beam at any specified depth.
This depth is important because
the angle will decrease with
increasing depth.
The choice of the reference depth
varies:
10 centimeters.
1/2 - 2/3rd of the beam width.
At the 50% isodose curve
(kV).
It is angle is defined as the complement of the angle through which the isodose
curve with respect to the beam central axis at reference depth of 10cm.
(ICRU Report N0.24)
 Beam modifiers
Field blocking and shaping devices:
Shielding blocks.
Custom blocks. The higher scatter
contribution to the overall
dose results in lower
Asymmetrical jaws. dosage adjacent to the
shielded area in kilovoltage
Multileaf collimators. radiation.

100%

Lesser amount of
scattered radiation with
250 KV megavoltage radiation
means that the
50%
attenuation produced by
shielding is also more.
4 MV
 Shielding blocks
To spare the critical organ & Normal tissue Beam Quality 5 HVL Lead (cm)
Should be at least 5 HVL (3.125%) ; 1/2n = % Cs 137 3.0
transmission Co 60 5.0
Made of
4 MV 6.0
Lead 11.3gm/cm3
Cerro-bend alloy 9.4gm/cm3 6 MV 6.5
(Bi 50%, Pb 26.7%, tin 13.3% & Cd -10% ) 10 MV 7.0

15 MV 7.0

Dose under blocks: %DD under a 2 cm wide block

Larger fields produce more dose under the block due

to increase in tissue scatter

Note: initial dose is high due to electron contamination,

followed by a rapid reduction in dose, then a slow
climb to a plateau at about d=15cm
 Regular Vs Divergent shielding block

Divergent blocks Non-divergent blocks

Sharp penumbra Increased penumbra

Tighter shielding margin Larger shielding margin
Particular STD Any STD (20cm clearance)
Isodose distribution with shielding block
Concepts in treatment planning
Beam arrangement
Beam weighting
Fixed treatment technique
Isocentric treatment technique
Co planner & non- co planner
Beam blocking
Asymmetric collimation
Intensity modulation
 Criteria for Using Single Enface
Treatment Fields
Dose distribution within the tumor volume is reasonably uniform (+ 5%)
Maximum dose is not excessive, not more than 110% of prescribed dose
Critical structures are kept below tolerances

Examples of enface fields:

a) sclav
b) internal mammary
c) spinal cord compression
 Parallel Opposed Fields
The advantages
The simplicity and
reproducibility of setup
Homogeneous dose to the tumor
Less chances of geometrical miss
Disadvantage
The excessive dose to normal
tissues and critical organs above
A, Each beam weighted 100 at Dmax. and below the tumor
B, Each beam weighted 100 at the isocenter.
Characteristics of parallel opposed fields are as follows:
Hour glass shape of the 100% isodose curve
A uniform distribution at the patient midline
 Patient Thickness vs Dose Uniformity
Parallel opposed beams give a uniform dose distribution across the patient.
Dose uniformity depends on thickness, energy, and beam flatness
Dmax dose increases as either
thickness increases
energy decreases
 Isocentric Techniques
The isocenter is the point of intersection of the
collimator axis and the gantry axis of rotation.
Isocentric technique
Placing the isocenter at a depth with the patient
and directing the beams from different directions
SSD = SAD-d
Stationary beams
Arc & rotational beams
 Multiple Fields
To deliver maximum dose to the tumor and
minimum dose to the surrounding tissues
Using fields of appropriate size
Increasing the number of fields or portals
Selecting appropriate beam directions
Adjusting beam weights
Using appropriate beam energy
Using beam modifiers
 Summary

Basic properties of photon beams :
Quantity, Quality, Intensity, Linear attenuation & HVL

Parameters that influence the beam profile characteristics :
PDD, TMR, Buildup, Scatter, Field size & SSD dependence & Penumbra

Influence of beam modifiers:
Flattening filter, Wedge & Shielding blocks

Dose distribution:
Energy dependence, Penumbra & Contaminant electrons

Basic concepts of treatment planning :
Single versus multiple beams and techniques